Convergence of MANET and WSN in IoT Urban Scenarios Paolo Bellavista, Senior Member, IEEE, Giuseppe Cardone, Member, IEEE, Antonio Corradi, Member, IEEE, and Luca Foschini, Member, IEEE AbstractUbiquitous smart environments, equipped with low- cost and easy-deployable wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and widespread mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), are opening brand new opportunities in wide-scale urban monitoring. Indeed, MANET and WSN convergence paves the way for the devel- opment of brand new Internet of Things (IoT) communication platforms with a high potential for a wide range of applications in different domains. Urban data collection, i.e., the harvesting of monitoring data sensed by a large number of collaborating sen- sors, is a challenging task because of many open technical issues, from typical WSN limitations (bandwidth, energy, delivery time, etc.) to the lack of widespread WSN data collection standards, needed for practical deployment in existing and upcoming IoT scenarios. In particular, effective collection is crucial for classes of smart city services that require a timely delivery of urgent data such as environmental monitoring, homeland security, and city surveillance. After surveying the existing WSN interoperability efforts for urban sensing, this paper proposes an original solution to integrate and opportunistically exploit MANET overlays, impromptu, and collaboratively formed over WSNs, to boost urban data harvesting in IoT. Overlays are used to dynamically differentiate and fasten the delivery of urgent sensed data over low-latency MANET paths by integrating with latest emergent standards/specications for WSN data collection. The reported experimental results show the feasibility and effectiveness (e.g., limited coordination overhead) of the proposed solution. Index TermsMobile ad hoc networks, routing protocols, wireless sensor networks. I. INTRODUCTION D URING the last decade, several research efforts have investigated emergent Internet of Things (IoT) applica- tion scenarios, where heterogeneous devices, spanning from smart-phones and wireless sensors, up to network-enabled physical objects (e.g., RFID, smart visual tags, etc.), could seamlessly interoperate in globally integrated communications platforms [1][3]. The recent emergence of smart cities, envisioned as intelligent, wide-scale, and open environments able to facilitate citizens by increasing their everyday quality of life, is further boosting research in IoT technologies and Manuscript received January 31, 2013; revised June 18, 2013; accepted June 29, 2013. Date of publication July 3, 2013; date of current version August 21, 2013. The associate editor coordinating the review of this paper and approving it for publication was Dr. Honggang Wang. The authors are with the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna 40136, Italy (e-mail: paolo.bellavista@unibo.it; giuseppe.cardone@unibo.it; antonio.corradi@ unibo.it; luca.foschini@unibo.it). Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identier 10.1109/JSEN.2013.2272099 related standards as a fundamental building block for these new scenarios. Toward such a perspective, there is the need to continu- ously collect, elaborate, and present data, possibly deriving from smart objects and integrated with participatory sensing: that activity requires signicant standardization efforts, under different perspectives, to deal with dynamic, open, and not statically predictable deployment conditions. A relevant goal is to devise new, autonomic, and adaptable services for smart cities, which may span several different application domains, from environmental and habitability monitoring (noise/light pollution, vehicle trafc, etc.), to security controlling (anti- theft protection, structural monitoring to prevent collapses of old buildings and bridges, etc.), and to assist citizenship urban living and roaming (elderly assistance services, emergency response, etc.) [4]. Recent advances in wireless communications and mobile devices are opening these new services through novel integra- tion opportunities. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), namely networks consisting of tiny inexpensive autonomous devices equipped with sensors, can take measurements, locally store, handle sensed data, and can communicate to each other. At the same time, last-decade progresses in ad-hoc wireless tech- nologies have enabled Mobile Ad-hoc NETworks (MANETs), where it is possible to build impromptu connections without predened xed infrastructures. By using a unique sentence, while WSNs are networks of things, MANETs are networks of people: they are dynamically formed and allow people in a restricted area to send, receive, and share data, without the need of either infrastructure or centralized support. It is widely recognized that WSNs and MANETs are key technologies for several IoT application domains in smart cities [5]: their suitability is also boosted by their localized and self-conguring capabilities, which can enable easier large-scale deployments. In addition to academic interest, market research shows that many municipalities will soon adopt WSNs and MANETs, mainly for public safety, local- ization, and environmental monitoring [6]: a notable example is the Republic of Korea, which has recently invested in WSN-related technologies to provide