recall, select, organize and show your knowledge about a specific topic; show that you understand: change & continuity, cause & consequence, similarity & difference; the motives, emotions, intentions and beliefs of individuals in history; understand, interpret and use different sources as evidence of certain events, individuals or groups !our exam is made up of three papers: "apers #, $ & %: "aper # : &# hour %' minutes ( divided into $ sections) *ection + has % questions about $, th century history, answer any $, *ection - is about .ermany &#/#/0#/%') and there are $ questions, do # All the questions are structured into 3 parts and will be based on stimulus material i.e. there will be a picture or written source at the beginning of each question. "aper $ : &$ hours ( only # topic) $, th century topic: The Treaty of Versailles "aper % : 1o any one question on .ermany #/#/0#/%' IGCSE HISTORY The $, th 2entury ( 3nternational 4elations since #/#/ BIG Q!"TI#$% &ere the peace treaties '()()*+3, fair- 5hat were the motives and aims of the -ig Three at 6ersailles7 5hy did all the victors not get everything they wanted7 5hat was the impact of the peace treaty on .ermany up to #/$87 2ould the treaties be 9ustified at the time7 "eace treaties of #/#/0$8 4oles of individuals like 5ilson, 2lemenceau and :loyd .eorge on the peacemaking process The impact of the treaties on the defeated countries ;odern opinions about the treaties ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- BIG Q!"TI#$% To what e.tent was the /eague of $ations a success- <ow successful was the :eague in the #/$,=s7 <ow far did weaknesses in the :eague=s organization make failure inevitable7 <ow far did the 1epression make the work of the :eague more difficult7 <ow successful was the :eague in the #/8,=s7 :eague of >ations: strengths and weaknesses in its structure and organization *uccesses and failures in peacekeeping during the #/$,=s The impact of the .reat 1epression on the work of the :eague after #/$/ The failures of the :eague in the #/8,=s, including ;anchuria and +byssinia ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- BIG Q!"TI#$% &hy had international peace collapsed by ()3)- 5hat were the long0term consequences of the #/#/0$8 peace treaties7 5hat were the consequences of the failures of the :eague in the #/8,=s7 <ow far was <itler=s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in #/8/7 5as the policy of appeasement 9ustified7 <ow important was the >azi0*oviet "act7 5hy did -ritain and ?rance declare war on .ermany in *eptember #/8/7 The collapse of international order in the #/8,=s The increasing militarism of .ermany, 3taly and @apan &+xis "owers) <itler=s foreign policy to #/8/: the *aar, remilitarization of the 4hineland, +nschluss with +ustria, appeasement crises over 2zechoslovakia and "oland The outbreak of war ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- BIG Q!"TI#$% &ho was to blame for the 0old &ar- 5hy did the A*+0A**4 alliance begin to break down in #/%'7 <ow had the A**4 gained control of Bastern Burope by #/%C7 <ow did the A*+ react to *oviet expansionism7 5hat were the consequences of the -erlin -lockade7 5ho was more to blame for starting the 2old 5ar, the A*+ or the A**47 The origins of the 2old 5ar: the #/%' summit conferences and the breakdown of the A*+0A**4 alliance in #/%'0D *oviet expansionism into Bastern Burope to #/%C and +merican reactions to it The occupation of .ermany and the -erlin -lockade ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- BIG Q!"TI#$% 1ow effecti2ely did the "A contain the spread of 0ommunism- +merica and events in 2uba, #/'/0D$ +merican involvement in 6ietnam Bvents of the 2old 5ar: +merican involvement in 2uba from #/'/ until #/D$, reactions to the 2uban 4evolution, the missile crisis and its aftermath & involvement in 6ietnam ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- BIG Q!"TI#$% 1ow secure was the ""34s control o2er !astern !urope5 ()67*()7)- 5hy was there opposition to *oviet control in <ungary #/'D and 2zechoslovakia in #/DC, and how did the A**4 react to this opposition7 <ow similar were events in <ungary &#/'D) and 2zechoslovakia &#/DC)7 5hy was the -erlin 5all built in #/D$7 5hat was the significance of *olidarity in "oland for the decline of *oviet influence in Bastern Burope7 <ow far was .orbachev personally responsible for the collapse of *oviet control over Bastern Burope7 *oviet power in Bastern Burope: resistance to *oviet power in <ungary &#/'D) and 2zechoslovakia &#/DC) -erlin 5all *olidarity in "oland .orbachev and the collapse of the *oviet Bmpire ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0A"! "T89% Germany5 ()() : ()6; &as the &eimar 3epublic doomed from the start- <ow did .ermany emerge from defeat at the end of 55 37 5hat was the impact of the Treaty of 6ersailles on the 4epublic7 To what extent did the 4epublic recover after #/$87 5hat were the achievements of the 5eimar "eriod7 &hy was 1itler able to dominate Germany by ()36- 5hat did the >azi "arty stand for in the #/$,=s7 5hy did the >azi=s have little success before #/8,7 5hy was <itler able to become 2hancellor by #/887 <ow did <itler consolidate his power in #/8808%7 The $a<i regime% how effecti2ely did the $a<i4s control Germany from ()33*6;- <ow much opposition was there to the >azi regime7 <ow effectively did the >azi=s deal with the political opponents7 <ow did the >azi=s persecute any groups in .ermany society7 5as >azi .ermany a totalitarian state7 The $a<i regime% what was it li=e to li2e in $a<i Germany- <ow did young people react to the >azi regime7 <ow successful were >azi policies towards women and the family7 1id most people in .ermany benefit from >azi rule7 <ow did the coming of war change life in >azi .ermany7 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- "ources "rimary *ources: "rimary sources are contemporary to the time studied &?rom that time)
*econdary *ources: These sources come from after the time being studied They are not contemporary >ewspapers: >ewspapers are both primary and secondary The photographs are primary, but the reports are not usually written by eyewitnesses, so are secondary Therefore they contain both primary and secondary sources 1efinition of a newspaper: E3t should be an accurate account of what happened in the world, yesterday= This brings the conclusion that newspapers are mainly secondary 4eminiscences: 5hen people reminisce, they are primary to the event, but what they say is secondary to the event 4eminiscences are unreliable for three reasons: exaggeration, lies and omission &they forget) +utobiographical *ources: +utobiographical *ources are seldom secondary: They are usually primary sources *ources in the $,th 2entury: There is a multitude of new sources, mainly audio0visual archive material There are many computer data formats There is also more literacy leading to more records There is such a flood of evidence, it is difficult to sift through it all ?raud is easier this century *ources can often contradict, and the state confidentiality on its documents makes research difficult +s we have not finished living the events, it is difficult to write about the results 0artoon "ymbolism Countries -ritain: 3s usually represented by a @ohn -ull figure &fat, prosperous, frock coat, gaiters, crumpled hat, Anion @ack waistcoat) or by a :ion A*+: *he is usually shown as Ancle *am &tall and thin, tall hat, wispy beard, striped trousers, stars on waistcoat) or by an eagle ?rance: The typical symbol is either a cockerel or a girl revolutionary whose most characteristic garment is a pixie0style hat with a three0coloured cockade &roseta) .ermany: 3ts usual figure up to the ?irst 5orld 5ar is the Faiser with a big moustache in his military greatcoat and spiked, Epickel0haub= helmet +fterwards, of course, the typical <itler figure and the swastika dominate 4ussia: This country will be shown as a 2ossack or other fur0hatted figure, sometimes drawn to resemble the Tsar &pre0#/#G), as a menacing figure, worker or soldier, featuring the <ammer and *ickle since the 4evolution, or as a bear at any time 3taly: *he is often shown as a young sailor in the past, though the ;ussolini image dominates the inter0war years @apan: The symbol for this country is the rising sun, but during her militaristic era she was also depicted as a ferocious, sword0wielding samurai warrior 2hina: This nation is shown as a pigtailed 2hinese man with a long and flowing moustache, but is now characterized by the 2hairman ;ao figure in the typical gray unisex pants and 9ackets Other sy!o"s *ome other symbols which might appear are the fasces, a bundle of twigs bound together with an axe, representing ?ascist 3taly, or a single star on military equipment, which would be red in fact &though hardly so on an exam paper) This indicates the *oviet or Ered= army 0olours 2olours are often used or referred to in cartoons The re#, $!er $!er, %reen sequence of traffic lights may represent danger, warning and safety Re# also stands for 2ommunism, especially 4ussian B"$&' and (hite ®rettably for the anti0racist lobbyH) tend to stand for 1arknessIBvil and :ightI.ood respectively B"$&' also represents ?ascism &;ussolini=s -lackshirts and <itler=s **) and is supported by !ro(n &<itler=s *+) Ye""o( Ye""o( means @apan or 2hina Animals +nimals other than those specific to countries &see above) which may be used are the sn$'e &evil or danger), the r$!!it &innocence or vulnerability) the #on'ey &stupidity), the r$)en &danger or death), the #o)e, with or without an olive branch &peace), the horse &dogged determination, persistence or hard work), the *i%+ &brutality), the shee* &docility or inability to think for oneself) and the &o( &docility or stupidity) >lowers ?lowers represent friendship or good will, with the laurel &wreath) meaning victory 2hanges in the ;ap of Burope &#/#%0#/$8) (Refer to the maps showing Europe in 1914 and 1919 in your textbooks.) The peace treaties that ended the ?irst 5orld 5ar &#/#%0#/#C) altered the political map of Burope A""ies Centr$" ,o(ers -./
.reat -ritain .ermany
?rance +ustria0<ungary
4ussia &J) -ulgaria
-elgium Turkey
3taly &changed sides ;ay #/#') A*+ &9oined #/#G)
&K) The central powers were punished, they had to lose land and they had to pay reparations &payment for war damages) &J) 4ussia was also punished in #/#/ because the +llies felt betrayed when 4ussia left the 5ar early &8I8I#/#C, Treaty of -rest0:itovsk) Ger$n 0osses ?rance regained +lsace0:orraine "osen05est "russia went to "oland, forming a corridor to the coast >orthern *chleswig was given to 1enmark Troppau was given to 2zechoslovakia +ustria and .ermany were >LT allowed to unite Austro-Hun%$ri$n 0osses Bu"%$ri$n 0osses -ulgaria loses 5estern Thrace to .reece Tur'ish 0osses Two treaties were signed with Turkey, in the first she lost land to .reece, and in the second it was returned Russi$n 0osses 4ussia lost land to recreate "oland, and four countries became independent Three were the -altic *tates, and the other was ?inland +ustria and <ungary became two small, landlocked republics, <absburg land was used to create two new states: 2zechoslovakia in the north, and !ugoslavia in the south !ugoslavia was formed from +ustria and *erbia Lther countries gained land 4omania got Transylvania, and roughly doubled in size "oland gained .alicia, 3taly gained the *outhern Tyrol Tre$ties $t the En# o1 the 2irst 3or"# 3$r Treaty of 6ersailles with .ermany 0 $Cth @une #/#/ Treaty of *t .ermain with +ustria 0 #,th *eptember #/#/ Treaty of Trianon with <ungary 0 #/$, Treaty of >euilly with -ulgaria 0 $Gth >ovember #/#/ Treaty of *evres with Turkey 0 #/$, Treaty of :ausanne with Turkey 0 #/$8 The first five were named after palaces, and were also diktats. The last was the only negotiated treaty &+ MdiktatN is an imposed, unilateral document) The Treaty of Versailles : +7th ?une ()() Intro#u&tion -y #/#C .ermany was suffering defeat in most areas of the war The .erman nation was hungry, war weary and demanded peace The .erman government eventually asked for an armistice, and on ##I##I#/#C, cease0fire began The problem of peace remained ;any people hoped that a peace settlement would prevent war from happening again A* "resident 5ilson thought that he had the answer to all Burope=s problems <e stated his views in 42ourteen ,oints5 3i"son5s 2ourteen ,oints Ln @anuary Cth, #/#C, 5ilson outlined his peace proposals to the +merican 2ongress These became known as the 42ourteen ,oints5 $n# 42our *rin&i*"es5 Ln >ovember 'th, #/#C, 5ilson sent a note to the .ermans The .ermans agreed to an armistice and expected a peace settlement to be based