Chem Bond Local Al

Unit 02
Structure &
Bonding
AL Chemistry
NIVANTHA SATHARASINGHE

CHEMISTRY Advanced Level Unit 2
NIVANTHA SATHARASINGHE Page 2

What is a chemical bond?
An electrostatic attraction between atoms

How chemical bonds are formed?
Atoms try to achieve more stable electronic configurations by exchanging or sharing electrons
Primary Interactions
1. COVALENT BOND-
consists of a shared pair of electrons, each atom supplies one electron
atoms are held because their nuclei are attracted to the shared electrons

Formation
between atoms of the same element; (N2, O2, diamond and graphite)
between atoms of different elements on RHS of the periodic table; (CO2, SO2).
when one of the elements is in the middle of the table; (e.g. C, Si)
head-of-the-group elements with high ionisation energies, (e.g. Be in BeCl2)
Chemical
Bonds
Primary
Interactions
Covalent Bond
Non-polar
Polar
Co-
ordinate
Ionic Bond
Metallic Bond
Secondary
Interactions
Hydrogen Interactions
Dipole-dpole Interactions
Ion-dipole Interactions
Ion-induced dipole Interactions
Dipole-induced dipole
Interactions
Dispersion Interactions

atoms share electrons in order to complete their octet of electrons
some dont achieve an octet as they havent enough electrons - Al in AlCl3
others share only some - if they share all their octet is exceed - NH3 and H2O
atoms of elements in the 3rd period onwards can exceed their octet because they are not restricted to eight
electrons in their outer shell - S in SF6

Covalent bonds can be divided into 3 groups;
A. Non-polar-
B.
C.

B. Polar- Polar covalent bonding is the process of unequal sharing of electrons. It is considered the middle
ground between ionic bonding and covalent bonding. It happens due to the differing electronegativity values
of the two atoms. Because of this, the more electronegative atom will attract and have a stronger pulling force
on the electrons. Thus, the electrons will spend more time around this atom.

The symbols above indicate
that on the flourine side it is
slightly negitive and the
hydrogen side is slightly
positive.


C. Co-ordinate-

differs from a covalent bond only in its formation
both electrons of the shared pair are provided by one species (donor) and it shares the electrons with the
acceptor
donor species will have lone pairs in their outer shells
acceptor species will be short of their octet or maximum.

Donor group- (Lewis Base) a lone pair donor

Acceptor group- (Lewis Acid) a lone pair acceptor

e. g. 1
ammonium ion, NH4+
The lone pair on N is used to share with the hydrogen ion which needs two electrons to fill its outer shell. The N
now has a +ive charge as it is now sharing rather than owning two electrons.

e. g. 2
Boron trifluoride-ammonia NH3BF3
Boron has an incomplete shell in BF3 and can accept a share of a pair of electrons donated by ammonia. The B
becomes -ive as it is now shares a pair of electrons (i.e. it is up one electron) it didnt have before.

Fajans Rules
not all ionic compounds have high melting points
some covalently bonded compounds have higher than expected boiling points this is due to dipoles in their
structure
reason :- in many substances the bonding is not 100% ionic or covalent
The ideal ionic compound has completely separate, spherical ions and the electron densities are apart
from each other.
If the positive ion has a high charge density it can distort the negative ion by attracting the outer shell electrons
to give an area of electron density between the two species ... a bit like a covalent bond
The feasibility of formation of covalent bonds is predicted using Fajans Rules.

The rules A compound is more likely to be covalent if the ...
CATION small size
high charge
highly polarising attracts electrons in the
anion

ANION large size
high charge
highly polarisable will be easily distorted

N.B. Just because a substance is less likely to be covalent according to Fajans Rules doesnt mean it will be
ionic; it will remain covalent but have some ionic character.
Examples Changes in bond type of chlorides as the positive charge density increases due to higher charge (across
Period 3) or larger size (down Group 1)

What is Electronegativity?
The ability of an atom to attract the pair of electrons in a covalent bond to itself.

Pauling Scale
a scale for measuring electronegativity
values increase across periods
values decrease down groups
fluorine has the highest value

How Electronegativity differences affect to determine the bond type?