a wide range of ser- vices/applications to citizens, spanning from environmental monitoring to trafc management and entertainment [7]. Very recently, mobile phones, already equipped with multi- ple wireless interfaces (IEEE 802.11, Bluetooth, and 3G), have started hosting onboard also low-power connectivity solutions, such as IEEE 802.15.4; moreover, low-power connectivity 1530-437X 2013 IEEE BELLAVISTA et al.: CONVERGENCE OF MANET AND WSN IN IoT URBAN SCENARIOS 3559 TABLE I LOW POWER STANDARD PROTOCOLS AND THEIR MAIN FEATURES is expected to become available on most consumer devices in the near future [8]. Based on these recent advances that catalyze ongoing standardization efforts (as detailed in the following), we propose opportunistic exploitation of MANETs to speed up WSN data collection while MANET nodes (relays) roam in a smart city WSN. Moreover, the MANET-WSN integration adds exibility to stand-alone WSNs, because it can be dynamically activated only for specic classes of WSN trafc, for example data labeled by source nodes as urgent. Note that, differently from other approaches in literature, our relays are neither mobile harvesters that convey sensed data to the Internet, nor mobile WSN users only: instead, our proposal fully exploits the interaction opportunities enabled by standard protocols to opportunistically merge WSNs and MANETs, thus enabling cross-network routing with low latency, as requested by specic subsets of sensed data that is ltered at routing time. For example, let us consider a monitoring application tar- geted at the structural integrity of buildings, with WSN nodes deployed for data collection purposes over different city areas, like roads, buildings, and bridges. When one critical event is detected (e.g., a dangerous exure of a column), the monitor- ing application should trigger an alert to be delivered faster than other normal sensor readings to WSN data collection points. It is important to note that packet latency over WSNs typically depends on the number of routing hops and on duty cycling of sensor nodes, which may periodically turn off their radio transceivers to save energy at the cost of higher latency. Our primary idea is to reduce the delivery time of only most relevant urgent data without sacricing battery lifetime, by dynamically pushing urgent alerts over a MANET-based overlay. That alleviates two main WSN communication issues: scarcity of energy and low communication bit rate. In fact, even if MANET devices often have limited computing power, their constraints are of orders of magnitude weaker than the WSN ones, and their communication interfaces have a much higher bit rate. Therefore, WSNs and MANETs can mutually benet from each other. Let us stress that the IoT vision has recently further exac- erbated the need of standardization for interoperability, espe- cially for the widespread deployment and economic success of city-wide MANET and WSN technologies. About MANET realizations, the IEEE 802.11 standard is largely dominant and is demonstrating to allow excellent interoperability between heterogeneous devices. Instead, for WSNs the standardization efforts have not produced yet a widely accepted solution stack. Thus, as discussed in the following section, nowadays it is crucial to provide market stakeholders with strong evidences of standardization directions/progress and interoperability levels achieved by heterogeneous devices, to demonstrate the eco- nomic soundness of the industrial production of both WSN nodes and smartphones with low-power wireless interfaces. II. STANDARDIZATION NEEDS AND DIRECTIONS In order to transform WSN (and WSN-MANET integration) into a viable technology to make the IoT vision cost-effective and deployable, we claim the need of middleware-layer solu- tions fully compliant with accepted standards (or largely adopted specications). About hardware-related standards, a central element is to provide smartphones with low-power wireless interfaces for WSN connectivity in order to enable WSN-MANET inter- working with limited costs. About software-related standards, they mainly focus on packet routing and high-level network management and work on enabling interoperability and inte- gration between WSNs and mobile devices. In this eld currently there are several competing proposals: the most prominent ones are Bluetooth Low Energy (Bluetooth LE), Developers Alliance for Standards Harmonization of ISO 18000-7 (DASH7), IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low-power and lossy networks (RPL), and ZigBee [9][12]. Table 1 summa- rizes their most important features: each protocol is targeted at specic niches and, as a consequence, has a different balance in the tradeoff between coverage range, data rate, and routing support. 