upon the ?ourteen points Lf the fourteen points these were the most important: There were to be no secret treaties between powers like the treaties that had helped to cause the ?irst 5orld 5ar &Lpen 1iplomacy) *eas should be free in peace and in war to ships of all nations &?reedom of >avigation) The barriers to trade between countries such as custom duties should be removed &?ree trade) +ll countries should reduce their armed forces to the lowest possible levels &;ultilateral disarmament) The national groups in Burope should, wherever possible, be given their independence 5ilson supported the idea of >ational *elf01etermination &>*1), whereby a nation had the right to self0 government 4ussia should be allowed to operate whatever government it wanted Territorial changes: .ermany should give up +lsace0:orraine and any lands taken away during the war The 3talian frontier should be read9usted -elgium should be evacuated "oland should be given access to the sea The defeated nations should not be made to pay for the war as a whole + E:eague of >ations= should be formed to protect world peace in the future ;ost of the points are very general: not all of them stated specific changes -ritain and ?rance considered the points as being too impractical, they thought that 5ilson was hoping for far too much They had used much of their wealth on the war, and ?rance had suffered two .erman invasions &#CG, & #/#%) ?rance wanted to ensure that a third attack would never take place, and wanted .ermany to be reduced to a minor Buropean *tate &The ideal situation would be of course >L .B4;+>!HH) The ,$ris ,e$&e Con1eren&e The terms for peace were discussed in "aris from #Cth @anuary #/#/ until @une The conference was attended by thirty0two states, but the ma9or powers dominated the conference: @apan, 3taly &Lrlando), ?rance &.eorges 2lemenceau, the Lld Tiger), -ritain &:loyd .eorge) and the A*+ &5ilson) 4The Bi% Three5 ( 5ilson, 2lemenceau and :loyd .eorge made all the ma9or decisions .ermany and the defeated states were not invited to attend the conference "eace was difficult to make because of the widescale disruption to Burope during the war and the general unrest that existed while the peace conference sat 5hen the 6ersailles Treaty was signed, few of 5ilson=s fourteen points were adhered to, though a 40e$%ue o1 N$tions5 was set up Ger$n 0$n# 0osses (Refer to the map in your textbook showing German land losses.) 2lemenceau wanted to make sure that ?rance was secure from .erman attack and so demanded that her northeastern boundary was safe .ermany therefore lost +lsace0:orraine The 4hineland was demilitarised so that ?rench borders were secure Three frontier areas were given to -elgium >orthern *chleswig went to 1enmark Troppau was transferred to 2zechoslovakia "oland gained 5est "russia and "osen This made up a Ecorridor=, giving "oland access to the -altic *ea "oland also gained half of *ilesia Bast "russia was separated from .ermany The :eague of >ations took control of certain areas: 3ndustrial area of the *aar &.ermany regained it in #/8') "ort of ;emel taken from .ermany &annexed by :ithuania, #/$8) 1anzig made a free city under the control of the :eague of >ations +ll .ermany=s gains at the Treaty of -rest0:itovsk &8rd ;arch #/#C) were surrendered .ermany had made considerable gains when 4ussia made peace .ermany lost all of her overseas colonies covering a total of approx $,,,,,,,, square kilometres -ritain gained Tanganyika in Bast +frica, part of Togoland and the 2ameroons The remaining +frican colonies were shared between -elgium and *outh +frica 3n the "acific, .erman possessions were shared between -ritain, +ustralia, >ew Oealand and @apan The union &Anschluss) of +ustria and .ermany was forbidden +s a result of these losses, .ermany=s total territorial losses amounted to $C,,,, square miles, and six million people Mi"it$ry 0osses The .erman army was reduced to #,,,,,, men, and conscription &obligatory military service) was illegal >o tanks, aircraft or heavy artillery were to be manufactured for the .erman armed forces ( no weaponsImilitary equipment .erman navy reduced to: six battleships, six light cruisers, twelve destroyers, and twelve torpedo boats E&onoi& 0osses The .erman steel industry depended on coal from the *aar, and iron ore from +lsace0:orraine .ermany lost both of these areas .ermany also lost coalmines in Apper *ilesia, to "oland Re*$r$tions &compensation payment for war damages) This was a very difficult and delicate problem to solve + 4eparations 2ommission was established to decide how many goods and how much money .ermany should pay The figure PD,D,, million was eventually agreed upon *ome people thought this figure was too high @; Feynes &a -ritish economist) said that .ermany would only become poorer and bitter <e was right 3$r Gui"t C"$use This refers to +rticle $8# of the Treaty of 6ersailles, which placed the blame for all losses received by the +llies in the ?irst 5orld 5ar, on .ermany The treaty also specifically asked that Faiser be brought on trial Faiser 5ilhelm 33 fled to <olland in #/#C, and the 1utch refused to release him The Si%nin% o1 the Tre$ty o1 Vers$i""es The terms of the treaty were presented to the .ermans and they complained of its severity The .ermans were given three weeks to prepare their formal complaint The .ermans complained about nearly every clause The allies ignored all but a few complaints 5ith no other option, the .ermans signed the treaty E"eace= was signed in the <all of ;irrors, at 6ersailles The .ermans felt cheated by this treaty, because virtually none of 5ilson=s E?ourteen "oints= had been included in the treaty The .ermans called the treaty a Ediktat= because it was dictated to them, without real consultation The 5eimar government, especially Bbert who had signed the treaty, was looked upon as traitorous Re$&tion o1 Brit$in+ 2r$n&e $n# the 6SA ;ost people in -ritain had wanted revenge and so had gained some satisfaction :loyd .eorge was satisfied that -ritain had gained most of .ermany=s colonies, so that after #/#/, -ritain could recover its wealth and power ?rance, however, was not satisfied that .ermany had been weakened enough + high0ranking ?rench officer said in #/#/: !his is not a pea"e. #t is an armisti"e for twenty$one years% -y this he meant .ermany had not been weakened enough and would rise again in twenty0one years <e predicted .ermany=s rise correctly -ritain and +merica promised help to ?rance should .ermany threaten her in the future ;ost remarkable of all, the A*+ refused to ratify the treaty 5ilson was a 1emocrat The republican part in +merica opposed 5ilson=s involvement in Burope, and in the autumn of #/#C, the 4epublicans had a ma9ority in 2ongress 2ongress refused to sign the Treaty of 6ersailles because:0 4epublicans were against 1emocrats 4epublicans wanted Eisolation= ?rance still felt insecure, because -ritain would not support ?rance without +merican aid Re$sons (hy Ger$ny Thou%ht the Tre$ty o1 Vers$i""es ($s 6N2AIR 6N2AIR7 .ermany thought the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/) was unfair because it was a Ediktat= The E-ig Three= had not negotiated with .ermany at "aris from @anuary ( @une #/#/ .ermany was given only three weeks to comment on the vast amounts of peace clauses <er ob9ections were largely ignored .ermany resented the attitude of revenge which was summed up by the -ritish press as: @Aa=e Germany Bay@ and @"quee<e the German /emon until the Bips "quea=C@ .ermany thought the Treaty was unfair because it was not based fully on 5ilson=s E?ourteen "oints= Ln the 'th >ovember, #/#C, .ermany had accepted the ?ourteen "oints as the basis for peace and an armistice began at ## o=clock on the ##th >ovember #/#C -y the $Cth @une #/#/, when the Treaty of 6ersailles was signed, the ?ourteen "oints had been largely forgotten Ho( the 2ourteen ,oints (ere I%nore#
2ourteen ,oints Tre$ty o1 Vers$i""es O*en 8i*"o$&y )s The E-ig Three= made all the decisions at 6ersailles, so the treaty was a Ediktat=
2ree#o o1 the Se$s )s .ermany could not en9oy freedom of navigation because her navy was so reduced
Mu"ti"$ter$" #is$r$ent )s Lnly .ermany disarmed at 6ersailles 3t was enforced unilateral disarmament +lso, to humiliate .ermany further, she had to build ships for the +llies &+llies rearmed)
N$tion$"-Se"1 8eterin$tion )s >*1 was applied unfairly at 6ersailles, eg "oland NS8 "oland was given "osen05est "russia, and therefore, the .ermans on this land were now under foreign rule +lso the +nschluss of .ermany and +ustria was not allowed, and so the .ermany speakers in these lands were denied >*1
,e$&e Tre$ties (ith Ger$ny5s A""ies -9:9:-2;/ (Refer to the map showing the land losses of Germany%s &llies.) Intro#u&tion +fter peace had been made with .ermany at 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/), EThe -ig Three= turned their attention to .ermany=s allies Their intention was to have one treaty with the <absburg Bmpire, but two separate treaties were signed with +ustria and <ungary There had been a 2ommunist uprising in -udapest and this delayed signing the treaty with <ungary -oth of these treaties were diktats, as were those signed with -ulgaria and Turkey <owever, a second negotiated treaty was signed with Turkey in #/$8 The Tre$ty o1 St7 Ger$in -90th Se*te!er+ 9:9: < 3ith Austri$/ The principle of >*1 was used in the treaty with +ustria: 3taly gained the Tyrol and Trentino in the >orth, and 3stria and Trieste in the >ortheast 2zechoslovakia gained the *udetenland &.erman speaking), the 2zech provinces and *lovakia *erbia was given various states in the -alkans: -osnia, <erzegovina, 2roatia and 1almatia, to form the Fingdom of !ugoslavia &!ugoslavia Q The *outhern *lavs) "oland gained .alicia >o +nschluss with .ermany +ustria was disarmed to 8,,,,, men plus three 1anubian &river) police boats +ustria was supposed to pay reparations, but as she was bankrupt in #/$,, none were paid The Tre$ty o1 Tri$non -=th June+ 9:20 < 3ith Hun%$ry/ Coents on the Tre$ties o1 St7 Ger$in $n# Tri$non +ustria complained because she was disarmed and unable to defend herself against the hostile neighbours that encircled her -oth states were land0locked and surrounded by weak or hostile neighbours ;any of these neighbouring countries were hostile because they wanted to keep their new0 found independence, and they resented the former control of the <absburgs <ungary lost some border districts to 2zechoslovakia and !ugoslavia Transylvania was given to 4umania, which doubled 4omania=s size Tre$ty o1 Neui""y -2>th No)e!er+ 9:9: < (ith Bu"%$ri$/ -ulgaria lost territory to .reece, which meant that she lost the coastline that lead more directly into the ;editerranean Sett"eents (ith Tur'ey Tre$ty o1 Se)res -Au%ust+ 9:20 < $ #i't$t/ The Turks agreed to lose their ;iddle0Bastern empire *audi +rabia became independent; -ritain gained "alestine, Trans0@ordan and 3raq as mandates &;andate Q a lease -ritain and ?rance only looked after these lands for 8, years) ?rance was given :ebanon and *yria as mandates 3n Burope Turkey lost other lands .reece gained Bastern Thrace and *myrna on the Turkish mainland 3taly gained 4hodes The 1ordanelle *trait was demilitarised &:eague of >ations) Tre$ty o1 0$us$nne -9:2; < Ne%oti$te#/ Turkey regained all the land she had lost to .reece The *traits remained demilitarised and 3taly kept 4hodes Turkey was now a republic with its new capital at +nkara 2onstantinople was renamed 3stanbul Inter*&ar 8iplomacy Intro#u&tion &3;"L4T+>T -+2F.4LA>1 3>?L4;+T3L>H) The ma9or powers had different aims in #/#/ for the post0war world A*+: The republicans defeated 5oodrow 5ilson in the #/$, presidential election, and they wanted isolation from Buropean affairs ?rance: ?rance still wanted security from the possibility of a third .erman attack To do this she had two policies:
Bncirclement ?rance rearmed herself and strengthen her 4hineland border with .ermany, by building the ;aginot :ine &#/$/08%) -ritain: *he wanted to recover her wealth and power via trade -oth treaties were diktats >*1 was applied and denied 0 8 million +ustrians lived in the *udetenland under foreign rule, 8 million ;agyars lived under 4omanian rule in Transylvania >o +nschluss for .ermany and +ustria 2zechs and *lovaks resented being in one country +ustria was disarmed +ustria lost its monarchy &loss of "restige and >ational identity) -oth +ustria and <ungary lost out economically; they were both landlocked and this damaged trade +lthough +ustria and <ungary en9oyed free trade before the war, they did not afterwards <ungary lost valuable agricultural land in Transylvania -oth countries suffered from a drop in population &5orkforce) +ustria=s population dropped from $$ million to D' million and <ungary=s population dropped from $# million to G' million ( *he tried to surround .ermany with countries who were friendlier to ?rance, !ugoslavia, 2zechoslovakia, 4omania and "oland &The :ittle Bntente) .ermany: The 5eimar government wanted recovery in every sense: military, economic, political and diplomatic 3n order for .ermany to achieve any of these, she would have to break the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/) -Note? Brit$in $n# Ger$ny h$# one thin% in &oon < the nee# to re&o)er )i$ tr$#e7/
