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OSCILLATORS
Positive Feedback is characterized by the condition wherein a portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is fed back to
the input with no net phase shift, resulting in a reinforcement of the output signal.

Conditions for oscillations:
Net phase shift around the loop must be 0 or a multiple of 360.
Voltage Gain around the feedback loop must be equal to 1.
For initial start-up, the voltage gain around the feedback loop must be greater than 1.

Phase Shift Oscillator:
This consists of a network of an amplifier and a phase
shift network. The amplifier gives a 180 phase shift
during its amplification. The three RC networks are
used to give another 180 shift so that the total phase
shift around the loop is equal to zero. This oscillator
is used for audio frequency generation. It produces
frequencies from 20Hz 20 kHz.
The attenuation, B, of the three-section RC feedback
circuit is: B = 1/29, where, B = R3 / Rf.
The frequency of oscillation fr is stated in the following equation, where R1 = R2 = R3 = R and C1 = C2 = C3 = C.

fr =

= 0.065/RC
Wien Bridge Oscillator:
A fundamental part of the Wien-bridge oscillator is a lead-lag
circuit. The operation of this lead-lag circuit is that at lower
frequencies, the lead circuit dominates due to the high reactance
of C2. As the frequency increases, XC2 decreases, thus allowing the
output voltage to increase. At some specified frequency, the
response of the lag circuit takes over, and the decreasing value of
XC1 causes the output voltage to decrease.
The response curve for the lead-lag circuit indicates that the output
voltage peaks at a frequency called the resonant frequency, fr. At
this point, the attenuation of the circuit if R1 = R2 and XC1 = XC2 is
stated by the following equation:
VOUT/VIN = 1/3
The formula for the resonant frequency is:
fr = 1/2RC
The lead-lag circuit is used in the positive feedback loop of an op-amp. A voltage divider is used in the negative feedback
loop. The Wien-bridge oscillator circuit can be viewed as a non-inverting amplifier configuration with the input signal fed
back from the output through the lead-lag circuit.
B = R2 / (R1+R2)

This oscillator is popularly used in lab signal generators. Its range is 10 Hz 1 MHz.
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Hartley Oscillator:
The tuned circuit here consists of L1, L2 and C5. L1 and L2 are
wound on the same core so some Mutual Inductance, M,
exists between them. The biasing is usually provided by the
base resistor R1. The capacitor C1 connected to the base
circuit provides low reactance path to the oscillations.
The collector current chargers the capacitor which later on
discharges through L1 and L2. The output across L1 are
given to the base circuit which are amplified by the
transistor. The output of the transistor supplies for the
losses occurring in the oscillatory circuit. Thus, the circuit
produces undamped oscillations.
fr = 1/2LTC where, LT = L1 + L2 + 2M
The energy supplied to the oscillatory circuit is in correct
phase. This is because the points formed of the auto-
transformer (formed by L1 and L2) are 180 out of phase
but another 180 phase shift is provided by the transistor.
Thus the input and output are 360 out of phase or in same phase.
These oscillators are widely used in radio receivers because:
They have a very wide range of frequency.
They are easier to tune to a particular frequency.

Colpitts Oscillator:
This type of oscillator uses an LC circuit in the feedback loop
to provide the necessary phase shift and to act as a
resonant filter that passes only the desired frequency of
oscillation. In this two capacitors are connected across an
inductor. This arrangement enables the oscillator to
generate frequencies in MHz.
fr = 1/(2(LCT))
where, CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2.
When supply is switched on, C1 and C2 are charged, later
on, they are discharged through the inductor. The
oscillations through C1 are given to the transistor which are
received in the amplified form and supplied for the losses
occurring in the oscillatory circuit. In this way, undamped
oscillations are obtained.
The LC circuits output is 180 out of phase. The additional
180 shift is obtained through the transistor. Hence, the
output / feedback is in phase with the input.


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Crystal Oscillator:
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the
mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material
to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. These
types of Crystal Oscillators are designed around the common emitter
amplifier stage of a Colpitts Oscillator. The input signal to the base of
the transistor is inverted at the transistors output. The output signal
at the collector is then taken through a 180
o
phase shifting network
which includes the crystal operating in a series resonant mode.
The output is also fed back to the input which is in-phase with the
input providing the necessary positive feedback. Resistors, R1 and R2
bias the resistor in a Class A type operation while resistor Re is chosen
so that the loop gain is slightly greater than unity.