3560 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 13, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2013 From the point of view of physical-layer features, Bluetooth LE is specically designed for Body/Personal Area Networks, by privileging short range and high data rate. Its lower power consumption, if compared with regular Bluetooth, is mainly the consequence of enhanced duty cycling support, designed for small data bursts; however, in the case of continuous data streams, its power consumption is similar to regular Bluetooth. In addition, despite its name, Bluetooth LE is not backward- compatible with Bluetooth: thus, the wide existing deployment of Bluetooth interfaces cannot be a competitive advantage for Bluetooth LE; however, the Bluetooth/Bluetooth LE designs share several hardware components, allowing new chipsets to run both regular and LE modes (though not at the same time). A downside of Bluetooth LE is that its network specication only supports the star topology, making it unsuitable for some kinds of environmental monitoring applications. DASH7 proposes itself as the IoT enabling technology, with very long coverage range, possibility to penetrate con- crete walls, and relatively low data rate. Its supporters claim that its design allows a single device to run on battery for almost a decade. An important advantage of DASH7 over its competitors is the simple design of its physical and network layers, which make the DASH7-compliant chipsets cheap and easy to manufacture. To enable multi-year battery life, DASH7 proposes a bursty data transfer approach over small packets; however, this makes DASH7 unt for data streaming. In addition, its architecture is upload-centric, i.e., optimized for data sending and with no mesh routing support. ZigBee represents a compromise between those two tech- nologies, reasonable for several application domains, with medium range and medium data rate. It is the de-facto standard in WSN academic research: it has been extensively analyzed in the literature and it is well known how to tune its parameters to adapt it to different deployment environments, ranging from personal area networks, to buildings, and environmental mon- itoring. ZigBee offers symmetric upstream and downstream bandwidths, making it a good choice for Machine-to-Machine communication and for any scenario that requires both data uploading and collection. Finally, going to the networking-layer point of view, RPL is the most advanced specication proposal nowadays. RPL is an IPv6-based multi-hop routing protocol that, in principle, could be applied to any of the other physical-layer protocols; in practice, now it is mostly considered as the routing layer for ZigBee (as part of the ZigBee IP effort). RPL adopts several techniques to tune routing for data collection optimization, but also supports point-to-point communication; it has the advantage of being able to integrate seamlessly WSNs to the Internet. Among its weaknesses, RPL requires a full-edged IPv6 stack, not always supported on very constrained devices with limited memory (less than 10 KB). This short survey of standards concurring for the WSN market shows that there are several carefully engineered and well tested protocols for low power wireless links applicable to WSNs. Relevant scenarios, such as Machine-to-Machine communication and our own proposal, highlight how mesh routing is a key technology for IoT and deep integration of heterogeneous networks. From this point of view, RPL and ZigBee are the most promising proposals: a stabilization of the respective standards and a wide support by industries would give a tremendous boost to widespread adoption of WSNs for IoT applications in smart cities. III. REFERENCE MODEL Widespread deployments of WSN in smart cities and their interoperability with mobile devices enable several interesting interactions. Our main motivation is to support a cost-effective realization of wide-scale urban monitoring applications. The typical case of structural monitoring applications presented as reference scenario is characterized by requirements and features that are common to any monitoring application where alarm situations present differentiated urgency levels; our proposal suits those environments. Since communication between MANETs and WSNs could drain precious energy resources from WSN nodes, a crucial point is to design solutions and protocols that minimize MANET-WSN interactions, by enabling them only for urgent data delivery. While we have already addressed some of the problems of the WSN-MANET integration from the WSN perspective in our previous work (please refer to [13] for further information on energy-saving techniques applied at the WSN side), this article focuses on the MANET side. Hence, in the rest of this paper we detail all main coordination and clustering functions realized at MANET nodes for WSN- MANET integration in IoT deployment environments. We complete this section by sketching our abstract reference model and by providing some needed background material. Our distributed architecture includes two main network layers: at the lower level, WSN sensor nodes form an autonomous routing layer that delivers normal/urgent data to one or more roots; at the higher level, multi-homed mobile MANET nodes roam across the WSN-equipped environment. We assume a tree-based data collection for WSNs: tree-like topologies for WSN data routing have been widely employed in both exper- imental protocols, such as CTP [14], and in more recent stan- dardization efforts, such as ZigBee and IETF RPL [11], [12]. Thus, we decided to use a generic tree-based protocol in our work to easily enable its deployment and immediate usage with all emerging collection solutions and standard speci- cations, possibly biased toward technologies that differently from IEEE 802.15.4, do not suffer from interferences with co- existing IEEE 802.11 networks used by MANET nodes. Our tree formation and data routing work as follows. Generally, data roots start advertising