I*ro)eent $n# 8e&"ine in Intern$tion$" Re"$tions -9:20-;:/ 9:20s There was an improvement in international relations in the #/$,s, mainly due to the work of three foreign ministers: +usten 2hamberlain &-ritain), -riand &?rance) and *tresemann &.ermany) 9:;0s 4elations between the powers deteriorated in the #/8,s, especially after #/$/, after the 5all *treet 2rash &$/th Lctober) when the ma9or powers= economies declined, leading to the .reat 1epression +s a result of the depression, extremist groups &2ommunists and ?ascists) became popular &flourished) The aggressive policies of the ?ascists &.ermany, 3taly and @apan) resulted in the *econd 5orld 5ar Inter-3$r 8i*"o$&y? I*ro)e# Re"$tions 9:29-2: + 5ashington >aval Treaties &#/$#0$) 3n spite of her a policy of isolation, the A*+ hosted these talks about naval disarmament, and the balance of power in the "acific This was the ideal assignment for the :eague of >ations ( why did this organization not do it7 +greements 4eached -ritain, A*+, @apan, ?rance and 3taly agreed to respect each other=s "acific possessions & guarantee 2hina=s independence @apan would restore certain territory to 2hina and withdraw from *iberia, in 4ussia There would be a ten0year stoppage in the building of capital ships &more than #,,,,, tons with guns larger than CR) + ratio of A*+?' -r?' @?8 ?r?#G' 3t?#G' was to be maintained in the building of capital ships Bffects :essened possibility of naval war in the ?ar Bast where @apan & A**4 had ideas about expanding into 2hina The alliance of 55 3 victors was reaffirmed, despite A*+=s isolation policy Though better international relations resulted, the A**4 was not invited to the talks, despite her extensive ?ar Bastern interests &A**4 was not recognized because of 2ommunist government) Treaty of 4apallo &+pril #/$$) ( *igned $ months after the 5ashington Treaty, by .ermany and *oviet 4ussia They said they would not attack each other and trade links were opened -oth powers were no longed isolated They also secretly agreed to arms deals ?rance was upset because .ermany could now MbreakN the rules of the 6ersailles Treaty These meetingsIconferences highlighted the ineffectiveness of the :eague of >ations The fact that countries were able to do as they pleased to, severely weakened the authority of this peace0keeping organization
- The :ocarno "acts, #/$' -ritain, ?rance & .ermany agreed to meet in *witzerland, at :ocarno, in #/$' +greements .ermany accepted her frontiers with ?rance and -elgium, & agreed not to change them .ermany agreed not to alter &change) her borders with "oland or 2zechoslovakia (ithout #is&ussion &7H) with ?rance and her :ittle Bntente partners Bffects ?ranco0.erman relations improved because ?rance felt more secure and .ermany realized there was some hope of regaining lands on her eastern borders .ermany 9oined the :eague of >ations as a permanent member of the 2ouncil in #/$D 2 Fellogg0-riand "act &"act of "aris) #/$C 3n #/$D .ermany signed a Treaty of >eutrality with the A**4 &4enewed 4apallo of #/$$) This worried the ?rench 3n +pril #/$G -riand appealed to the A* *ecretary of *tate, ?- Fellogg for assistance + nine0power conference met in "aris in +ugust #/$C and eventually D' nations signed a pact that outlawed war unless a nation acted in self0defence Bffects A* involvement reassured ?rance and +merica=s other Buropean allies A**4 signed the "act and gained some recognition for 2ommunist 4ussia by other powers .ermany signed the "act and this calmed ?rench suspicions of .ermany=s aggression This "act was later viewed as being of good intent, but having no practical means of preventing war 1 2hanges to 4eparations The -ritish economist, Feynes, had warned that the amount established at 6ersailles, was too much to expect from .ermany in reparations Two plans, in #/$% and #/$/, gave .ermany assistance from the A* 8$(es ,"$n 9:2=? .ermany fell behind in reparation payments to ?rance, so in @anuary #/$8, ?rance occupied the 4uhr valley &on the ?ranco0.ermany 4hineland border) ?rance=s intention was to take reparations in the form of coal ?rance only withdrew her troops after the 1awes "lan was drawn up .ermany still had the same amount to pay in reparations, but received a loan from the A*+ and payments were scaled down so that it could be paid easier Bffects The 4uhr was evacuated in @uly #/$' .ermany was treated as an equal for the first time, and this paved the way for :ocarno &#/$') and .ermany=s entry to the :eague &#/$D) .ermany=s economy improved under *tresemann &died #/$/) Youn% ,"$n 9:2: *tresemann appealed to the A*+ for further assistance in paying reparations &to update the 1awes "lan) The !oung committee reduced .ermany=s liability &responsibility) to approximately a #I8 of the original sum, to be paid over '/ years &ie until #/CC) 3t was to start in ;ay #/8, Bffects *tresemann=s status as an international statesman grew, as did his popularity at home The realistic sum to be paid by .ermany promised good future relations between .ermany, ?rance and -ritain NB The !oung "lan collapsed because in Lctober #/$/, the 5all *treet 2rash occurred in +merica, and this financial crisis spread to .ermany, and then other Buropean powers .ermany could not afford to pay reparations #/8#0$, and <itler refused to pay anything after #/88 2onclusion 3mprovements in international relations in #/$,s, +01 above, were the result of Epower diplomacy= and NOT the work of the :eague of >ations whose main aim was to keep peace 8eterior$tion in Re"$tions -9:2:-;:/ 3n the #/8,s relations between the powers deteriorated #/$/ *tresemann died and -riand and 2hamberlain were out of office Lctober #/$/, 5all *treet 2rash, led to a depression in Burope and extremist political groups &?ascist, >azis) grew in popularity ;ussolini in 3taly and <itler in .ermany offered economic growth to their Edepressed= peoples and their aggressive foreign policies led to the *econd 5orld 5ar &#/8/0%') 3n the #/8,s neither power diplomacy, nor the :eague of >ations, could prevent war The 0e$%ue o1 N$tions Ori%ins The idea of international co0operation was not a new one in #/#/ There had been earlier attempts, for example: the 3nternational 4ed 2ross, .eneva &#CD%), the 3nternational Telegraph Anion &#CD'), the 3nternational ;eteorological Lrganisation &#CGC) and the 3nternational 2ourt, The <ague &#C//) The last of 5ilson=s fourteen points said that a :eague of >ations should be set up, to keep peace after #/#/ To ensure that it was established, 5ilson insisted that the :eague of >ations should be written into the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/) Ais To keep peace To improve living conditions of men and women world0wide Or%$nis$tion The :eague first met in @anuary #/$, and each state had to take an oath &covenant) to say they would abide by the :eague=s rules for international law and order +ssembly : Bach year, each state would send up to three delegates to the .eneva assembly to discuss world problems Bach country had one vote, and a unanimous vote was needed to decide action +s unanimity was never reached, resolutions were passed onto the council 2ouncil : The great powers &-ritain, ?rance, 3taly and @apan) of #/$, sat permanently on the council, with smaller nations who observed They met three or four times a year, and at times of crisis -y a unanimous vote they could levy &implement) the following sanctions against a nation who broke peace ( this was known as Co""e&ti)e Se&urity The four basic steps of this policy were: 3or"# ,u!"i& O*inion or ;oral sanction ( + polite warning, based on world public opinion condemning the aggressive behaviour Bconomic or Tr$#e s$n&tions ( The :eague stopped trading with the offender 8is$r$ent 0 "romoting arms reduction and eventual disarmament ;ilitary sanction or The 6se o1 Mi"it$ry 2or&e( +s a last resort the :eague would impose its will by force >o sanction could be used if a nation used its veto The idea was that collective action would produce collective security, and thereby peace &Anited we stand, divided we fall) The :eague=s responses were long0winded The 2ourt of @ustice : *et up in #C//, at The <ague, in <olland, this department dealt with legal disputes between nations 3nternational :abour Lrganisation &3:L): 3ts first chairman was +lbert Thomas, and he collected evidence world0wide, about working conditions <e wrote a code of good practice, which included: *afety regulations, *ick pay, "ensions, ;aternity leave, Trade Anion rights, 4estrictions of child labour 2ommissions : *pecial departments dealt with specific world problems *ecretariat : The first *ecretary .eneral was *ir Bric 1rummond, and he led the :eague=s administration department &2ivil *ervice) *ome nations 9oined the :eague late, eg .ermany in #/$D, A**4 in #/8% #C nations left the :eague, eg .ermany in #/88 because other nations would not disarm to her level, @apan in #/88 after invading ;anchuria, 3taly in #/8G after invading +byssinia, A**4 in #/8/ dismissed after the >azi0*oviet "act >ote: AMERICA NEVER JOINE8 THE 0EAG6E O2 NATIONS &This was because the A* 2ongress, then under 4epublican control, refused to accept 5ilson=s, who was a 1emocrat, plea to 9oin the :eague <owever, they did 9oin the 3:L) 0e$%ue o1 N$tions $t 3or' -9:20-9:;:/ *uccess in achieving its second aim 0 3mproving living conditions world0wide The 3:L was so successful that the A*+ 9oined it 3n #/%' it transferred to the A>L The <ealth 2ommission stopped disease epidemics &eg measles) ( today the 5orld <ealth Lrganization &5<L) The :eprosy 2ommission helped eliminate leprosy The Transit and 2ommunication 2ommission standardized passports and visas, and radio codes were also made common The ;andates 2ommission helped colonies to reach independence The 4efugee 2ommission helped resettle homeless and stateless people The :eague=s failure in its first aim ( To keep peace The powers improved international relations in the #/$,s, rather than the :eague &'ee notes on interwar diploma"y) The :eague did settle a few minor disputes in the #/$,s, however in the 2orfu incident &#/$8) it had to refer the problem to the powers to solve ?inland against *weden &#/$,0$#) ?inland and *weden were in dispute over the +aland 3slands in the -altic *ea The :eague settled in favour of ?inland .ermany against "oland &#/$#0$$) .ermany and "oland disputed control of Apper *ilesia The :eague settled in favour of "oland: an unpopular decision &with the .erman speaking people of Apper *ilesia, who said, quite rightly, that they had been denied >*1) 3taly against .reece &#/$8) +ka the 2orfu 3ncident, 3taly held .reece responsible for the death of some 3talian Lfficers on the frontier of +lbania and .reece .reece refused to compensate 3taly for the loss, and so 3taly bombarded the .reek island of 2orfu The :eague was approached about the conflict and referred the dispute to a 2ongress of +mbassadors who persuaded .reece to make a financial settlement, after which 3taly evacuated 2orfu &>- The powers were keeping peace, again) The :eague ?ailed to bring about ;ultilateral 1isarmament The :eague proposed two main documents, trying to encourage disarmament These were The 1raft Treaty of ;utual +ssistance &#/$8) and The .eneva "rotocol &#/$%) -oth of these asked member nations to respect a certain level of disarmament, but were re9ected #/$80% ( .eneva 1isarmament Talks &including A*+ and A**4) This failed because ?rance still felt insecure, and would not disarm 3n Lctober #/88 <itler withdrew from the talks stating that if other powers did not reduce the level of their arms to .ermany=s level, he would rearm .ermany to their level NOTE? The on"y su&&ess1u" ste* to($r#s #is$r$ent too' *"$&e $t 3$shin%ton -9:29-2+ N$)$" Si@es in ,$&i1i&7/ This ($s hoste# !y the 6SA+ not the 0e$%ue o1 N$tions7 The :eague failed to control ma9or crises in the #/8,s The Aanchurian 0risis #Cth *eptember #/8#, @apanese troops invaded ;anchuria and attacked the industrial city of ;ukden 2hiang Fai *hek &2hinese nationalist :eader) appealed to the :eague and to the