When Electronegativity differences;

1.7 <

1.7 - 0.4 -
0.4 >
Polar molecules
some molecules are polar if they contain polar bonds
the molecules will be polar if they have a NET DIPOLE MOMENT
it is a bit like balanced forces
non-polar molecule dipoles in bonds within the molecule cancel each other
polar molecule dipoles do not cancel each other out

I dentifying polar molecules
place a liquid in a burette
allow a narrow stream to run out
place a charged rod next to the flow
polar molecules will be attracted

Structures containing covalent bonds
1. SI MPLE MOLECULES
Bonding - Atoms are joined together within the molecule by covalent bonds.
Electrical conductivity - Dont conduct electricity as they have no mobile ions or electrons.
solubility - Tend to be more soluble in organic solvents than in water; some are hydrolysed
boiling pt - Low - the forces between molecules (intermolecular forces) are weak known as van der Waals
forces
Attractions between molecules increases as the molecules get more electrons.
e.g. CH4 -161C C2H6 - 88C C3H8 -42C
as forces are weak, little energy is required to to separate molecules from each other
so boiling points are low

2. GI ANT COVALENT LATTI CES (covalent networks) - DI AMOND, GRAPHI TE and SI LI CA
Bonding - Many atoms joined together in a regular array by large numbers of covalent bonds
Diamond - each carbon atom is joined to four others - Co-ordination No. =4
Graphite - each carbon atom is joined to three others - Co-ordination No. =3
melting point - Very high - structures are made up of a large number of covalent bonds, all of which need to
be broken if the atoms are to be separated.
strength
Diamond and silica (SiO2)
hard - exists in a rigid tetrahedral structure

Graphite
soft - consists of layers which are attracted by weak van der Waals forces
layers can slide over each other
it used as a lubricant and in pencils
electrical conductivity - Do not conduct electricity as they have no mobile ions or electrons.
But Graphite conducts electricity
each atom only uses three of its outer shell electrons for bonding to other atoms
remaining electron can move through layers allowing the conduction of electricity
carbon atoms in diamond use all four electrons for bonding so have no free ones

3. MOLECULAR SOLI DS

Iodine
At room temperature, iodine is a grey solid. However, on gentle warming it produces a purple vapour. This is
because iodine is composed of diatomic molecules (I2) existing in an ordered molecular crystal. Each
molecule is independent and attracted by weak van der Waals forces. Therefore, little energy is required to
separate the iodine molecules.


IONIC BOND [ELECTROVALENT ]-
Formation of ions from atoms
Positive ions [cations]
formed when electrons are removed from atoms
are smaller than the original atom
the energy associated with the process is known as the ionisation energy (IE).
1st I.E. The energy required to remove one mole of electrons (to infinity) from the one mole of gaseous atoms
to form one mole of gaseous positive ions.
e.g. Na(g) > Na+(g) + e or Mg(g) > Mg+(g) + e
There are as many ionisation energy steps as there are electrons in the atom.
2nd I.E. Mg+(g) > Mg2+(g) + e and so on
Notes successive ionisation energies get larger as the proton : electron ratio increases.
3rd ionisation energy > 2nd ionisation energy > 1st ionisation energy
big jumps in value occur when electrons are removed from shells nearer the
nucleus - less shielding so more energy is needed to overcome the attraction.
1st I.E 500 kJmol-1 2nd I.E 900 kJmol-1 3rd I.E 6000 kJmol-1
The 3rd electron must have been in a shell nearer the nucleus - In Group 2
if the IE values are very high, covalent bonding is favoured (e.g. beryllium).

Negative ions [anions]
larger than the original atom due to electron repulsion in outer shell
formed when electrons are added to atoms
energy is released as the nucleus pulls in an electron
this energy is the electron affinity.
Electron Affinity- The energy change when one mole of gaseous atoms acquires one mole of electrons (from
infinity) to form one mole of gaseous negative ions.
e.g. Cl(g) + e > Cl(g) and O(g) + e > O(g)
The greater the effective nuclear charge (ENC) the easier an electron is pulled in.