a zero cost, while each internal node advertises a total incremental cost, equal to the cost of its father node plus the cost of the link to the next hop; data packets ow along paths toward lower cost nodes. The WSN level opportunistically exploits its MANET nodes in visibility to create the additional low-latency high-bandwidth overlay for urgent data routing. To glue together WSNs and MANETs, MANET nodes exploit their WSN interfaces to participate to urgent data routing by dynamically discovering WSN nodes during their roaming and by advertising their presence to them. To overcome mobility and scalability issues typical of large and dense MANET deployments, we claim the need for novel BELLAVISTA et al.: CONVERGENCE OF MANET AND WSN IN IoT URBAN SCENARIOS 3561 solutions and standards to organize MANET nodes in small local clusters, as we will better detail in the following. For the sake of easy readability and presentation clarity, let us dene here some useful terms. Roots are sensor nodes that advertise themselves as collection tree roots, typically acting as gateways to the Internet. All other sensor nodes build routing trees to forward collected data toward roots at the WSN layer. A WSN exit point is any WSN node in visibility of at least one MANET node and able to jump urgent data over the MANET, while a WSN entry point is the WSN node with the lowest gradient cost that the MANET cluster can reach. Finally, MANET entry/exit points are MANET nodes that can respectively receive/forward data from/to the WSN. Our solution is general enough to work with most tree- based sensor data collection standards and related research- oriented protocols, such as IETF RPL and CTP. IETF RPL is a very promising standard specication in the eld, but at the current stage there are still a very few examples of its deployment and it suffers from limited testing in realistic in-the-eld scenarios. Therefore, in our current prototype of the proposal, we have decided to be fully compliant with CTP because of its thoroughly assessed robustness and its strong developers community working on it. In this scenario the value of the gradient of a sensor node is dened as the sum of the expected transmission hops to route a packet from that node to the root [15]. Additional information about CTP is out of the scope of this paper and the interested reader can refer to [14]. IV. MANET AND WSN CONVERGENCE: A PROTOCOL PROPOSAL This section presents our original protocols to enable MANET and WSN convergence, and then describes the most important cluster formation protocol by detailing packet exchanges performed at the MANET layer. A. Design Guidelines and Protocol Overview Our original proposal for MANET overlay includes two core functions: i) MANET-WSN integration to enable cross- network impromptu communications, operated only if that is feasible and benecial and ii) MANET cluster formation to organize MANET nodes in small clusters to avoid the routing issues of large MANETs. About MANET-WSN integration, two facilities can enable a MANET to play the role of WSN backbone: discovery, to let MANET nodes explore the WSN topology and select the WSN node with the best gradient, i.e., WSN entry point, and adver- tising, to inform the WSN of the presence of MANET entry points. Since in many modern low-power radio transceivers sending and receiving packets require comparable amounts of energy, there is the need to minimize both discovery and advertising packets. In fact, regardless of WSN trafc, keeping our MANET-WSN integration support always active would impose an additional trafc load on the WSN thus worsening node power consumption. Hence, our solution avoids packet exchanges between MANET and WSN nodes in normal situ- ations, by keeping MANET nodes usually idle. MANET only passively snoop CTP trafc to obtain information about the underlying WSN tree topology and, only upon snifng a urgent packet, MANET nodes start coordinating and communicating with WSN ones to self-organize as relays for urgent WSN packets [13]. About MANET cluster formation, we recall that MANET relays should avoid all fragilities related to network architec- tures with centralized coordination and multiple-hops com- munication. Thus, upon snooping an urgent WSN packet, MANET nodes should organize themselves in local inde- pendent clusters, each one with its own MANET entry and exit points. Note that, due to diversity in wireless coverage ranges between IEEE 802.15.4 and IEEE 802.11 [16], [17], even small clusters can signicantly improve data collection performance, by making it possible to jump several WSN hops by traversing fewer MANET ones, as exemplied in [18]. In addition, small clusters are intrinsically more tolerant with regard to node mobility if compared with fully-connected mobile networks because they have to keep a limited number of routing paths. B. MANET Cluster Formation Our MANET-WSN integration exploits MANET clusters formed opportunistically in localized areas that need urgent data transmission. It is simple, robust, and relies only on one- hop communications and limited-hop broadcasts. Although our protocol does not intrinsically pose a limit to the hop radius of clusters, results in the literature indicate that for IEEE 802.11 technology, there exists an ad-hoc horizon, at 23 hops and 1020 nodes, where the benets of MANET virtually vanishes [19]. In our system, we found