A*+ for help +merica protested and the :eague made a E;oral sanction= and sent a :ytton 2ommission to ;anchuria led by *ir :ytton whose report condemned @apanese aggression Anperturbed &undisturbed) @apan renamed ;anchuria, E;anchukuo= in ;arch #/8$, and continued to occupy it 3n #/88 @apan left the :eague of >ations This was a significant step in further breaking down the :eagueSs authority, because this peace0keeping organization did not have any say in matters of non0member nations The big powers were more concerned with domestic issues &>ational interests came before the :eague=s affairs) @apanese aggression was not halted, the :eague=s Ecollective action= had amounted to nothing NB7 On"y Ger$ny $n# It$"y re&o%ni@e# J$*$n5s &ontro" in 4M$n&hu'uo57 The Abyssinian 0risis ()3;*D % This involved the aggression of 3taly, led by ;ussolini, in +byssinia &now Bthiopia) ;ussolini wanted to create a ?ascist 4oman Bmpire and saw the <orn of +frica as an ideal area for expansion 3taly already controlled :ibya, Britrea and 3talian *omaliland, so +byssinia would help link its possessions 3taly had unsuccessfully tried to conquer the area in #C/D 3n Lctober #/8' ;ussolini was successful against the meagre &weak) troops of Bmperor <aile0*alassie +byssinia appealed to the :eague and within two weeks ;ussolini=s actions were condemned and economic sanctions were imposed These sanctions were not very good because 3taly still managed to obtain steel, copper and oil The :eague did ban arms sales to 3taly, but made +byssinia weak by not letting it have any arms eitherH ;ussolini did not take the :eague=s sanctions seriously and he threatened war if his oil supplies were stopped -ritain argued in favour of an oil embargo but the issue was complicated by secret diplomacy <oare0:aval "act &1ecember #/8') : *amuel <oare &-ritain) and :aval &?rance) made an agreement that if ;ussolini stopped fighting, he could have most of +byssinia The world press published the pact, <oare resigned and the agreement failed ;eanwhile ;ussolini conquered +byssinia in ;ay #/8D ;ussolini had said E3f the :eague had extended economic sanctions of oil 3 would have had to withdraw from +byssinia in a weekR The :eague had bungled its negotiations and had, once again failed miserably to maintain peace >LTB: The +byssinian affair destroyed the E*tresa ?ront= -ritain and ?rance had been meeting with ;ussolini at *tresa in an attempt to unite against <itler=s .ermany The actions of <oare and :aval caused 3taly to side with .ermany from #/8D onwards The 0e$%ue o1 N$tions 1$i"e# !e&$use it ($s (e$' 1ro the st$rtA :ook at the following: I#e$" 0e$%ue 0e$%ue in ,r$&ti&e ($s 3e$' # +ll nations should be members B6TA >ot all nations were members &eg A*+)
$ +ll nations should be equal partners B6TA >ot equal partners because ma9or powers in the :eague made decisions in the 2ouncil
8 The :eague should be able to make B6TA :eague structure was weak, unanimity decisions quickly and easily caused delays
% >ational interests should be second to B6TA >ations were more interested in their L5> the league=s interests affairs, especially after #/$/ with the economic crisis
' ;embers should obey the :eague=s B6TA ;oral, Bconomic & ;ilitary sanctions were sanctions ignored eg @apan #/8# D Lffenders could trade with none :eague members &eg +byssinia 2risis ( #/8'ID) G 3t was silly to use violence to stop violence
Germany ?eatures of ?ascism # Lne leader ( a dictator 0e$#er 3l 1uce ?Threr 2audillo N$e ;ussolini <itler ?ranco ,$rty ?ascisti >azi ?alange Country 3taly .ermany *pain
$ + fascist state is TOTA0ITARIAN &one party state), so there would be no choice between parties in an election 8 + dictator maintained his power by violence and fear "rivate armies were used &eg ;ussolini=s -lackshirts, <itler=s -rownshirts Q *turmabteilung or *tormtroopers) to protect the leader and attack enemies &eg 2ommunists) % + dictator maintained his power by strict control of the media 2B>*L4*<3" denied people information, and "4L"+.+>1+ forced fascist ideas onto people ' >ationalism was encouraged with the use of symbols, eg 3taly with the clenched fist and the sheath of corn, and .ermany with the swastika, goosestep and straight0armed salute D <itler united the ma9ority of .ermans by attacking minority groups <e said +4!+> people &Teutonic, blue eyed, blond haired) were a <B44B>6L:F or master race <e said inferior races &@ews, *lavs, .ypsies, !ellowI-lack skinned people) should be exterminated Aneconomic peoples &eg the aged or the disabled) or non0conforming +ryans &homosexuals, socialists, @ehovah=s witnesses etc) were to be exterminated
,o"iti&$" Grou*s 3n theory, the communists are opposite to the fascists, because 2ommunism preaches equality, whereas ?ascism believes in the superiority of one man over another 3n practice both 2ommunism and ?ascism are Totalitarian 3ei$r Go)ernent -ackground >otes # :eft wing Q 2ommunists $ 4ight wing Q ?ascistsI>azis &ie the extremist groups) 8 2onstitution Q 4ules by which a country is governed % 5B3;+4 .L6B4>;B>T Q .ermany=s first democratic republican government &#/#/08%), based at 5eimar, a *pa town in the centre of .ermany ' .erman .overnments a "re #/#% .erman government Q autocracy of Faiser b #/#/08% .erman government Q 5eimar democratic government <ead of *tate Q "resident &elected) <ead of .overnment Q 2hancellor &elected) #/8%0%' .erman government Q <itler=s dictatorship D "arliament in two houses: a 4eichsrat Q Apper <ouse b 4eichstag Q :ower <ouse G 6oting *tructure 5eimar government was elected by universal suffrage &all adults voted) ;"s were elected by proportional representation &"4) ;ethod Q $ votes taken before an ;" is chosen This system caused too many small parties to be elected +s a result, no single party held a ma9ority to form a government To solve this, a coalition government was formed, but passing laws took longer because of disagreements &*trong government Q Lne that passes laws quickly) Ger$ny? The 3ei$r Go)ernent -9:9:-;=/ 3ntroduction +fter the ##th >ovember #/#C, .ermany had three problems to solve: peacemaking, rebuilding .ermany=s economy, and the creation of an adequate form of government Bventually, the 5eimar constitution was written, which made .ermany a democratic republic This government failed by #/8%, when +dolf <itler became dictator of .ermany Re$sons 1or the 1$i"ure o1 the 3ei$r %o)ernent 5eaknesses of the 5eimar 2onstitution <atred of the Treaty of 6ersailles signed by the 5eimar government 2hallenges from :eft and 4ight wing groups ?ailure to solve economic problems <itler came to power The 5eimar .overnment :eft wing groups rose against Faiser 5ilhelm 33=s government at Fiel, and in -avaria *ocialists in the 4eichstag demanded the abdication of the Faiser Ln the /th >ovember #/#C, the Faiser abdicated and ?riedrich Bbert became president ?rom ?ebruary #/#/, a >ational assembly met at 5eimar to write a constitution The 4eichstag was elected, and passed laws The 4eichsrat could only delay legislation The president could choose the chancellor, dissolve the 4eichstag and rule by decree in times of emergency The chancellor in the 4eichstag chose the cabinet, and commanded a ma9ority of the votes "rovision was made for a referendum on matters of acute controversy within the country, a *upreme 2ourt was set up, and basic rights, such as freedom of speech, religion and movement were guaranteed 5eaknesses : 3t was a weakness to give the 4eichsrat delaying powers because laws could not be passed quickly ( weak government 3t was a weakness to allow the president to rule by decree because democracy could change to a dictatorship The constitution was over0optimistic because it was difficult to change from autocracy to democracy overnight Anpopularity of the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une, #/#/) Lne of the first tasks of the 5eimar government was to sign the Treaty of 6ersailles The .erman ?oreign ;inister, 5alter 4anthenau &a @ew), who upheld the 6ersailles agreement, was seen as a traitor The treaty was very unpopular because it was a diktat, and because it was not based on the fourteen points &see previous notes) Lpposition to the 5eimar .overnment from :eft and 4ight 5ing .roups Bbert=s government soon faced the *particist rising Two communists, 4osa :uxemburg and Farl :iebknecht led this uprising -eginning in #/#C it reached its climax in @anuary #/#/, when it was suppressed, and the leaders killed 4ight wing groups also rose up against the 5eimar government The returning soldiers were bitter and thought they should have remained fighting The ?ree 2orps was a Eclub= of returning ex0soldiers 3n the Fapp "utsch &armed rising) people protested at the Treaty and at the governments acceptance ?ailure of the 5eimar .overnment to solve Bconomic "roblems 4eparations posed the greatest problems to .ermany after #/#/ The Treaty said .ermany must pay PD,D,, million .ermany paid reparations through foreign laws in the early twenties ?rance invaded the 4uhr valley and took coal when .ermany failed to pay in #/$8 This invasion horrified .ermans who saw the 5eimar government as weak 4esults of the ?rench occupation of the 4uhr Bxtremist groups &namely ?ascists and 2ommunists) grew in number in #/$8 The .erman mark dropped in value because in order to combat inflation, the 5eimar government printed extra bank notes, without increasing the gold held in its treasury -ank notes then dropped proportionally in value This led to <!"B43>?:+T3L> .erman marks in exchange for one dollar .ermany gained loans from the A*+ *tresemann arranged the economic recovery of .ermany #/$80$/ The 1awes plan and the !oung plan staggered .ermany=s reparations over a period of time, and included A*+ loans Buropean powers gradually accepted .ermany: witness the :ocarno "act &#/$') and the entry of .ermany to the :eague of >ations in #/$D Bconomic *lump ;any .ermans gained faith in the 5eimar .overnment while *tresemann was in power, but his death, and the E5all *treet 2rash= in Lctober #/$/, saw the growth of extremist groups The 5all *treet 2rash collapsed the .erman economy because the A*+ wanted her loans repaying The 5eimar government suffered because the coalition of moderate right and left wing groups ended The ruling by decree and the system of proportional representation caused political confusion in the 5eimar government +utocracy was being forced onto a democracy and many small parties were being formed :aw passing was slow Bnd of the 5eimar .overnment The "resident, "aul 6on <indenburg, appointed three chancellors between #/8, and #/8$ &-runing, 6on "apen and *chleicher), but because these men could not command a ma9ority in the 4eichstag <indenburg reluctantly appointed +dolf <itler to be chancellor, in @anuary #/88 <itler became dictator of .ermany in +ugust #/8% after the death of "resident 6on <indenburg The Rise o1 Hit"er Re$sons 1or his rise 5eimar .overnment was weak The .erman people did not trust democracy; they preferred the autocracy of the Faiser :aws could be delayed by the 4eichstag &:aws could not be passed quickly) "roportional representation produced weak 2oalition governments &:aws could not be passed quickly) 1emocracy could end if a president ruled by decree in an emergency Bconomic problems were not solved >azism was popular 0 <e promised strong, national government <e said he would correct the errorsIweaknesses of 5eimar rule, and end the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/), including: reparations, war guilt, disarmament <e promised full employment <e said he would get rid of lawlessness <e united all classes in society behind >azism: Apper 2lass &@unkers) ( ?eared communism and saw their futures reviving, if .ermany rearmed ;iddle 2lass ( 5anted the strengthening of the law 5orking 2lass ( 5anted employment 2hurches in .ermany ( .erman churches &2atholic and :utheran) feared communism and +theism &.odless society), and therefore were more sympathetic towards <itler <itler united the ma9ority of .ermans, by attacking the minorities <itler=s Barly :ife &up to c#/#C) &?L4 3>?L4;+T3L> "A4"L*B*) <itler was born of the $,th +pril #CC/, at -raunau am 3nn &am Q on the, 3nn is the name of an +ustrian river), in Apper +ustria <e was the son of a minor customs official Barlier, in #CGD, the family name had been changed from *chickelgruber to <itler, because *chickelgruber was @ewish <e was educated at :inz, but he was not very academic; he had a talent for art 3n Lctober #/,G, he moved to 6ienna, attempting to get into the art academy, but he failed the entrance exam &<e later blamed the @ews for this) <e frequented -ierkeller, with other