Capacitors, C1 and C2 are made as large as possible in order that the frequency of oscillations can approximate to the
series resonant mode of the crystal and is not dependent upon the values of these capacitors. The circuit diagram above
of the Colpitts Crystal Oscillator circuit shows that capacitors, C1 and C2 shunt the output of the transistor which reduces
the feedback signal. Therefore, the gain of the transistor limits the maximum values of C1 and C2. The output amplitude
should be kept low in order to avoid excessive power dissipation in the crystal otherwise could destroy itself by excessive
vibration.
For Parallel Resonance: fr = 1/(2(LCT)) where, CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2
For Parallel Resonance: fr = 1/(2(LC))



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1) Astable Multivibrator (AMV):
A Multivibrator which generates square waves of its own (i.e. without any external trigger pulse) is known as AMV. It is
also called free ramming multivibrator. It has no stable state but only two quasi-stable (half-stable) makes oscillating
continuously between these states. Thus it is just an oscillator since it requires no external pulse for its operation of course
it does require D.C power.
In such circuit neither of the two transistors reaches a stable state. It switches back and forth from one state to the other,
remaining in each state for a time determined by circuit constants. In other words, at first one transistor conducts (i.e. ON
state) and the other stays in the OFF state for some time. After this period of time, the second transistor is automatically
turned ON and the first transistor turned OFF. Thus the multivibrator will generate a square wave of its own. The width of
the square wave and it frequency will depend upon the circuit constants.
a) Collector - Coupled Astable Multivibrator:
Figure (a) shows the circuit of a collector coupled AMV using two identical
NPN transistors Q1 and Q2. It is possible to have RL1 = RL2 = RL = R1 = R2 = R and
C1 = C2 = C. In that case, the circuit is known as symmetrical AMV. The
transistor Q1 is forward biased by the Vcc supply through resistor R2. Similarly
the transistor Q2 is forward biased by the Vcc supply through resistor R1. The
output of transistor Q1 is coupled to the input of transistor Q2 through the
capacitor C2. Similarly the output of transistor Q2 is coupled to the input of
transistor Q1 through the capacitor C1.
It consists of two common emitter amplifying stages. Each stage provides a feedback through a capacitor at the input of
the other. Since the amplifying stage introduces a 180
o
phase shift and another 180
o
phase shift is introduced by a
capacitor, therefore the feedback signal and the circuit works as an oscillator. In other words because of capacitive
coupling none of the transistor can remain permanently out-off or saturated, instead of circuit has two quasi-stable states
(ON and OFF) and it makes periodic transition between these two states.
The output of an AMV is available at the collector terminal of the either transistors as shown in figure (a). However, the
two outputs are 180
o
out of phase with each other. Therefore one of the output is said to be the complement of the other.
Let us suppose that:
1. When Q1is ON, Q2 is OFF and 2. When Q2 is ON, Q1 is OFF.
When the D.C power supply is switched ON by closing S, one of the transistors will start conducting before the other (or
slightly faster than the other). It is so because characteristics of no two similar transistors can be exactly alike suppose
that Q1 starts conducting before Q2 does. The feedback system is such that Q1 will be very rapidly driven ton saturation
and Q2 to cut-off. The circuit operation may be explained as follows.
1. Since Q1 is in saturation whole of VCC drops across RL1. Hence VC1 = 0 and point A is at zero or ground potential.
2. Since Q2 is in cut-off i.e. it conducts no current, there is no drop across RL2. Hence point B is at VCC.
3. Since A is at 0V C2 starts to charge through R2 towards VCC.
4. When voltage across C2 rises sufficiently (i.e. more than 0.7V), it biases Q2 in the forward direction so that it starts
conducting and is soon driven to saturation.
5. VCC decreases and becomes almost zero when Q2 gets saturated. The potential of point B decreases from VCC to
almost 0V. This potential decrease (negative swing) is applied to the base of Q1 through C1. Consequently, Q1 is
pulled out of saturation and is soon driven to cut-off.
6. Since, now point B is at 0V, C1 starts charging through R1 towards the target voltage VCC.
7. When voltage of C1 increases sufficiently. Q1 becomes forward-biased and starts conducting. In this way the whole
cycle is repeated.
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It is observed that the circuit alternates between a state in which Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF and the state in which Q1 is OFF
and Q2 is ON. This time in each states depends on RC values. Since each transistor is driven alternately into saturation and
cut-off. The voltage waveform at either collector (points A and B in figure (b)) is essentially a square waveform with a peak
amplitude equal to VCC.
Frequency of Oscillation: fr = 1/1.4CR
b) Emitter - Coupled Astable Multivibrator:
Figure (c) shows the circuit diagram of an emitter coupled AMV.