that a 2-hop limit is a good tradeoff between routing improvements and cluster robustness, as conrmed by our experimental results (see Fig. 6). The cluster formation protocol is reactively started by any MANET node, called clusterhead, that snoops a urgent data packet being routed on the WSN. As in Fig. 1, the protocol consists of three phases. In the rst phase, the clusterhead extracts from the sniffed packet the gradient of the WSN node that has routed it (42 in the example in Fig. 1) and it broadcasts a 2-hop limited request to other nodes, by asking them to join the new cluster, i.e., join request. In the second phase, MANET nodes that received the join request send a discovery message to the WSN layer to get the best gradient among the WSN nodes they can communicate with; then, they compare it with the gradient declared in the join request: only the MANET nodes that can communicate with WSN nodes with a better gradient will take part to the cluster. In the third and last phase, MANET nodes communicate to the clusterhead that they joined the new cluster. The clusterhead gathers responses from cluster nodes and chooses as MANET exit point the node with the best gradient. Collecting answers from all the nodes participating the cluster, allows the clus- terhead to estimate the number of messages that MANET and WSN will exchange: appropriate policies can decide how long the integration should last, giving guarantees on its energy requirements [13]. 3562 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 13, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2013 Fig. 1. Phases of MANET cluster formation. An exclamation mark identies the clusterhead. Each MANET node is marked with the best gradient (the lowest) it can reach at the WSN layer. Phase 1: a MANET node snoops an urgent data packet and broadcasts a hop-limited broadcast request (step 1 in gure). Phase 2: MANET nodes hit by the request send discovery request to WSN, obtain gradient costs of reachable sensor nodes, and choose the best one (step 2). Phase 3: all sensor nodes reply to the MANET node that started the process (step 3). MANET nodes marked with g will not enter the cluster because their gradient is worse than what broadcasted in phase 1. Fig. 2. State diagram of the MANET coordination protocol. For the sake of presentation clarity, it does not show the sub-states necessary to manage asynchronous communication with WSN nodes. Fig. 1 shows that the proposed protocol forms clusters in a tree-like pattern, with the notable property of a better gradient by following any path from the clusterhead to MANET leaves. This property strongly enhances the robustness of urgent data routing within a cluster: in fact, when the clusterhead tries to route an urgent packet to the designated exit node, it is guaranteed that at each hop the urgent packet will be forwarded to a MANET node with a better gradient than previous hop. Moreover, since all the MANET nodes participating to the cluster are in visibility of a WSN node, even if the path to the nal MANET exit point is disrupted (due to node mobility), intermediate nodes can still route the urgent data packet back to the WSN, by achieving anyway a (suboptimal) performance boost. C. MANET Coordination Protocol To better understand the different roles that MANET nodes can play in a cluster, we model it as a nite state machine shown in Fig. 2. MANET nodes start working in the IDLE BELLAVISTA et al.: CONVERGENCE OF MANET AND WSN IN IoT URBAN SCENARIOS 3563 state: in this state, they only snoop WSN trafc, while waiting for urgent packets to be routed by the underlying WSN. When a MANET node snoops an urgent packet, it switches to a new state where it broadcasts a hop-limited join request to other MANET nodes, to ask for joining the new cluster where the sender acts as clusterhead. Then, the potential clusterhead waits for a xed amount of time to receive replies from nearby MANET nodes: if at least one MANET node joined the cluster, it becomes a clusterhead; if no nodes joined, instead, it goes back to IDLE. Upon receiving a join request, based on the TTL (time to live as number of hops) in the join request, IDLE nodes decide if either they have to broadcast it again (for TTL > 1) or not (for TTL = 1). Then, they broadcast a discovery request to the WSN to obtain the gradient value of the WSN nodes they can communicate with; if the WSN gradient value obtained is better than the one broadcasted by the potential clusterhead, they send back to their parent the decision to join. After cluster formation, the clusterhead periodically broad- casts hop-limited keep-alive packets, forwarded by intermedi- ate nodes to other intermediate nodes and leaves, to extend the cluster lifetime: cluster lifetime is xed by taking into account both the number of MANET nodes and the frequency of discovery/advertising functions [13]; when keep-alive packets are not renewed, the cluster naturally disappears and nodes return to the IDLE state. Finally, as explained in the previous sections, clusters are formed independently of one another. Thus, a single MANET node can participate to different clusters, even if it can be clusterhead in one cluster only. V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS We thoroughly validated our proposal through both a wide- scale simulation study and a real deployment; here, due to space limitations, we will