TRENDS OF I ONI C RADI I
Similarly charged ions tend to
decrease ( ) in size across a period (row); &
increase ( ) in size down a group (column)
KEY POINTS
The ionic radius is the distance between the nucleus and the electron in outer most shell of an ion.
When an atom loses an electron to form a cation, the lost electron no longer contributes to shielding the other
electrons from the charge of the nucleus; consequently, the other electrons are more strongly attracted to the
nucleus, and the radius of the atom gets smaller.
When an electron is added to an atom, forming an anion, the added electron repels other electrons, with the
result that the size of the atom increases.
The trend observed in size of ionic radii is due to shielding of the outermost electrons by the inner-shell
electrons so that the outer shell electrons do not "feel" the entire positive charge of the nucleus.

Trends in ionic radius for isoelectronic ions
N
3-
O
2-
F
-
Na
+
Mg
2+
Al
3+

no of
protons
7 8 9 11 12 13
electronic
structure
of ion
2, 8 2, 8 2, 8 2, 8 2, 8 2, 8
ionic
radius
(nm)
(0.171) 0.140 0.133 0.102 0.072 0.054

FORMATION OF IONIC BONDS
Ionic bonds tend to be formed between elements whose atoms need to lose electrons to gain the nearest
noble gas electronic configuration and those needing to gain electrons. Electrons are transferred from one
atom to the other.
Sodium Chloride Na > Na+ + e & Cl + e > Cl
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

1 electron is transferred from the 3s orbital of sodium to the 3p orbital of chlorine
both species end up with an octet of electrons in their outer shell
the resulting ions are held together in a crystal lattice by electrostatic attraction

GIANT IONIC LATTICES
bonding oppositely charged ions held in a regular 3-d lattice by electrostatic attraction
ions pack together in the most efficient way so there is little wasted space
the arrangement of ions in a lattice depends on the relative sizes of the ions

The Na+ ion is small enough relative to the Cl ion to fit in the spaces so that both ions occur in every plane.
Each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl (co-ordination number = 6) and each Cl is surrounded by 6 Na+ (co-ordination
number = 6).
Physical properties of ionic compounds
1. melting pt
Very high A large amount of energy must be put in to overcome the strong electrostatic attractions and separate the
ions.
2. strength
Very brittle Any dislocation leads to layers moving and similarly charged ions being next to each other. The
repulsion splits the crystal.

3. Electrical conductivity
do not conduct electricity when solid - ions are held strongly in the lattice
conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution - the ions become mobile and conduction takes place.
4. solubility
insoluble in non-polar solvents
soluble in water as it is a polar solvent and stabilises the separated ions
energy is needed to overcome the electrostatic attraction and separate the ions
stability is achieved by polar water molecules surrounding the ions

3. METALLIC BOND-
Metal atoms achieve stability by off-loading electrons to attain the electronic structure of the nearest noble
gas. These electrons join up to form a mobile cloud which prevents the newly formed positive ions from
flying apart due to repulsion between similar charges.
Atoms arrange themselves in regular close packed 3-dimensional crystal lattices.
The outer shell electrons of each atom leave to join a mobile cloud or sea of electrons which can roam
throughout the metal. The electron cloud binds the newly-formed positive ions together.
Metallic bond strength depends on
number of outer electrons donated
the size of the metal atom/ion.
The melting point is a measure of the attractive forces within the metal.
electrical conductivity - Conduct electricity as there are mobile electrons.
strength - The delocalised electron cloud binds the ions together making metals ...
Solid State Liquid/ molten or aqueous State
Ions are attracted in electrostatically & packed
in definite pattern;
Ions dont move vibrate only
Doesnt conduct electricity
Ions exist separately;

Ions can move
conduct electricity

E.g. NH2, NH3, NH4+ Electronegativity of N;
NH2 < NH3 < NH4+

malleable can be hammered into sheets
ductile can be drawn into rods
melting pt.- High. Ease of separation depends on the - density of the electron cloud and ionic size/charge.

Metallic bonds get stronger when;
Size of metal ion increased
charge of metal ion increased
the no of electrons contributed to the bond increased

Determining the shape of molecules and ions

1. Lewis structure
Determining the "best" Lewis structure
Example; NO
3
-

1. Determine the total number of valence electrons in a molecule

2. Draw a skeleton for the molecule which connects all atoms using only single bonds. In simple molecules, the atom
with the most available sites for bondng is usually placed central. The number of bonding sites is detemined by
considering the number of valence electrons and the ability of an atom to expand it's octet. As you become better, you
will be able to recognise that certain groups of atoms prefer to bond together in a certain way.