In an emitter coupled symmetrical AMV if it is desired to vary
the frequency. Then it is necessary:
(i) To vary both the timing capacitor simultaneously.
(ii) To vary both the timing resistor subject to the conduction
that the values are enough to keep the transistors in saturation.
(iii) To vary VBB which also cannot be varied over a long range.
Thus it is difficult to achieve frequency control in collector coupled AMV, not an emitter coupled multivibrator, to be
described here, has a single timing capacitor connected across the emitter. This capacitor can be varied easily.
In order to explain the operation of the circuit, it is necessary that the following conditions must be satisfied.
1. In D.C. conduction i.e. with timing capacitor C removed bias should be so adjusted that both the transistors are in
active region.
2. Under D.C. condition, the D.C. loop gain should be less than unity to void bistable operation.
3. In the active region, the loop gain must be greater than unity at some non-zero frequency.
4. Bias conditions are so adjusted that with the capacitor C concerned, during normal operation, transistor C1
operates between cut-off and saturation while transistor C2 operates at the same time between its active region
and the off region. This transistor Q1 operates in saturated mode and transistor Q2 operates in unsaturated mode.
c) Astable multivibrator using OP-AMP:
Figure (d) shows differential input operational amplifier acting as a free running
symmetrical multivibrator. The two states of the circuit between which it switches
are those in which the amplifier output is at positive and negative saturation. R1
and R2 provide a fixed level of positive feedback and R and C provide a frequency
dependent level of negative feedback. At high frequencies the negative feedback
is reduced and the circuit becomes unstable. The circuit cannot hang up in either
output stage and is self-starting.
As terminal B is positive with respect to terminal A, and its potential is decreasing as C charges down through R. When the
potential difference between the two input terminals approached zero the amplifier comes out of saturation. The positive
feedback from the output to terminal A causes a regenerative switching which drives the amplifier to positive saturation.
The voltage across a capacitor in series with a resistor cannot change instantaneously, the potential at the terminal B,
therefore, remain substantially constant during this rapid transition. Capacitor C now charges up through R and the
potential at C rises exponentially, when it reaches V01 (sat) the circuit switches back to the state in which the amplifier is
in negative saturation.
Frequency of Oscillation: fr = 1/1.386CR
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2) Monostable Multivibrator (MMV):
In a MMV, one of the state is absolutely permanent i.e., stable and the other one is temporary i.e., quasi-stable. When
an external trigger pulse is applied to the mono-stable at appropriate point, the mono-stable changes it state from stable
state to quasi-stable state. It stays in the quasi-stable state for a predetermined length of certain interval remains there
until another pulse is applied. Thus a mono stable multivibrator cannot generate square wave of its own like an AMV. Only
external pulse will cause if to generate the square wave.
In other words, a multi vibrator in which one transistor is always conducting (i.e. in the ON state) and the other is non-
conducting (i.e. in the OFF state) is called mono stable multivibrator. It is also called a single shot or single swing or a one
shot multi vibrator. Other names are delay multi-vibrator and univibrator.
a) Collector coupled monostable multivibrator:
Figure shows the circuit of a MMV using NPN transistor. It consists
of two similar transistor Q1 and Q2 with equal collector loads i.e. RL1
= RL2 the values of -VBB and R3 are such as to reverse bias Q1 and keep
it at cut off. The collector supply Vcc and R2 forward bias Q2 and keep
it at saturation. A trigger pulse is given through C2 to obtain the
square wave.
Initial Conditions:
Let us suppose that in the absence of a trigger pulse and with S
closed, initially the circuit is in its stable state i.e. Q1 is OFF (at cut-off) and Q2 is ON (at saturation).
When Trigger Pulse is applied:
1. If positive trigger pulse is off sufficient amplitude, it will override the reverse bias of the E/B junction of Q1 and
give it a forward bias, Hence Q1 will start conducting.
2. As Q1 conducts, its collector voltage falls due to voltage drop across RL1. It means that potential of point A falls
(negative going signal). This negative going voltage is fed to Q2 VIA C1 where it decreases its forward bias.
3. As collector current of Q2 start decreasing, potential of point B increases (positive going signal) due to lesser drop
over RL2. Soon, Q2 comes out of conduction.
4. The positive going signal at B is fed VIA R1 to the base of Q1 where it increases its forward bias further. As Q1
conductors more potential of point A approaches 0V.
5. This action is cumulative and ends with Q1 conducting at saturation and Q2 cut-off.
Return to initial Stable State:
1. As point A is at almost OV, C2 starts to discharge through saturated Q1 to ground.
2. As C1 discharges, the negative potential at the base of Q2 is decrease. As C1 discharges further Q2 is pulled out of
cut-off.