briey introduce our real testbed, and then we will totally focus on simulation results. Sensor nodes are TelosB nodes running TinyOS 2.1.1 and hosting the CTP implementation [14], [20], [21]. To assess the effect of mobility on opportunistic cross-network integration and data routing, we deployed several sensor nodes at the sides of a 90 m long corridor at our campus and we put another sensor aboard of a small robot capable of moving at different speeds, as shown in Fig. 3. With that prototype, we could tune the proposed MANET-WSN convergence facilities and protocols, and we collected various results that conrm the feasibility of the proposed approach; for more results and insights about our real testbed and about the simulation results described in the following, we refer interested readers also to our project Web site 1 . To validate our proposal on a wide scale, we developed and run extensive simulations: we have originally ported CTP to the QualNet network simulator 2 and we have implemented our protocol on top of it. In the adopted simulation environment, 1 Additional information, experimental results, and prototype/simulation code are available at: http://www.lia.deis.unibo.it/Research/WHOO/ 2 Scalable Network Technologies, QualNet Simulator http://www.scalable- networks.com/products/qualnet/ Fig. 3. Robot carrying a TelosB node. we made the sensor nodes use the IEEE 802.15.4 physical layer and a Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) MAC protocol, thus simulating a realistic communication testbed, similar to widely adopted real-world sensor nodes, such as TelosB and MICAz 3 . In addition, we modied the used MAC layer to simulate the delays due to radio duty cycling, as often done in WSNs to improve battery lifetime [22], [23]. In particular, we simulated the delays experienced by a TelosB sensor node running on a 2.5% duty cycle that keeps the radio interface active for the 2.5% of its running time. This duty cycling is very less aggressive than what usually employed (1% or less [24]). Finally, MANET nodes use the IEEE 802.11b physical and MAC layers [16]. To evaluate the performance of our system in a smart city IoT environment, we have modeled two scenarios in QualNet. The rst one is a 1 km-long and 10 m-wide street, monitored by 50 sensor nodes, 20 m apart from each other; the sensor node at the beginning of the street acts as the tree root, while the one at the end of the street alternately generates one normal data packet and one urgent data packet, with a period of 3 s. The second one is a 1 km-long and 1km-wide square, monitored by 200 nodes positioned in a star-like shape with eight branches, each one composed by 25 sensor nodes 20 m apart from each other; the sensor node at the center of the star is at the center of the square and acts as the tree root, while the ones at the end of the branches alternately generate one normal data packet and one urgent data packet, with a period of 3 s. Finally, let us note that in this paper we primarily focus on measuring network performances because energy is a less pressing issue at the MANET side compared to the WSN one, but we invite readers interested in energy consumption and WSN-side measurements to refer to our previous work published in [13]. We rst evaluated packet latencies. In particular, we have observed the impact of MANET node density on packet delivery latency. We have simulated the reference scenarios by constantly increasing the number of randomly placed MANET 3 By default, TinyOS uses a CSMA MAC instead of the IEEE 802.15.4 MAC on TelosB; MICAz and other sensor nodes that use the same radio transceiver. 3564 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 13, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2013 Fig. 4. Packet latency vs. MANET nodes density in (a) street and (b) square scenarios. Fig. 5. Ratio of packets successfully routed vs. MANET nodes speed in (a) street and (b) square scenarios. nodes and we have repeated 30 runs for each test; the collected condence interval were always under 5% of the estimated average. Fig. 4(a) shows obtained results for the street sce- nario. As expected, our solution vastly reduces delivery latency of urgent packets in every tested case. More interestingly, results identify the minimum MANET node density that grants the best latency improvements, in our scenario 30 MANET nodes in a 1-km long street: that corresponds to a realistic city environment density. With lower MANET densities, latencies are not so improved because MANET clusters do not cover all the WSN areas, thus forcing data packets to hop over slower WSN hops. With more than 30 nodes, latency slightly increases due to the additional trafc induced by advertising and discovery packets, which cause more packet collisions. Experimental results for the square scenario [Fig. 4(b)] show that it is necessary a higher number of MANET nodes to have a relevant decrease of latencies for urgent packets: that behavior is expected because MANET nodes are scattered in a much larger area and can also be placed in areas that are disconnected from the WSN. However, 100 MANET nodes per km 2 is a challenging and very low density in an open space (not so typical in a city area), and achieved results conrm that the performances of our approach are good even with such a low MANET density. Our second set of experimental results assesses the impact