3. Of the 24 valence electrons in NO
3
-
, 6 were required to make the skeleton. Consider the remaining 18 electrons and
place them so as to fill the ocets of as many atoms as possible (start with the most electronegative atoms first then
proceed to the more electropositive atoms).

4. Are the octets of all the atoms filled? If not then fill the remaining octets by making multiple bonds (make a lone
pair of electrons, located on a more electronegative atom, into a bonding pair of electrons that is shared with the atom
that is electron defficient).

5. Check that you have the lowest FORMAL CHARGES possible for all the atoms, without violating the octet
rule; (valence e-) - (1/2 bonding e-) - (lone electrons).

no Lewis diagram is complete without formal charges. Lewis diagrams are drawn to examine mechanisms so
knowing which parts of a molecule are electron defficient (+) and which are electron rich (-) is vital.

It is best to have a formal charge of 0 for as many of the atoms in a structure as possible.
If a formal charge of 1- is located next to a formal charge of 1+, the formal charges can usually be minimized by
having a lone pair of electrons, located on the atom with the 1- charge become a bonding pair of electrons that is
shared with the atom that has the 1+ formal charge (this can be visualised in the same way as the formation of multiple
bonds were above).
octets can be expanded to minimise formal charges but only for atoms in the second row of the periodic table (where
n=3 or greater). For instance in our example, N cannot expand its octet so keeps a formal charge of 1+ and both
singly bonded oxygens a formal charge of 1-. If our molecule were SO
3
, however, it would be possible to minimize
all formal charges by having the sulfur expand its octet.

6. You may find that the best Lewis diagram (the one with the lowest formal charges and all octets satisfied) is given
in a number of different ways. For NO
3
-
, three different diagrams are given below. From left to right they start with
the most complete Lewis diagram to the most simplified.

Octet Rule
Most elements follow the octet rule in chemical bonding, which means that an element should have contact
to eight valence electrons in a bond or exactly fill up its valence shell. Having eight electrons total ensures
that the atom is stable. This is the reason why noble gases, a valence electron shell of 8 electrons, are
chemically inert; they are already stable and tend to not need the transfer of electrons when bonding with
another atom in order to be stable. On the other hand, alkali metals have a valance electron shell of one
electron. Since they want to complete the octet rule they often simply lose one electron. This makes them
quite reactive because they can easily donate this electron to other elements. This explains the highly
reactive properties of the Group IA elements.
Some elements that are exceptions to the octet rule include Aluminum(Al), Phosphorus(P), Sulfur(S), and
Xenon(Xe).
Hydrogen(H) and Helium(He) follow the duet rule since their valence shell only allows two electrons. There
are no exceptions to the duet rule; hydrogen and helium will always hold a maximum of two electrons.
2. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

The VSEPR Model
The electrons around the atoms in a molecule repel each other. They move to be as far apart as possible while still
maintaining the bonding within the molecule. The procedure for using the model is as follows:
1) Determine the correct Lewis structure for the molecule. If it is a diatomic (has only two atoms) it is linear and
falls into the AX category. If it has 3 or more atoms continue with step 2.
2) Count the number of electron groups around the central atom. A group of electrons is a bond, a nonbonding
electron pair, or occasionally an unpaired nonbonding electron. Each triple or double bond counts as only one
group for the purposes of this model.
3) Based on this number of groups around the central atom the molecule falls into one of six basic categories.
Within each category there are a number of different names for the shapes depending upon the number of atoms
and nonbonding groups around the central atom.