unemployed, where his hatred of the @ews and the *lavs grew <e had part time 9obs ( eg postcard selling and as an unskilled mechanic 3n #/#$ he moved to ;unich in the province of -avaria 3n the ?irst 5orld 5ar he 9oined the -avarian army, where he was promoted to corporal, and he was awarded the 3ron 2ross first class &got it twice) for being gassed <e was convalescing at the time of the peace treaty, and claimed he would never have signed it &$Cth @une #/#/) Hit"er5s E$r"y ,o"iti&$" C$reer +t the end of the ?irst 5orld 5ar he returned to ;unich, where he 9oined the .erman 5orkers "arty, which became the >*1+" &>ational *ocialist .erman 5orkers "arty) or >azi party <e became its ?Threr &leader), and used the swastika as its emblem <e befriended Brnst 4ohm, the leader of the *+ &*turmabteilung or *tormtroopers) which defended <itler and attacked the 2ommunists <e spoke at meetings, often at -eer halls, where his active, and aggressive, policies appealed to all classes Muni&h ,uts&h -2;r# No)e!er+ 9:2;/ + putsch is an armed rising The ;unich putsch is compared to ;ussolini=s march on 4ome, but whereas ;ussolini was successful, <itler failed to gain power Ln the $8rd >ovember #/$8, <itler tried to take over the .overnment of -avaria The attempted coup d=Utat failed, because of mistiming <itler=s rebels left the beer hall and collided with the police on their way to the state building *hots were fired, #D >azis were killed, and <itler, and his aid 4udolf <ess, were arrested The attempted coup received widespread support, because the 5eimar .overnment was unpopular in #/$8 &hyperinflation and the ?rench occupation of the 4uhr valley, @anuary #/$80$') Bstablished figures supported <itler, eg .eneral :udendorf &gave support in camera) and 5ilhelm ?rick &the ;unich chief of police was actively involved <is men were supposed to be dealing with a false riot at the other end of the city, but the diversion failed, and they ran into the "utsch) 0$n#s!er% $n# I*risonent <e was tried and sentenced for Treason in +pril #/$%, and used his trial to advertise >azi ideas <e was supposed to serve five years but was imprisoned for only nine months, in the comfort of :andsberg 2astle This lenient sentence for so serious a crime shows that the 9udiciary was sympathetic to right0 wing groups 5hile he was in prison he wrote ;ein Fampf &;y *truggle) which was partly autobiographical, and partly about >azi ideas <ess acted as his amanuensis <is ideas included: The 5eimar .overnment was weak The Treaty of 6ersailles was unfair .ermany should increase its population ( Etake lands in the east by the power of the sword= &This would involve rearming, taking the "olish 2orridor by force, and a likelihood of war) <e said the +ryan &Teutonic people) race, which had blonde hair and blue eyes, was a <errenvolk &master race) <e said inferior races &@ews, *lavs, "oles, .ypsies &4omanies), Lrientals &Fincaid), and -lacks) should be exterminated <e was released after nine months, and he said that in future, he would come to power by democratic means, rather than using violence Strese$nn? Re&o)ery B Co""$*se 5hen <itler was released, he found .ermany in the capable hands of .ustav *tresemann, who was foreign secretary and chancellor, improved .ermany=s economy and international position, eg #/$%0$/ : <e improved the economy by arranging the 1awes &#/$%) and !oung &#/$/) plans, with the A*+, to ease the payment of reparations @uly #/$': <e organised ?rench withdrawal from the 4uhr #/$': The :ocarno "act improved relations between .ermany and ?rance #/$D: @oined the council of the :eague of >ations +s a result of the improvements in economic conditions, the >azis had poor results in elections during .ermanySs M.olden !earsN under *tresemann 3n the #/$% elections they obtained only 8$ out of %/, 4eichstag seats and in the #/$C elections this dropped to #8 seatsH The death of *tresemann &8rd Lctober #/$/) and the 5all *treet 2rash &$/th Lctober #/$/) caused the .erman economy to collapse and so <itler realized his part would do better in the elections Note? ,oor e&onoi& &on#itions C EDtreist %rou*s *ros*er7 N$@i Re)i)$" -9:2:-;;/ <itler claimed that he knew there would be a crisis, and that he had been waiting, and prepared, for the >azis to save .ermany <e gained financial backing from some @unkers and from two 4uhr *teel ;agnates &;anufacturer and 3nvestor): Frupp & Thyssen The deal was money to <itler in return for orders later <e expanded the existing scout movement who the <itler !outh which by #/$% had G million members 3t extended to girls in #/$C with the -1; &:eague of .erman ;aidens) <e stressed physical fitness, so they could fight in future, and he indoctrinated them with >azi ideas so they would vote for him in future <e was shaping young minds 4allies were organised by @osef .oebbels, and he and <itler whipped their audience into a frenzy of support +s a result, >azi seats in the 4eichstag increased 3n *eptember #/8, they won #,G of %/, seats and in @uly #/8$ that number rose to $8, <itler did >LT have an overall ma9ority, and so did not automatically become chancellor Hit"er !e&oes Ch$n&e""or "resident "aul 6on <indenburg used his power of decree in an emergency to appoint four chancellors between #/8$088 3n ;ay #/8$, -rTning was dismissed, and replaced by 6on "apen, who in turn was replaced by .eneral *chleicher These three could not control the communists and the >azis in the 4eichstag and so reluctantly in @anuary #/88 6on <indenburg appointed <itler <indenburg=s idea was that <itler would be his puppet and only two other >azis were in the cabinet: .Vring and ?rick <indenburg disliked <itler for two reasons: <itler was only an +ustrian 2orporal &.erman snobbishness) <itler had stood against <indenburg in the presidential election of #/8$ <itler gained #8 million votes; <indenburg gained #/ million votes &"ersonal 9ealousy) <itler=s appointment as chancellor is a vital step in the downfall of the 5eimar government The Est$!"ishent o1 the N$@i 8i&t$torshi* 3t took <itler only #C months to change from 2hancellor to 1ictator of .ermany: @anuary #/88 ( <itler became chancellor +ugust #/8% ( <itler became dictator
Burnin% o1 the Rei&hst$% -2>E2E;;/ Ln the night of the $Gth ?ebruary #/88, the 4eichstag was set ablaze &set fire to) by a 1utch communist student, 6an der :ubbe, who was found guilty of arson and treason, and beheaded &This shows the :aw 2ourts were harsh towards left0wing groups) The .erman 2ommunists had not caused the blaze and they tried to blame the >azis <itler used 6an der :ubbe=s guilt as an excuse to discredit all communists &;any historians believe that the young student was not really responsible, that he was set up ( all to convince the .erman people of the effectiveness and the urgency of the >azi regime) The En$!"in% A&t -2;E;E;;/ +s a result of communist unpopularity, the >azis increased their votes in the ;arch #/88 election where they gained $CC, or %8W, so <itler still had no 4eichstag ma9ority <e forced <ugenburg=s '$ nationalists to form a coalition <itler now passed the Bnabling +ct, which gave executive power &power to pass laws) to the cabinet for four years, hereby <itler made all the decisions &dictator) Censorshi* 5ith the power of the Bnabling +ct, <itler banned all other political parties, so .ermany became Totalitarian TL further weaken the communists, he banned the Trade Anions in #/8%, and workers had to 9oin the >azi :abour ?ront, led by 1r 4obert :ey There was no freedom of speech, and <itler imprisoned people without trial RFh ,ur%e -;0E6E;= - Lperation <umming birdIThe >ight of the :ong Fnives) <itler became increasingly suspicious of the intentions of Brnst 4Vhm, the leader of the three and a half million working class, brownshirted, *+ <itler was told by .oebbels, .Vring and <immler that 4ohm wanted to be a military dictator with <itler as his puppet The *+ then disgraced themselves by not saluting <itler, at a mayday parade <itler plotted 4ohm=s downfall <e gave them summer leave, and its leaders were arrested <itler arrested 4ohm himself at -ad 5eisse in -avaria 4ohm=s chauffeur was shot and 4ohm refused to commit suicide, so was shot in -erlin <immler gained the most, because his ** &*chutz *taffel ( "rotection squad) replaced the disbanded *+ +t the same time, <itler=s other enemies were rounded up and shot, including Bx0chancellor *chleicher 3n the 4eichstag next day &#IGI8%), <itler said he had executed over D, traitors, though the number was nearer $,,,, <e said he was Esupreme 9udge with a licence to kill= 8e$th o1 Von Hin#en!ur% -2EGE;=/ <indenburg=s death meant the cabinet could combine the roles of chancellor and president, so <itler became fuhrer of the Third 4eich 8i# Hit"er !eh$)e #eo&r$ti&$""yH Yes+ !e&$use he h$# the *o(er o1 the En$!"in% A&t7 -H/ No+ !e&$use the 3ei$r &onstitution s$i# the *resi#ent shou"# !e e"e&te#7 -H/ 0i1e in N$@i Ger$ny -9:;;-;:/ 97 Hit"er5s E&onoi& ,o"i&y 1uring the years #/8808/ <itler was popular because he was able to improve .ermany=s economy The virtual abolition of reparations by the +llies in #/8# also helped The unemployed people went down from '' million in #/8$ to less than X a million in #/8C The main reason for this was an increase in government expenditure, in #/88 it was % billion, from #/8C08, it was 8, billion <itler found work for people by beginning "ublic 5ork *chemes, eg the autobahns ( the splendid new roads of .ermany 4earmament also helped to reduce unemployment via conscription and munitions factories "eople were conscripted into the army so were no longer unemployed, and people gained employment producing weapons ?irms involved with the production of weapons were encouraged to expand Frupp and Thyssen produced steel parts, but later, weapons for <itler too The disadvantage of the expansion of large firms was the smaller firms suffered <itler wanted to gain autarky, which means to make .ermany economically self0sufficient, which involved expanded .erman lands The country produced ersatz &substitute) material to replace imported goods ?or example, plastics replaced rubber .ermany needed to expand her lands to achieve self0sufficiency, so she had suitable lands for the mining and production of products 4aw materials &eg coal and iron from Apper *ilesia) needed somewhere to be mined from, land was needed for farming and industry, and people needed to form a workforce for the new areas 3f .ermany expanded beyond its #/#/ national boundaries war would follow 27 N$@i ,ro*$%$n#$ <itler=s minister of "ropaganda was @osef .oebbels <itler=s ideas about race and nationalism were taught in schools 3ntellectual life in .ermany was stifled &kept under) by the lack of free expression Aniversities were unable to play a significant role, as they were under constant fear of being suppressed + young person who did not belong to the <itler !outh ;ovement was unlikely to make progress in life, and so nearly all young people were sub9ected to >azi propaganda constantly 3t did produce physically fit youths, which <itler could conscript for war 3ndoctrinating >azi ideas to young people made them support <itler, and they would vote for him when they were older ¬ necessary after he became a dictator) They would fight for him in war, and follow him to the bitter end ;7 The Chur&hes o1 N$@is There were two ma9or branches in .ermany: the .erman :utheran 2hurch &"rotestants) and the 4oman 2atholic 2hurch The "rotestant 2hurches either 9oined the >azi controlled E.erman 2hristians= or found their leaders persecuted and imprisoned ?or example, "astor >iemoller was opposed to <itler and was sent to a concentration camp The 2atholic 2hurch signed a concordat with the >azi regime in @uly #/88, by which the liberty of the 2hurch was guaranteed <itler did not adhere to this agreement, so "ope "ius Y3 issued the Bncyclical E;it -rennender *orge= &E5ith burning sorrow=) in which he accused the >azi regime of breaking the 2oncordat and in which he forecast the dangers emanating from .ermany &;arch #/8G) =7 The ,erse&ution o1 the Je(s 3n the early years of <itler=s rule the @ews were persecuted 3n #/8' the >uremberg laws were passed, which deprived .ermany=s D,,,,,, @ews of citizenship ?or example the @ews were not allowed to vote, receive medical, or rely on police protection, and sub9ected them to various indignities, such as traveling in separate parts of buses and trains, and the need to display a distinctive badge or sign to shown that they were @ews 3n >ovember #/8C, a young @ew killed a .erman diplomat in "aris The >azis used this as an excuse to launch a violent revenge on @ews "lain0clothes ** troopers were issued with