of MANET node mobility on the packet delivery ratio, namely the number of packets successfully dispatched from data source to root. We used the same scenarios of the previous evaluation (40 MANET nodes for the street scenario and 100 for the square one) and we made MANET nodes move ran- domly over the simulated areas adopting the random waypoint mobility model at various speeds (from 0 m/s to 10 m/s). As expected, the CTP protocol is very reliable and always delivers more than 98% of packets, as shown in Fig. 5. Our solution achieves a packet delivery ratio comparable to CTP when MANET nodes are not moving, while the ratio sensibly decreases as MANET nodes become more and more mobile. In the street scenario, it delivers more than 80% of urgent packets when MANET nodes move at 1 m/s, and drops to about 50% when MANET nodes move at 10 m/s; whereas in the square scenario it delivers slightly less than 80% packets at 1 m/s (the average speed of pedestrians is about 1.4 m/s) and BELLAVISTA et al.: CONVERGENCE OF MANET AND WSN IN IoT URBAN SCENARIOS 3565 Fig. 6. Ratio of urgent packets successfully routed by 3-hops MANETs in street and square scenarios. 30% at 10 m/s. Under the same conditions, we also collected results about packet latencies (not shown here for the sake of space limitations) that demonstrate that latency of successfully delivered packets is substantially constant for different node speeds. Let us note that results of Fig. 5 are expected because the fast movements of MANET nodes in the square scenario can break MANET clusters apart more easily compared to the street scenario. However, the delivery ratio of our solution can be boosted by repeatedly sending of urgent packets. For example, when MANET nodes move at 1 m/s, an urgent packet has about 80% probability to be successfully routed to the collection tree root. If the node sends the packet twice, the probability of successful routing raises to 96%; another repeated send operation achieves the success probability of 99%. Moreover, to conrm our 2-hop limit protocol design choice, in Fig. 6 we show the delivery ratio of urgent packets in the same scenarios considered before, but with 3-hops MANET clusters (3 hops between the clusterhead and the exit point). Results clearly show that performances decrease sharply compared to the 2-hops MANET clusters test because it is more likely that a MANET routing path will break down due to node mobility, especially in the square scenario where mobile nodes can roam more freely compared to a narrow street. Thus, we claim that our 2-hops based solution achieves the best tradeoff between routing speed and delivery ratio, by allowing to signicantly improve data collection in most common use cases for typical smart city environments. VI. RELATED WORK IoT research eld works over the growing maturity of several related technologies, such as MANET, WSN, RFID devices, and so forth. The growing interest in this area is also demonstrated by several recent special issues on IoT [1], [25]. Despite the encouraging results obtained so far, most research works tend to mainly focus on specic technological issues (e.g., RFID tag reading speed, security, etc.), and only recently, a few research efforts have started to tackle IoT management issues rising from the full integration of different technologies. In the following, for the sake of briefness, we sketch a limited selection of solutions close to our envisioned approach recognize MANET and WSNs convergence as a key enabling technology for IoT smart cities scenarios. Regarding urban IoT scenarios, several successful industrial and academic research initiatives are available addressing different application domains. There are already various appli- cations to inform car drivers willing to park at a parking area 4 and similar projects to monitor free parking lots 5,6 ; these projects are important and demonstrate the growing interest in this IoT domain. From an architectural perspective, and addressing a different application domain, Zorzi et al. call for a radical change from todays Intranet of things to the future Internet of things by indicating as core priorities the denition of an architectural reference model for the interoperability of IoT systems and of mechanisms for an efcient integration of IoT architectures into the service layer of next generation future Internet networking infrastructures [26]. In a more technical perspective, the use of multi-radio devices in WSNs and the integration of WSNs and mobile nodes have recently started to appear in the IoT literature. Yarvis et al. demonstrated that a modest number of reliable long-range links can improve WSN delivery ratio and battery lifetime [27]. A practical proof of this effect is the ExScal project, which deployed more than a thousand WSN nodes, by exploiting about two hundreds high-powered dual-radio nodes as an always-on high-speed network backbone [28]. Siphon is similar to ExScal but exploits multi-radio sensor nodes to provide an on-demand trafc management service that relieves congested trafc [29]. In general, these works assume that a relevant subset of sensor nodes provides both a low-power radio and an IEEE 802.11 interface; however, this assumption is not realistic for deployment environments that should be cheap and cannot guarantee enough power for IEEE 802.11 interfaces for all the expected lifetime. The exploitation