Electron Pairs How the
pairs
arranged
Shape of the molecule
Total Bond unpaired Examples

Linear Linear

CO
2

Trigonal
planner
Trigonal planner

BF
3

Angular

SO
2

Tetrahedral
Tetrahedral

CH
4

Trigonal
pyramid

NH
3

Angular

H
2
O

Trigonal
bipyramidal
Trigonal
bipyramidal

PCl
5

See-saw shape

SF
4

T-shape

ClF
3

Linear

XeF
2

Octahedral
Octahedral

SF
6

Square pyramid

BrF
5

Square planner

XeF
4


Hybridization
Hybrid orbitals are the result of a model which combines atomic orbitals on a single atom in
ways that lead to a new set of orbitals that have geometries appropriate to form bonds in the
directions predicted by the VSEPR model. The VSEPR model predicts geometries that are very
close to those seen in real molecules
How to find the type of hybridisation
If you can assign the total electron geometry (geometry of all electron domains, not just bonding domains) on the
central atom using VSEPR, then you can always automatically assign hybridization. Hybridization was invented to
make quantum mechanical bonding theories work better with known empirical geometries.
Linear - sp - the hybridization of one s and one p orbital produce two hybrid orbitals oriented 180apart.
Trigonal planar - sp2 - the hybridization of one s and two p orbitals produce three hybrid orbitals
oriented 120 from each other all in the same plane.
Tetrahedral - sp3 - the hybridization of one s and three p orbitals produce four hybrid orbitals oriented toward the
points of a regular tetrahedron, 109.5 apart.
Trigonal bipyramidal - dsp3 or sp3d - the hybridization of one s, three p, and one d orbitals produce five hybrid
orbitals oriented in this weird shape: three equatorial hybrid orbitals oriented 120 from each other all in the
same plane and two axial orbitals oriented 180 apart, orthogonal to the equatorial orbitals.
Octahedral - d2sp3 or sp3d2 - the hybridization of one s, three p, and two d orbitals produce six hybrid orbitals
oriented toward the points of a regular octahedron 90 apart.

E.g. 1 SP Hybridization


E.g. 1. SP2 Hybridization

E.g. 3. SP3 Hybridization


Table 1: Relationship of the VSEPR geometries to atomic hybridization.
Number of Groups
around the atom
Sub-Shapes
A = central atom
X = atom attached to central atom
E = nonbonding electron group on
central atom
Hybridization
2 AX
2
, Linear sp
3 AX
3
, Trigonal Planar

AX
2
E, Bent

sp
2

4 AX
4,
Tetrahedral

AX
3
E, Trigonal Pyramidal

AX
2
E
2
,

Bent
sp
3

5 AX
5
, Trigonal Bipyramidal

AX
4
E, See-Saw

AX
3
E
2
, T-Shaped

AX
2
E
3
Linear

sp
3
d

6

AX
6
, Octahedral

AX
5
E, Square Pyramidal

AX
4
E
2
, Square Planar

sp
3
d
2


Resonance Structures
Resonance theory is one of the most important theories that helps explain many interesting aspects of chemistry
ranging from differences in reactivity of related compounds to physical properties such a the absorption of light by
molecules. The electron-dot formula for many of the compounds and ions presented us a choice when we placed 4
electrons between 2 of the atoms in the formation of double bonds.
E.g. 1; O
3

These structures are called resonance forms. A resonance form does not represent what the true
structure actually looks like. It is merely one of the electron-dot formulas that is possible for the
compound. In ozone, both of the oxygen-oxygen bonds have double bond and single bond
character. The negative charge is spread equally between both of the outer oxygen atoms. We
can write a mechanism for this phenomenon showing how 2 of the electrons jump back and
forth.

This movement of electrons is constantly happening and we think of the real structure as an
average of the 2 equal resonance forms.
E.g. 2; NO
3
-

The charge is evenly distributed among the 3 oxygen atoms in the nitrate anion. This makes the negative charge less
available for the reverse reaction and helps explain why nitric acid is a fairly strong acid. The bond order for the
nitrogen-oxygen bonds in the nitrate anion is 1.33.

Bond Order
Bond order is a measure of the number of bonding electron pairs between atoms. Single bonds have a bond order
of 1, double bonds have a bond order of 2 and triple bonds (the maximum number) have a bond order of 3. A
fractional bond order is possible in molecules and ions that have resonance structures. I n the example of ozone, the
bond order would be the average of a double bond and a single bond or 1.5 (3 divided by 2). As the bond order
becomes larger, the bond length becomes smaller.


Nature of bonds in molecules/ions
Bonds- sigma bonds are covalent bonds formed by direct overlapping between two
adjacent atom's outermost orbitals. The single electrons from each atom's orbital combine to form an electron
pair creating the sigma bond.