pickaxes and hammers and the addresses of @ewish businesses They ran riot, smashing up @ewish shops and workplaces /# @ews were murdered <undreds of synagogues were burned $,,,,, @ews were taken to concentration camps Thousands more left the country This event became known as Fristallnacht or EThe >ight of the -roken .lass= ;any .ermans watched the events of Fristallnacht with alarm and concern The >azi controlled press presented Fristallnacht as the spontaneous reaction of ordinary .ermans against the @ews ;ost .ermans did not believe this <owever, hardly anyone protested The few who did were brutally murdered Two ma9or groups persecuted the @ews, the press and the .estapo &.eheime *taats "olizei) and ** &*chutz *taffel or Eprotection squad=) 3t protected <itler from all political enemies such as the communists <immler was head of the .estapo and **, his deputy was <eydrich Con&entr$tion C$*s The ** ran the >azi concentration camps There were two types of >azi concentration camps: :abour camps: originally set up by .Vring to house political prisoners Bxtermination camps: to eliminate Einferior= races in a policy of mass murder &genocide) known as the Efinal solution= or Eholocaust= 0$!our C$*s ?or political prisoners mainly, eg 2ommunists 1achau was the first camp to be opened by .oring in ;arch #/88, for ',,,, men -y #/8G it held $G,,,, prisoners The ** under <immler ran the camps EDterin$tion C$*s ?or inferior races in the E?inal *olution= after #/%# >ot only @ews were sent The .ypsies, *lavs, "oles and 4ussians were also victims @ews were transported in cattle trucks expecting to go to re0settlement camps in remote, rural areas, near railway lines Those who survived the 9ourney were divided into two groups The 42it5 &Those individuals who are physically and psychologically equipped to survive) !oung adults and selected essential workers would pass through a gate marked E+rbeit ;acht ?rei= &5ork makes you free) ;ost were used as slave labourers and were flogged if they refused or could not work 3n some camps they were used for medical experiments &eg at +uschwitz, 1r ;engele experimented on twins) 5orkers were housed in cold, stark, insanitary barracks +ll belongings were confiscated, hair removed and skin tattooed with a number 2onfiscations were recycled They were given a small bowl for the dual purpose of food vessel and a toilet They worked all daylight hours, in all weather conditions 1iseases were rife or very common &egI pneumonia and malnutrition) Lnce unfit to work they were Eexterminated= with the Eunfit= The 46n1it5 The young, aged and lame, were taken to gas chambers expecting to be deloused in a shower ?ellow @ews &kappos) were made to work these chambers Barlier attempts to gas with exhaust fumes in lorries were inefficient ** guards would pass canisters of Yyclon - &prussic acid) through a gap in the chamber wall and as it was pierced, the gas entered the shower room through Ewater= roses Lpened doors revealed a pyramid of tangled corpses -odies were cremated Barlier mass graces had been used, but in time corpses suppurated and the graves erupted +pproximately six million @ews were exterminated in the <olocaust
E11e&ts o1 the Se&on# 3or"# 3$r on Ger$ny -9:;:-=I/ 97 E&onoi& .ermany had been rearming since #/8%, but with the outbreak of war conscription and output from munitions &arms) factories increased +griculture was also part of the Ewar economy=: prime produce was sent as victuals &supplies) to troops 5ith the increase in conscripted men, women and aged men farmed and worked in factories, taught and ran hospitals +s .ermany began to lose the war, the <itler !outh were employed, and by #/%', children were even conscripted to defend -erlin They also acted as night watchmen during air raids 27 ,ro*$%$n#$ .oebbels made the most of >azi military successes before c#/%$, and <itler refused to accept defeat, even in 4ussia, so the news of defeat at *talingrad &@anuary #/%8) shocked ordinary .ermans "ropaganda had led them to believe they were still winning ;7 A""ie# Bo!in% o1 Ger$ny Though E-omber 2ommand= had bombed .ermany from #/%$, the raids increased after @une #/%%, when the second front was opened -erlin, <amburg and 1resden were key targets of the 4+? >ote the following statistics: 3n @uly and +ugust #/%8, %,,,,, civilians were killed in <amburg 3n ?ebruary #/%', 1resden, an architectural masterpiece, was razed to the ground #/8/0%' -ritish civilians killed in the blitz Q D',,,, #/8/0%' .erman civilians killed by aerial bombardment Q D,,,,,, -ombing raids weakened and strengthened the morale of .ermans "roud >azis were certainly shocked at the devastation The .erman economy was also damaged Asually -omber 2ommand aimed to destroy dams, railways and factories 3t seems the target in 1resden was people =7 Resist$n&e +s the .erman people became more aware of defeat &gradually after #/%8), more .ermans resisted <itler, though the effect of propaganda made most people either too afraid to resist, or unable to accept defeat @ews were largely passive and did not resist the >azis, but anti0*emitism, totalitarianism and brutality from a government led by a common +ustrian, caused real resentment among some intellectuals and @unkers ?or example, 2ount 6on ;olkte led a network of .ermans who helped resistance movements in Burope, and helped rescue some @ews +ttempts were made by younger offices to assassinate <itler, but these all failed ?or example in >ovember #/%8 at -erlin, <itler avoided a bomb plot by cancelling his visit to a factory making new great coats for the 4ussian ?ront The best0known and nearly successful plot was: The *tauffenburg "lot &@uly #/%%) 2ount 2olonel Flause 6on *tauffenburg plotted with other high0ranking officers against <itler, at <itler=s -avarian <eadquarters &The 5olf=s :air) <itler was meeting the chiefs of staff in a bunker *tauffenburg arrived with a briefcase, with a bomb in it <e puts it under the table, then as planned, goes to receive a phone call The suitcase is kicked under the table accidentally, before it goes off, so the bomb went off at the wrong end of the table *tauffenburg says it is a success, but <itler was not killed, only in9ured Lne naval officer was killed *tauffenburg and two others were shot, others were rounded up and faced trial, but were guilty to start with, the trial was meaningless The convicted were taken to a place with meat hooks in the ceiling, and hung them with piano wire <itler made a movie of this to discourage others I7 Ger$ny5s 2in$" Co""$*se +s A**4 approached .ermany from the east, .-IA*+ and 2anadian forces came from the west using large amounts of artillery and tanks, with air cover <itler still believed &#'th @uly #/%%) that he could win the war, so ordered a counter0attack in the +rdennes, which failed 3n this desperate plight the 2 in 2 gave the following order on /th ;arch #/%' EThe capital will be defended to the last man and the last bulletZ for the successful defence of -erlinZ every building, every house, every floor, every hedge, every shell, every crater, be defended to the utmost= -y #/th ;arch #/%', even <itler accepted defeat, and he ordered that nay weapons that could be used by the enemy must be destroyed <is forces in -erlin amounted to conscripted veterans and teenagers <itler and his wife committed suicide in the ?Threrbunker &8,I%I%') +dmiral 1oenitz was named ?Threr Hit"er5s Hen&hen i7e7 The C"ose Inner Cir&"e &"eople he Etrusted=) Ru#o"1 Hess 1eputy ?Threr until #/%#, crashed his plane in *cotland on a peace mission <e suffered from amnesia <e was tried at >uremberg, sentenced to life imprisonment at *pandau "rison, -erlin <e died in #/CG in hospital 5e do not know whether is was heart failure or strangulation7 5as it even <ess7 Jose1 Goe!!e"s7 "ropaganda chief from #/$/0#/%' <e committed suicide in #/%' in the fThrerbunker <is wife committed suicide after poisoning her six children Her$nn GFrin%7 <ead of the :uftwaffe <e was sentenced to execution, but committed suicide by poisoning himself Heinri&h Hi"er7 :eader of ** and .estapo <e committed suicide in #/%', by poisoning Ernst Roh7 :eader of the *+ <e died 8,th @une #/8%, in the 4ohm "urge <e was shot by the ** <itler arrested him, shot his chauffeur, then shot him Jo$&hi Von Ri!!entro*7 >azi foreign minister <e was hanged in #/%D M$rtin Bor$n7 "arty chairman after #/%# <e disappeared <e may have gone to *outh +merica, or have been killed in bomb raids Reinh$r#t Hey#ri&h7 <immler=s deputy and in charge of -ohemia <e was assassinated in "rague in #/%$ &$Gth ;ay, died on $/th) E)$ Br$un7 ;istress and wife of <itler 2ommitted suicide in the bunker The E11e&ts o1 N$@i Ru"e on Ger$ny Youn% *eo*"e5s re$&tion to the N$@i re%ie !oung people were among the most fanatical supporters of the >azi regime and the >azis had great success in controlling them The >azis wanted to control young people because: They would be the future fighters for <itler in his war effort They would be loyal to <itler in any uprisings
The >azis used a range of methods to control young people: 3ndoctrination of >azi ideas 6iolence <itler !outh ;ovement <owever many young people in .ermany were enthusiastic about life under the >azi regime, especially as they en9oyed leisure opportunities >ot all young people supported the regime, however .roups that opposed the >azis were: The E*wing= movement The Bdelweiss "irates These groups opposed the >azis because they resisted the >azi control of their lives 1ue to their opposition, the >azis acted against them by hanging the ring leaders and breaking up meetings 8i# the Ger$n ,eo*"e Bene1it 1ro Hit"er5s Ru"eH 3t has been argued that if <itler had died in #/8CI/, he would have been hailed as the greatest .erman leader of all time 2ertainly after #/8/, with the *econd 5orld 5ar and the ruination of .ermany, <itler cannot receive the same praise .overnment Anlike the 5eimar government, <itler=s government was strong ( it passed laws quickly .ermany did not benefit from democracy <itler was a dictator and .ermany was totalitarian &Bnabling +ct: $8I8I88) 2ensorship prevented freedom of speech because they believed that propaganda gave people a biased view
+s the press published the positive side of .ermany, the morale of the people was boosted -ut censorship and propaganda meant people had a distorted view of events This was bad in the long run as the people were not informed about alternatives or the true state of events
The 9udiciary system and the law courts were known to be biased against the left wing, and in favour of the right wing ( eg <itler=s trial &#/$8) The bias got worse &#/880%'), eg The -urning of the 4eichstag &#/88) and the *tauffenburg "lot &@uly #/%%)
5ith regards to the economy ( <itlerSs government reduced inflation and unemployment, eg the building of the +utobahns <e tried to make .ermany self0sufficient ?oreign trade improved, eg 6olkswagen -ut women deprived of 9obs, which were given to men ;inorities lost their 9obs, eg the @ews &>uremberg :aws, #/8D) The economic growth was wrecked by the burden of the war effort
<itler used the +rmed ?orces for much more than 9ust building an armyH The @unkers benefited from rearmament Anemployment was reduced by conscription and the construction and working of munitions factories The 2atholic 2hurch and its followers were supposed to be protected by the 2oncordat with the "ope &#/88), but in #/88 the 2oncordat was broken "rotestant ministers were also persecuted, eg pastor >iemoller who was sent to +uschwitz "re9udice and intolerance were encouraged by propaganda, eg against , .ypsies, *lavs, "oles and -lacks ?rom the onset of <itlerSs government until its downfall in ;ay #/%', the minority groups in .ermany were persecuted, eg the @ews were exterminated after #/%# &The <olocaust) The youth benefited from the <itler !outh ;ovement as they were encouraged to be healthy and fit >arrow0minded youth resulted through propaganda and education 5omen, like men, benefited from the effects of economic reform as they en9oyed more wealth in general 5omen depended on the incomes of men for their wealth 5omen lost 9obs &#/880%#) then regained them as men were conscripted 5omen were also sub9ect to sexist policies, eg medals for breeding ( gold cross for C children