of mobile nodes as data harvesters and as WSN gateways towards the Internet is a hot IoT research area. Chakrabarti et al. employ mobile nodes with a predictable roaming path as data sinks/mules, thus trading lower power consumption for higher latencies [30]. Wang et al. showed that one mobile relay that stores/forwards gathered data to a data sink can improve WSN lifetime up to a factor of four [31]. Ma et al. propose the mWSN tiered architecture, which makes WSN nodes form a cluster around the expected position of mobile nodes that act as statically predened and mobile gateways toward the Internet [32]. For an exhaustive survey of hierarchical WSN architectures enhanced by mobile nodes, interested readers may refer to [33]. While all these papers highlight relevant issues related to energy saving, WSN and MANET convergence aspects are still widely unexplored. In fact, to the best of our knowledge, our solution is the rst one in the IoT eld specically focusing 4 World Sensing Smart Cities, automated detection of car in parking spots: http://www.worldsensing.com/smart-cities 5 University of Guelph, smart parking lot project: http://www.uoguelph.ca/ ~qmahmoud/fyp/nidal-nasser-3.pdf 6 Meshnetics, ZigBee parking automation: http://www.meshnetics.com/ ZigBee_Parking_Automation_Case_Study.pdf 3566 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 13, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2013 on mobility by proposing to opportunistically exploit mobile MANET nodes as mobile relays for fast collection of WSN urgent data in smart city environments. VII. CONCLUSION IoT-based services and applications are already becoming an integral part of our everyday life. Basic technologies that leverage seamless interaction between WSN-equipped things and impromptu MANET opportunistically formed by humans moving in the smart city will play a relevant role in different application domains, such as logistics and trafc management. We believe that our proposal represents a step forward toward the development of novel real-world deployment solutions able to exploit the full potential of MANET and WSN conver- gence in the IoT in order to support fast collection of urban data. Our proposal shows the enhancements of IoT for smart cities: ubiquitous and collaborative urban sensing integrated with smart objects can vastly improve citizen life by pro- viding an intelligent environment that offers services, pre- vents emergencies and reacts to them, and enables a ne- grained adaptive control for better and more scalable man- agement of urban environments. 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Syst., vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 195206, May 2008. [33] S. A. Munir, R. Biao, J. Weiwei, W. Bin, X. Dongliang, and M. Man, Mobile wireless sensor network: Architecture and enabling technolo- gies for ubiquitous computing, in Proc. 21st Int. Conf. Adv. Inf. Netw. Appl. Workshops, vol. 2. May 2007, pp. 113120. Paolo Bellavista (SM98) received the Degree and Ph.D. degrees in computer science engineering from the University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, in 2001. He is currently an Associate Professor with the University of Bologna. His current research interests include from mobile agent-based middle- ware solutions and pervasive wireless computing to location/context-aware services and adaptive multi- media. He serves on the Editorial Boards of the IEEE Communications, the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPUTER, the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NETWORK AND SERVICE MANAGEMENT, the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SERVICES COMPUTING, Elsevier Pervasive Mobile Computing, and Springer Journal of Network and Systems Management. He is a senior member of ACM. Giuseppe Cardone (M10) is a Research Fellow with the University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy. He received the Ph.D. degree in computer science engi- neering from the University of Bologna in 2013. His current research interests include heterogeneous net- works integration, high performance distributed sys- tems, resource-aware routing, and pervasive mobile sensing. He is a member of ACM. Antonio Corradi (M77) received the Degree in electrical engineering from the University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, in 1979, and the M.S. degree in electrical engineering from Cornell Uni- versity, Ithaca, NY, USA, in 1980. He is a Full Pro- fessor of computer engineering with the University of Bologna. His current research interests include distributed and parallel systems and solutions, mid- dleware for pervasive and heterogeneous computing, infrastructure support for context-aware multimodal services, network management, and mobile agent platforms. He is a member of ACM and Italian Association for Computing. Luca Foschini (M04) received the Degree and Ph.D. degrees in computer science engineering from the University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, in 2007. He is currently an Assistant Professor of computer engineering with the University of Bologna. His current research interests include distributed sys- tems and solutions for pervasive wireless comput- ing environments, system and service management, context-aware services and adaptive multimedia, and management of cloud computing systems. He is a member of ACM.