3. As Q2 conducts further, a negative going signal from point B VIA R1 drives Q1 into cut-off.
Hence, the circuit reverts to its original state with Q2 conducting at saturation and Q1 cur-off. It remains in this state till
another trigger pulse comes along when the entire cycle repeats itself.
The width of duration of the pulse obtained at the collector or output of either transistor (Q1 or Q2) of the MMV is given
by the expression: T = 0.69 R2 C1
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b) Emitter Coupled Monostable Multivibrator
It can be observed that the feedback resistive coupling network
from the collector of transistor Q2 to the base of transistor Q1 is
absent. Instead, the regenerative feedback at the change over from
one state to other is provided by the common emitter resistor REE.
The absence of any coupling from the collector of the transistor Q2
makes it an excellent output point. This has the further advantage
of making the mono stable period independent of any load
variation. Further the common emitter resistor voltage drop VE,
Swamps the temperature variation in VBE, on with temperature and
thus makes time period or delay period stable. Further it is possible
to have the voltage controlled delay, by controlling delay, by
controlling the collector current to the transistor Q1 during quasi-stable state. The collector current of transistor Q1 can
be varied by changing the forward bias of the transistor Q1.
The emitter coupled mono-stable multi-vibrator has the limitation of lower input voltage. In the normal stable state
transistor Q2 is in the saturation region and transistor Q1 is OFF. On application of an appropriate trigger pulse, the
transistor Q2 starts to work in the active region reducing the common emitter voltage and forward biasing the transistor
Q1. When transistor Q1 begins to conduct its collector voltage falls from VCC. This is a negative change and is transferred
by the timing capacitor C, the base of the transistor Q2 reducing the forward bias. Thus both the transistors are in active
region and regenerative feedback ultimately forces transistor Q2 OFF and transistor Q1 in the ON state, which may be in
the active region of saturation region depending upon the circuit.
c) Mono stable Multi vibrator Using OPAMP
The circuit shown in figure shows a deferential input operational amplifier
acting as MMV. In the permanently state of this circuit the amplifier output
is at positive saturation, terminal B is clamped to earth by diode D1 and
terminal A is positive with respect to earth by an amount of V10 (sat),
where = (R2 /(R1 + R2)).
It is assumed that the resistor Rs is much greater than R1 so that its loading
effect may be neglected. If the potential at the point A is brought down to
earth by the application of a sufficiently large negative pulse the circuit
switches regeneratively to its temporarily stable state in which the amplifier
output is negative saturation. Terminal A is then negative with respect to earth by an amount -V02 (sat) and the potential
negative at B falls exponentially as C charges down through R, diode D1 is reverse biased. The circuit switches back to its
permanently stale state when the potential at B reaches the value -V02(sat).
d) Uses of MMV:
1. The falling part of the output pulse from MMV is often used to trigger another pulse generator circuit thus
producing a pulse delayed by a time T with respect to the input pulse.
2. MMV is used for regenerating old and worn out pulses. Various pulses used in computers and telecommunication
systems become somewhat distorted during use. An MMV can be used to generate new, clean and sharp pulses
from these distorted and used ones.
Monostable Triggering: To change the MMV state from the stable to quasi-state the external trigger pulses are to be
applied. In general the negative triggering has greater sensitivity, because here the negative pulse amplitude should be
enough, so as to bring the operating point from saturation to active region. Secondly when the base emitter voltage of a
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junction changes from forward bias to reverse bias, its input impedance is continuously rising, which avoids the loading of
the triggering source. It should be further noted that the monostable period is affected by this method.
The positive pulse triggering has sensitivity, because to turn of the transistor from the OFF state, it is necessary to feed
the excess stored charge in the base such that the amplitude of triggering pulse is enough and is derived from a low
impedance source, which can supply a peak demand current to turn on.
Simple NAND Gate Monostable Circuit:
Suppose that initially the trigger input T is held
HIGH at logic level 1 by the resistor R1 so that the
output from the first NAND gate U1 is LOW at logic
level 0, (NAND gate principals). The timing
resistor, RT is connected to a voltage level equal to
logic level 0, which will cause the capacitor, CT to
be discharged. The output of U1 is LOW, timing
capacitor CT is completely discharged therefore junction V1 is also equal to 0 resulting in the output from the second
NAND gate U2, which is connected as an inverting NOT gate will therefore be HIGH.