C$uses o1 the Se&on# 3or"# 3$r &<itler=s ?oreign "olicy) a <itler=s +ims To unite .erman speaking people &using >*1 which had been denied at the Treaty of 6ersailles <e wanted lebensraum &living space) in order to gain autar=y &self0sufficiency) <e wanted to dominate Burope and the 5orld To achieve any of these aims would involve breaking the Treaty of 6ersailles, and this could lead to war b The aggression of <itler=s +llies 3taly : ;ussolini wanted a ?ascist04oman empire in the ;editerranean and +frica &eg +byssinian invasion in #/8') @apan : @apan wanted a >ipponese empire in the "acific, extending into 2hina and +ustralia &eg ;anchurian invasion in #/8#) .ermany, 3taly and @apan were hostile to 2ommunism &A**4), and this way a cause of war and vice versa &4ome0-erlin0Tokyo "act [ +xis ?orces) c 1emocratic powers were passive A*+ : 3solated ?rance : ?rance was unlikely, and reluctant, to intervene against .ermany, because she could not rely on -ritain=s and +merica=s support -ritain : -etween #/8% and #/8G, -ritain was sympathetic to .erman recovery -etween ;ay #/8G and ;arch #/8/, -ritain appeased .ermany These powers could have stopped ?ascist aggression earlier than #/8/ d The :eague of >ations failed to keep peace *ee previous notes e 2onclusion 5ar was caused by a combination of Ea= to Ed=, but <itler=s aims and actions were the main cause of war Re$sons 1or C$uses o1 3$r The *econd 5orld 5ar was caused by ?ascist aggression and the failure of democratic powers to stop this aggression The rearmament of .ermany was a cause for war because it broke the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une, #/#/) The remilitarization of the 4hineland &Gth march, #/8D) was a cause of war because it broke the Treaty of 6ersailles and the :ocarno "acts &#/$') The 4ome0-erlin +xis &Lctober #/8D) was a cause of war because it united the aggressive fascist powers and divided Burope into hostile camps 2hamberlain=s appeasement policy &after may #/8G ( ;arch #/8/) was a cause of war because it broke the Treaty of 6ersailles and Treaty of *t .ermain &#,th *eptember, #/#/) The +nschluss of .ermany with +ustria th march, #/8C) was a cause of war because it broke the Treaty of 6ersailles and Treaty of *t .ermain &#,th *eptember, #/#/) The >azi annexation of the *udetenland after the ;unich conference &$/th *eptember #/8C) was a cause of war, because it broke the Treaty of *t .ermain The >azi occupation of 2zechoslovakia in ;arch #/8/, cause war because it defied the ;unich agreement and ended -ritain=s appeasement policy The >azi0*oviet "act &$/th +ugust #/8/) caused war because it sealed "oland=s downfall The >azi invasion of "oland &#st *eptember #/8/) caused war because -ritain had guaranteed "oland=s borders C$uses o1 the Se&on# 3or"# 3$r '8etail, Nine Ste*s to 3$r # The 4earmament of .ermany .erman rearmament began after <itler left #/8$0% .eneva 1isarmament 2onference, stating that as the powers would not disarm to his level, he would rearm .ermany to their level -y #/8' rearmament was well underway This involved conscription and munitions factories 4earmament alarmed the ?rench who, feeling insecure, reinforced the M$%inot "ine &built between #/$/ and #/8%) This was a line of steel and concrete fortifications stretching from -elgium to *witzerland and was called Ea gate without a fence= because .ermany would be able to avoid it and invade ?rance via -elgium ?rance remained passive without -ritain=s support -ritain was sympathetic towards .ermany and even signed an An%"o Ger$n N$)$" Tre$ty &@une #/8') allowing .ermany=s navy to be 8'W of the size of the 4oyal >avy <itler used his new found arms to support ?ranco in the *panish 2ivil 5ar &#/8D0/) <itler sent the :uftwaffe &.erman +ir ?orce) to bomb *panish 4oyal ?orces at .uernica on $Dth +pril, #/8G .uernica was leveled to the ground and ?ranco went on to conquer the -asque areas of *pain <itler had used *pain as a practice ground to see how strong his +ir ?orce was $ The 4emilitarization of the 4hineland &#/8D) <aving broken the Treaty of 6ersailles once, <itler risked doing it a second time by marching 8,,,,, troops into 2ologne on Gth ;arch #/8D ?rance, with $',,,,, troops mobilized, remained passive because -ritain would not support her -ritain took the view that .ermany was Emarching into her own back yard= To show that his remilitarization was popular, <itler held a plebiscite, which showed that /CCW were in favour <e went on to build his own defensive fortification, the Sie%1rie# 0ine 8 The 4ome -erlin +xis &Lctober #/8D) Lriginally ;ussolini did not want to be <itler=s ally and in #/8' talks were held with -ritain and ?rance at the Stres$ 2ront, but these came to nothing when -ritain threatened oil sanctions against ;ussolini during the +byssinian crisis This caused the Roe-Ber"in ADis in #/8D ;ussolini and <itler strengthened their alliance on two occasions: a The +nti02ommintern "act &>ovember #/8G) with @apan b The "act of *teel &;ay #/8/) % -ritain=s policy of +ppeasement &;ayI@une #/8G ( ;arch #/8/) &+ppeasement in #/8C0/ was to maintain peace at all costs, even when it meant giving <itler what he wanted, knowing that they were sacrificing the independence of smaller nations) >eville 2hamberlain became -ritish "rime ;inister on $Cth ;ay #/8G, and followed the policy of appeasing .ermany, believing that all <itler wanted to do was unite .erman0speaking people 3n so doing, <itler would break the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/) but 2hamberlain did not believe <itler would cause war 2hurchill disagreed, citing ;ein Fampf &#/$%) where <itler had written that .ermany must regain lands Ein the Bast Z by the power of the sword= 2hamberlain had misinterpreted <itler=s aims &5e know this because we have the obvious benefit of hindsight, ie we can look back on history and see what had happened) ' The +nschluss with +ustria th ;arch, #/8C) +ustrian ?ascists wanted to unite with .ermany but *chuschnigg, the +ustrian 2hancellor, wanted +ustria to be independent <e was unable to gain support from abroad &?rance and the :ittle Bntente) so agreed to meet <itler in -erlin <e was persuaded to accept an +ustrian >azi supporter as ;inster of the 3nterior 4iotingIviolent protests in 6ienna increased under the >azi=s leadership and *chuschnigg resigned <itler was then invited to establish control in +ustria and on #8th ;arch, #/8C troops from the 5ermacht &.erman +rmy) entered +ustria 3n a plebiscite on the Ans&h"uss a vote of //G'W in favour was recorded This was Erigged= by biased questioning <itler made it seem that he had been invited into +ustria, in fact he had incited the union D <itler .ained the *udetenland &$/th *eptember, #/8C) The *udetenland was lost by +ustria in the Treaty of *t .ermain &#,th *eptember #/#/) and hereby 2zechoslovakia gained 8 million .erman speaking people +fter the +nschluss the *udeten .erman leader, Fonrad <enlein, demanded a union with .ermany Anable to receive help from ?rance, the 2zech "remier, -enes, mobilized alone ?earing war, 2hamberlain met <itler on three occasions at -erchtesgaden, .odesburg and at ;unich ;unich +greement &$/th *eptember, #/8C) This was signed by <itler, ;ussolini, 2hamberlain and 1aladier -enes was not present 3t said: <itler could take the *udetenland the following day without a plebiscite <ungary and "oland could take border districts from 2zechoslovakia -ritain and .ermany would never go to war 2hamberlain=s 4eaction Ln his return to Bngland, 2hamberlain announced that he had gained Epeace with honour, peace in our time= The ma9ority re9oiced, except 2hurchill <itler=s 4eaction 3n public <itler seemed satisfied, but in private he exploded saying Ethat fellow 2hamberlain has spoiled my entry into "rague= G The ?all of 2zechoslovakia &;arch #/8/) 3n ;arch #/8/, <itler forced :ithuania to give him ;emel where most people spoke .erman *o far <itler had only taken .erman speaking territory, so 2hamberlain could still appease <itler <owever, in ;arch #/8/, <itler threatened to bomb "rague, so the 2zechs surrendered 2hamberlain realized appeasement had failed, so he began to rearm -ritain and guarantee peace in "oland C >azi0*oviet "act &$/th +ugust, #/8/) ( The 4ibbentrop0;olotov "act -y the summer of #/8/, <itler=s plans to invade "oland were complete <e realized that to invade "oland mighty cause -ritain to attack him from the 5est but he was more concerned to avoid a 4ussian attack from the east Therefore to avoid a war on two fronts, he arranged the >azi0*oviet >on0 +ggression "act, which said that if either country went to war the other would remain neutral <itler gained the chance to invade "oland with a war on one front, if -ritain supported "oland *talin of A**4 gained time to rearm in case <itler attacked him later, and the chance to gain the eastern half of "oland This would provide the A**4 with a protective buffer zone / .erman 3nvasion of "oland &#st *eptember, #/8/) .erman tanks invaded "oland on the #st *eptember #/8/ using blitzkrieg tactics &This is a lightning, sudden attack co0ordinating air, then land forces) 2hamberlain sent an ultimatum &a warning with a threat) saying that if <itler did not withdraw from "oland, -ritain would declare war Ln 8rd *eptember, -ritain, followed by ?rance, declared war on .ermany 2auses of the *econd 5orld 5ar 0 6ocabulary 0e!ensr$u: living space, eg <itler=s aim to take land from bordering states to achieve self0 sufficiency &autarky) Ans&h"uss: union, eg +ustria and .ermany &;arch, #/8C) A**e$seent: to give into an aggressor little by little, in the hope of preventing war Bg -ritain appeased .ermany &;ayI@une #/8G ( ;arch #/8/) B"it@'rie%: lightning attack, co0ordinating air and land forces Bg .ermany=s attack on "oland &#st *eptember #/8/) Rei"it$ri@$tion: rearming and area, eg .ermany remilitarized the 4hineland &#/8D) ,"e!is&ite -re1eren#u/? a vote on an issue, eg <itler=s plebiscites on remilitarization and the +nschluss of +ustria and .ermany &<itler fixed his referendums in #/8D and for the +nschluss in #/8C, so no0one expected him to have a plebiscite for the *udetenland <e fixed them by biased questioning) 6"ti$tu: a warning with a threat, eg -ritain=s ultimatum for <itler to leave "oland by ##am on the 8rd *eptember #/8/ Bu11er @one: a protective barrier of land, eg Bastern "oland taken by the A**4 as protection against a future .erman attack Re$r$ent: manufacturing of weapons and conscription, eg .ermany &after #/8%), -ritain after the taking of *udetenland Aut$r'y: self0sufficiency economically, eg .ermany under <itler to enable the country to avoid imports A%%ression: hostile or violent action, eg .ermany was aggressive towards 2zechoslovakia &;arch, #/8/) and "oland &#st *eptember, #/8/) 8i't$t: none0negotiated decisionIarrangement, eg The ;unich +greement, forced onto 2zechoslovakia &#/8C) ,$ssi)e: to not take part in the action, eg -ritain and ?rance were passive towards the .erman remilitarization of the 4hineland &;arch #/8D) In&ite: devious planning, eg <itler incited the +nschluss &;arch, #/8C) C$uses o1 the Se&on# 3or"# 3$r -Su$ry/ -:ong0and0short term, immediate causes) 0on% ter a The h$rshness o1 the Tre$ty o1 Vers$i""es -2Gth June+ 9:9:/ on Ger$ny: :and losses I 4eparations I 5ar .uilt b The 1$i"ure o1 the 0e$%ue o1 the N$tions to: Feep peace I -ring about disarmament Short ter a Hit"er5s $%%ression: <is aims I <is actions &see steps to war: #,$,8,',D,G,C,/) b The $%%ression o1 the other *o(ers: 3taly ( +byssinia &#/8'), 4ome0-erlin +xis, +nti02ommintern "act, +lbania @apan ( ;anchuria &#/8#), +nti02ommintern "act &>ovember, #/8G) 4ussia ( >azi0*oviet "act, 3nvasion of "oland c The #eo&r$&ies (ere too *$ssi)e A*+ ( isolation ?rance ( would not do anything without -ritain=s support -ritain ( sympathetic towards .ermany, eg +nglo0.erman >aval Treaty &#/8') and later appeased her &;ayI@une #/8G ( ;arch #/8/) Ie#i$te a .erman invasion of "oland &#st *eptember, #/8/) 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 C$uses o1 the Co"# 3$r The ,e$&e Tre$ties $t the En# o1 3or"# 3$r T(o *ome peace treaties were signed after the war had ended, but many of the real decisions had already been made at two meetings in #/%' at !alta and "otsdam &NB7 Be1ore the ($r ($s o)erA) 1uring these talks and at the "aris "eace 2onference &#/%D) a struggle developed between the 5estern powers and 4ussia to see who could gain certain Buropean ob9ectives before the other # Y$"t$ a 3n ?ebruary #/%', 4oosevelt, 2hurchill and *talin met at !alta, in the 2rimea in 4ussia b 3t was agreed that .ermany should be disarmed, demilitarised and divided into zones, to be occupied by -ritain, A*+ and 4ussia &a ?rench zone was included later) c -erlin was to be divided into zones as well and shared out amongst the above countries &-erlin would be in the 4ussian zone) + 9oint 2ontrol 2ommission was set up to govern -erlin d *imilar arrangements were made for +ustria and 6ienna e .ermany was to pay reparations Eto the greatest possible extent= of which half would go to the *oviet Anion f +rrangements