Bonds- A pi bond is a covalent bond formed between two neighboring atom's unbonded p-orbitals.
An unbound p-orbital electron in one atom forms an electron pair with a neighboring atom's unbound, parallel
p-orbital electron. This electron pair forms the pi bond. Double and triple bonds between atoms are usually
made up of a single sigma bond and one or two pi bonds.

Polarity & dipole moment
The polarity of a bond is determined by determining the difference in the electronegativities. If a molecule is diatomic
(2 atoms) there is often only one bond and that will determine whether the molecule is polar.
E.g. the HF bond is polar with fluorine being the more electronegative. A partial negative charge resides on the
fluorine atom and partial positive charge.

HOW TO DETERMINE MOLECULAR POLARITY (EXCLUDING DIRECTION OF DIPOLE MOMENT
Molecules that are not totally symmetrical are polar molecules. In a polar molecule, electron density accumulates
toward one side of the molecule giving that side a slight negative charge -, and the other side a slight positive charge
of equal value +. Polar molecules are said to possess a dipole moment which means that it has 2 poles (+ and -). A
polar molecule is a dipole.
Polarity is due to the polarity of the bonds and the lone pairs on the central atom. One lone pair on the central atom
makes the molecule polar. This only works for one lone pair, not 2, 3, 4, etc. If more than one lone pair, determine the
polarity from the bonded atoms.
To determine if a molecule is polar (has a dipole moment):

1. Draw an acceptable Lewis dot structure,
2. Predict the electron-pair geometry
3. Determine whether the molecule is totally symmetrical.
4. An analogy for polarity is to imagine that an object is being pulled in directions determined by the
electronegativities of the atoms. If the forces are equal, the object will not move (nonpolar).
Criteria for polarity:
If a molecule is diatomic (2 atoms) and the atoms are different, it is polar.
A molecule having just one lone pair of electrons is polar.
If all of the terminal atoms are the same and there are no lone pairs of electrons around the central atom, the
molecule is totally symmetrical and nonpolar.
If the molecule is not symmetrical, it is polar. The terminal atoms are different and the dipole moments do not cancel
each other out. (Pulling moves the object).
HOW TO DETERMINE THE DIRECTION OF THE DIPOLE MOMENT

Polarizability
Polarizability allows us to better understand the interactions between nonpolar atoms and molecules and other
electrically charged species, such as ions or polar molecules with dipole moments.
Neutral nonpolar species have spherically symmetric arrangements of electrons in their electron clouds. When in the
presence of an electric field, their electron clouds can be distorted (Figure 1). The ease of this distortion is defined as
the polarizability of the atom or molecule. The created distortion of the electron cloud causes the originally nonpolar

molecule or atom to acquire a dipole moment. This induced dipole moment is related to the polarizability of the
molecule or atom and the strength of the electric field by the following equation:
ind=E(1)
Where
E denotes the strength of the electric field and
is the polarizability constant with units of C m
2
V
-1
.

Figure 1: A neutral nonpolar species's electron cloud is distorted by A.) an Ion and B.) a polar molecule to induce a
dipole moment.
In general, polarizability correlates with the interaction between electrons and the nucleus. The amount of electrons in
a molecule affects how tight the nuclear charge can control the overall charge distribution. Atoms with less electrons
will have smaller, denser electron clouds, as there is a strong interaction between the few electrons in the atoms
orbitals and the positively charged nucleus. There is also less shielding in atoms with less electrons contributing to the
stronger interaction of the outer electrons and the nucleus. With the electrons held tightly in place in these smaller
atoms, these atoms are typically not easily polarized by external electric fields. In contrast, large atoms with many
electrons, such as negative ions with excess electrons, are easily polarized. These atoms typically have very diffuse
electron clouds and large atomic radii that limit the interaction of their external electrons and the nucleus.
Factors that Influence Polarizability
The relationship between polarizability and the factors of electron density, atomic radii, and molecular orientation is
as follows:
1. The greater the number of electrons, the less control the nuclear charge has on charge distribution, and thus the
increased polarizability of the atom.
2. The greater the distance of electrons from nuclear charge, the less control the nuclear charge has on the charge
distribution, and thus the increased polarizability of the atom.
3. Molecular orientation with respect to an electric field can affect polarizibility (labeled Orientation-dependent),
except for molecules that are: tetrahedral, octahedral or icosahedral (labeled Orientation-independent). This factor
is more important for unsaturated molecules that contain areas of electron dense regions, such as 2,4-hexadiene.