The output from the second NAND gate, (U2) is fed back to one input of U1 to provide the necessary positive feedback.
Since the junction V1 and the output of U1 are both at logic 0 no current flows in the capacitor CT. This results in the
circuit being Stable and it will remain in this state until the trigger input T changes.
If a negative pulse is now applied either externally or by the action of the push-button to the trigger input of the NAND
gate U1, the output of U1 will go HIGH to logic 1. Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously
(capacitor charging principals) this will cause the junction at V1 and also the input to U2 to also go HIGH, which in turn will
make the output of the NAND gate U2 change LOW to logic 0 The circuit will now remain in this second state even if the
trigger input pulse T is removed. This is known as the Meta-stable state.
The voltage across the capacitor will now increase as the capacitor CT starts to charge up from the output of U1 at a time
constant determined by the resistor/capacitor combination. This charging process continues until the charging current is
unable to hold the input of U2 and therefore junction V1 HIGH.
When this happens, the output of U2 switches HIGH again, logic 1, which in turn causes the output of U1 to go LOW and
the capacitor discharges into the output of U1 under the influence of resistor RT. The circuit has now switched back to its
original stable state.
Thus for each negative going trigger pulse, the monostable multivibrator circuit produces a LOW going output pulse. The
length of the output time period is determined by the capacitor/resistor combination (RC Network) and is given as the
Time Constant T = 0.69RC of the circuit in seconds. Since the input impedance of the NAND gates is very high, large timing
periods can be achieved.
NOT Gate Monostable Multivibrator:
As with the NAND gate circuit above, initially the trigger
input T is HIGH at a logic level 1 so that the output from
the first NOT gate U1 is LOW at logic level 0. The timing
resistor, RT and the capacitor, CT are connected together in
parallel and also to the input of the second NOT gate U2. As
the input to U2 is LOW at logic 0 its output at Q is HIGH at
logic 1.
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When a logic level 0 pulse is applied to the trigger input T of the first NOT gate it changes state and produces a logic
level 1 output. The diode D1 passes this logic 1 voltage level to the RC timing network. The voltage across the capacitor,
CT increases rapidly to this new voltage level, which is also connected to the input of the second NOT gate. This in turn
outputs a logic 0 at Q and the circuit stays in this Meta-stable state as long as the trigger input T applied to the circuit
remains LOW.
When the trigger signal returns HIGH, the output from the first NOT gate goes LOW to logic 0 (NOT gate principals) and
the fully charged capacitor, CT starts to discharge itself through the parallel resistor, RT connected across it. When the
voltage across the capacitor drops below the lower threshold value of the input to the second NOT gate, its output
switches back again producing a logic level 1 at Q. The diode D1 prevents the timing capacitor from discharging itself
back through the first NOT gates output.
Then, the Time Constant for a NOT gate Monostable Multivibrator is given as T = 0.8RC + Trigger in seconds.
One main disadvantage of Monostable Multivibrators is that the time between the applications of the next trigger pulse
T has to be greater than the RC time constant of the circuit.
NAND Gate Astable Multivibrator:
The astable multivibrator circuit uses two CMOS NOT
gates such as the CD4069 or the 74HC04 hex inverter
ICs, or as in our simple circuit below a pair of CMOS
NAND such as the CD4011 or the 74LS132 and an RC
timing network. The two NAND gates are connected as
inverting NOT gates.
Suppose that initially the output from the NAND gate U2 is HIGH at logic level 1, then the input must therefore be LOW
at logic level 0 (NAND gate principles) as will be the output from the first NAND gate U1. Capacitor, C is connected
between the output of the second NAND gate U2 and its input via the timing resistor, R2. The capacitor now charges up at
a rate determined by the time constant of R2 and C.
As the capacitor, C charges up, the junction between the resistor R2 and the capacitor, C, which is also connected to the
input of the NAND gate U1 via the stabilizing resistor, R2 decreases until the lower threshold value of U1 is reached at
which point U1 changes state and the output of U1 now becomes HIGH. This causes NAND gate U2 to also change state
as its input has now changed from logic 0 to logic 1 resulting in the output of NAND gate U2 becoming LOW, logic level
0.
Capacitor C is now reverse biased and discharges itself through the input of NAND gate U1. Capacitor, C charges up again
in the opposite direction determined by the time constant of both R2 and C as before until it reaches the upper threshold
value of NAND gate U1. This causes U1 to change state and the cycle repeats itself over again.
Then, the time constant for a NAND gate Astable Multivibrator is given as T = 2.2RC in seconds with the output frequency
given as f = 1/T.
F = 1 / (2.2RC)