Greatest polarizability in these molecules is achieved when the electric field is applied parallel to the molecule
rather than perpendicular to the molecule.
Polarizability Influences Dispersion Forces Dispersion Forces
The dispersion force is the weakest intermolecular force. It is an attractive force that arises from surrounding
temporary dipole moments in nonpolar molecules or species. These temporary dipole moments arise when there are
instantaneous deviations in the electron clouds of the nonpolar species. Surrounding molecules are influenced by these
temporary dipole moments and a sort of chain reaction results in which subsequent weak, dipole-induced dipole
interactions are created. These cumulative dipole- induced dipole interactions create the attractive dispersion forces.
Dispersion forces are the forces that make nonpolar substances condense to liquids and freeze into solids when the
temperature is low enough.
Polarizability affects dispersion forces in the following ways:
As polarizability increases dispersion forces also become stronger. Thus, molecules attract one another
more vigorously and melting and boiling points of covalent substances increase with larger molecular mass.
Polarazibility also affects dispersion forces through the molecular shape of the affected molecules. Elongated
molecules have electrons that are easily moved increasing their polarizability and thus strengthening the dispersion
forces, see the example in Figure 2. In contrast, small, compact, symmetrical molecules are less polarizable
resulting in weaker dispersion forces, see the example in Figure 3.

Figure 3: An example of a compact less polarizable molecule.


2. Secondary Interactions

Hydrogen Interactions

Dipole-dipole Interactions

Ion-dipole Interactions

Ion-induced dipole Interactions

Dipole-induced dipole Interactions

Dispersion Interactions


Physical properties of substances
Physical properties
Type of compound
I onic Co valent Metallic
Melting point

Electrical conductivity

Thermal conductivity

Hardness

Q: Both H
2
S & H
2
O are covalent compounds. H
2
S is a gas but H
2
O is a liquid. Explain this statement using the
knowledge of intermolecular forces.

Q: Explain endo-thermic and exo-thermic chemical reactions in terms of energy transfers associated with breakin &
making chemical bonds.


Different types of Lattice
The substances in the solid state, have particles are arranged in a lattice.
A lattice is a regular arrangement of particles, whether these are atoms, ions or molecules

Type Particle Example Type of bond Solubility in
Water
Melting Point
Homoatomic Atoms Diamond
Graphite

Heteroatomic Molecules SiO
2

Poor
Non-polar
molecular
lattices
Molecules I
2
Covalent
Bonding
between
atoms
forming
molecules;
Non-polar
intermolecular
Bonding
between
separate
molecules


polar
molecular
lattices
Molecules Ice Covalent
Bonding
between
atoms
forming
molecules;
polar
intermolecular
Bonding
between
separate
molecules

Ionic lattices Ions NaCl Ionic Bonding
(throughout)

Generally
good, but may
be low owing
to high lattice
enthalpy

Metallic
lattices
Metal ions
with
delocalised
electrons
Cu, Zn Metallic
Bonding
(throughout)

Poor, but some
metals react
with water

Exercise;
1. Draw Lewis structures for;
BeCl
2
, BF
3
, CH
4
, NH
3
, H
2
O, PCl
3
, NH
4
+
, SF
6
, SF
4
, ClF
3
, XeF
2
, LF
5
, XeF
4
, NO
3
-
, CO
3
2-
, SO
4
2-

2. Determine the hybridization of the central atom of,
BeCl
2
, BF
3
, CH
4
, NH
3
, H
2
O, PCl
3
, NH
4
+

3. Draw resonance structures for,
O
3
, NO
3
-
, CO
3
2-
, SO
4
2-
, N
2
O

4. Determine if the following molecules or ions are polar (possess a dipole moment) or not polar.
Determine the direction of the molecule dipole moment (if any).
1. BCl3
2. SO3
3. PF3
4. SF6
5. BeH2
6. CO2
7. SO2
8. NO2-
9. NH4+
10. SnCl5-
11. AlH3

Chem Bond Local Al

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Unit 02

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