were made to try war criminals g 2ountries occupied by .ermany &including her allies) were to be free to elect their own governments h 3t was agreed that 4ussia should get eastern "olish territory i "oland was promised .erman land to her west to compensate her, but 4oosevelt and 2hurchill refused to agree to *talin=s demand that "oland should get all .erman territory east of the rivers Lder and >eisse 9 "oland was to gain 1anzig k +s the 4ussians pushed the .ermans out of "oland they backed the establishment of a communist government in :ublin &M:ublin "olesN), even though there was a "olish government0in0exile in :ondon &M:ondon "olesN) <owever, *talin promised that :ondon "oles would be included in the :ublin Egovernment= and that there would be free elections l 3t was secretly agreed that 4ussia would enter the war against @apan m + charter for the Anited >ations should be composed at a meeting in *an ?rancisco $ ,ots#$ a 3n @uly #/%' Truman &A*+), +ttlee &-ritain) and *talin &A**4) met in a suburb of -erlin, "otsdam b The war with .ermany was over but no agreement was reached about her long0term future beyond what had been decided at !alta &see !alta points -\2) c The -ritish and +mericans were annoyed because .ermany west of the Lder0>eisse :ine had been occupied by 4ussian troops and was being run by the pro02ommunist "olish government d The reparations question was raised again and each country was permitted to extract reparations from its zone Lnly the A**4 took reparations e 3t was agreed that .erman minorities were to be deported to .ermany f Truman did not inform *talin about the nature of the atomic bomb, though the -ritish were told about it during the conference The first bomb was dropped on <iroshima two days after the conference had ended g The war was ended without the need for 4ussian aid, and so did not take part in the occupation of @apan 8 The ,$ris ,e$&e Con1eren&e+ 9:=6 &3>?L4;+T3L>) a $# countries were represented, though the defeated countries were allowed little to say b The talks were dominated by the ?oreign *ecretaries from the A*+, -ritain and the A**4, represented by ;olotov There were many instances of friction between the 5est and the A**4, especially as ;olotov=s actions were unpredictable % The Ger$n $n# Austri$n ,e$&e Tre$ties &3>?L4;+T3L>) a +ustria and 6ienna were divided into four zones, but unlike .ermany she was allowed her own government, because she was seen not as a defeated country but as a state liberate from the >azis b The +ustrian government had limited powers and had a problem similar to that of .ermany, the three western powers built up their zones and the A**4 insisted on squeezing reparations from its zone, mainly in the form of food supplies c 3t seemed that the A**4 was reluctant to make a permanent settlement but the 4ussians became unexpectedly co0operative 3n ;ay #/'', a peace treaty was signed, possibly because the 4ussians feared a merger between the western zones of .ermany and +ustria d +ustria was to be a neutral country and was forbidden to unite with .ermany e + peace treaty was never achieved with .ermany because of the continued division of that country
Me$nin% o1 Co"# 3$r +t the end of the *econd 5orld 5ar, relations between the A*+ and the A**4 deteriorated, especially at "otsdam &@uly #/%') and "aris &#/%D) These two powers were rivals and the tension is called the 2old 5ar 3n Burope there was a little bloodshed but outside Burope there was more traditional warfare &Forea, 2uba, 6ietnam) Therefore, we say that the 2old 5ar is a conflict of political ideologies, using propaganda, the threat of weapons and build0up of arsenals, but never actual fighting Ori%ins o1 the Co"# 3$r # The 2old 5ar began as a result of suspicions that the democratic west had about the A**4 and vice versa +fter #/%' the A**4 feared a 5estern invasion of her new satellites and the west feared the spread of ;arxism $ 4elations between the ma9or powers got worse at the end of the *econd 5orld 5ar This occurred especially at !alta &?ebruary #/%'), "otsdam &@uly #/%') and "aris &#/%D) +t "aris, ;olotov refused to accept the west=s ideas about not taking reparations and about wanting free elections in Bastern Burope 8 .ermany was divided into four occupation zones: -ritain &.ot the ruinsH) ?rance &.ot the wineH) A*+ &.ot sceneryH 0 -avaria) A**4 &.ained the lion=s share and surrounded -erlinH) c 3n ?ebruary #/%G, peace treaties were signed with 3taly, ?inland, <ungary, 4omania and -ulgaria >o treaty was signed with .ermany % 3n #/%D, 2hurchill at ?oulton, ;issouri said: EAn iron curtain is descending on !urope e.tending from "tettin in the north to Trieste in the south.4 ' Bconomic Lrigins Lfficial +merica anti0*oviet policy began with the Tru$n 8o&trine &;arch #/%G) where +merican aid was offered to Buropean countries which bordered onto 2ommunist countries This was extended by the M$rsh$"" ,"$n &@une #/%G) which offered aid outside Burope This was designed to stop the spread of 2ommunism ( called CONTAINMENT This was officially the end of A* isolation from #/#G ( #/%# The A**4 set up Coin1or in *eptember #/%G, which *talin said was a news agency, but really it was a means of M4ussifyingN the economic policies of the eastern bloc countries 3n @une #/%C, the three western powers united their zones with a new deutschmark This financial union was the forerunner of a political union &8 zones Q 5est .ermany) *talin was upset about this because he believed that this was the 5estSs attempt to make .ermany strong again and that in the future this could be dangerous for the A**4 D The +rms 4ace The A**4 was annoyed not to know about +merica=s atom bomb &#/%') The A**4 gained the atom bomb in #/%/ and both sides began to stockpile arms The Co"# 3$r Insi#e Euro*e The ma9or powers often responded to each other in a tit for tat &M3f you can do it, then 3 am also going to do itHN) fashion being mutually suspicious, defensive and aggressive # 1ivision of .ermany &*ee map in your textbook) This was mentioned at !alta &?ebruary #/%') and at "otsdam &@uly #/%') 3t was decided to divide .ermany into four occupation zones: -ritain I ?rance I A*+ I A**4 -erlin lies ##, miles within the 4ussian zone and it too was divided into four The powers 9ointly controlled the city and administered their occupation zones from -erlin -ritain, ?rance and the A*+ ran their zones on similar lines so that .ermany could recover The A**4 however took away equipment &eg they dismantled factories and other buildings for their building material) as reparations in kind *talin=s aim was to reduce his zone so that the people there would eventually accept communism as a better alternative 3n #/%D and #/%G discussions were held about .erman unity, but ;olotov refused 5ith this disagreement official +merican anti0*oviet "olicy began $ 2ontainment a The Truman 1octrine &;arch #/%G) Truman outlined aid to be offered to countries in Burope that bordered onto communist countries &ie *talin=s satellites could also apply for aid) .reece and Turkey received aid and did not become communist <e nearly got it right The metaphorical line that separates the communist east from the democratic west should not end at Trieste, because although !ugoslavia was communist it was independent of the A**4 &under Tito) The satellites states were: -ulgaria, <ungary, 4omania, "oland, +lbania, 2zechoslovakia and Bastern .ermany b ;arshall "lan &@une #/%G) ;arshall extended aid to any country in the world 3n all, #D nations received A* money by #/'# 8 The A**4=s 4esponses *talin refused to let his satellites receive any aid *talin set up 2ominform and 2omecon to control the policies and economies in the eastern bloc To strengthen the A**4=s hold in Bastern Burope, the only none02ommunist country, 2zechoslovakia, was taken over in ?ebruary #/%C % The 5est=s 4eaction &@une #/%C) -ritain, +merica and ?rance introduced a new deutschmark to bring financial unity to their three zones The A**4 was offended This led to the -erlin blockade &@une #/%C) ' -erlin blockade and airlift &@une #/%C ( ;ay #/%/) The 4ussians struck at what they thought was the west=s weakest point and -erlin was vulnerable, because it was surrounded on all sides by communists Ln the $$nd @une #/%C &in the night) the A**4 closed and then blocked all road, rail and canal transport into -erlin, and they withdrew from their 9oint control of the city 3n time the 5est realized that the A**4 did not want direct warfare but wanted to oust the 5est from -erlin by siege tactics *o, in spite of their desire to solve this problem militarily, they decided to use different strategies The -erlin +irlift or Lperation 6ictuals &6ictuals means supplies) The 5est sent supplies by air, ie $I8 A* aircraft, #I8 4+? aircraft .oods were landed every 8, seconds and the record for one day was #,%,, landings They delivered food, clothing, medicines, drink and fuel, eg coal ( ',,,, tonnes were delivered per day &total ( $8 million tonnes) The $ million 5est -erliners accepted rationing and to increase their chances of survival they built a new airfield and extended two others The airlift was very expensive ( the amount of money spent is most likely exaggerated by 5estern propaganda The siege ended in ;ay #/%/; one month after >+TL had been set up The 5est claimed a victory, but they knew that the A**4 could strike the same blow on -erlin at any time in the future D The 4esults of the -erlin blockade and +irlift There were political, military and economic results for east and west a "olitical ( .ermany is divided into two : The 5est united its three zones as the ?ederal 4epublic of .ermany &-41) The *oviets responded by naming their zone the .erman 1emocratic 4epublic &114) The communists used Edemocratic= as propaganda b ;ilitary &+pril #/%/) ( >+TL ( >orth +tlantic Treaty Lrganisation : This was set up to bring military unity to the west 3t gave the A*+ the right to base its troops in 5estern Burope 3ts membership included -ritain, A*+, ?rance, the -B>B:AY countries, 2anada, 3celand, 1enmark, >orway, 3taly, "ortugal , .reece, Turkey and in #/'' 5est .ermany also 9oined >+TL=s headquarters was known as *<+"B &*upreme <eadquarters of +llied "owers in Burope) and it was based in "aris The 2ommander in 2harge &2 in 2) would always be an +merican >+TL was instantly successful because the -erlin blockade was ended one month later 3n the long term it was successful, because it achieved containment in Burope &stopped the spread of 2ommunism in Burope) c Bconomic &@anuary #/%/) -y forming 2omecon &2ouncil for ;utual Bconomic +ssistance) the A**4 centralized the economic polices of the satellites, eg their trade with the A**4 d ;ilitary &#/'') ( 5arsaw "act This was a belated response of the A**4 to >+TL 3t gave the A**4 the right to base its troops in the satellite countries The "act was set up 9ust after 5est .ermany 9oined >+TL e ;ilitary ( The +rms 4ace There was a steady build0up of arms: 3n #/%' the A*+ already had and used the atom bomb They thought that it would take the *oviets at least another $, years to develop their own atom bomb <owever, they were wrong as the A**4 had developed its own in #/%/ 3n #/'% the +mericans had the <ydrogen bomb and G years later in #/D# the *oviet followed suit Lther weapons were built and included in the arms race, this increasing the tension between the superpowers 0 Barly 5arning *ystems, 3nterception missiles, *tar wars &*atellite communication system) 3t is important to notice that all of these are nuclear weapons 3n addition there was a steady build0up in the size of armies, constant improvement in arms technology and a permanent effort to look for new allies G Fhrushchev=s &Frushchev) ?oreign "olicy and its effect on the 2old 5ar *talin died in #/'8, and Frushchev became sole ruler in #/'D ?rom #/'D, Frushchev followed the policy of de0*talinization, in domestic policy 3n foreign policy he did two things a 2o0existence with the 5est &The thaw in the 2old 5ar) This meant that he wanted to agree to differ with the west To show goodwill to the west he agreed to grant +ustrian unity This was in the #/'' +ustrian *tate Treaty +ustria claimed neutrality in Burope b <e offered more freedom to the *atellites They took advantage of this, as can be seen in the <ungarian 2risis &#/'D) C The <ungarian 4ising &#/'D) :ong term causes: >o traditional ties between <ungary and the A**4 <ungarians disliked the *oviet occupation at the end of the *econd 5orld 5ar Bven some <ungarian communists were against the pro0*talinist regime in <ungary The <ungarian 2ardinal was arrestedIimprisoned in #/%/ and 2atholics resented this <ungarians resented *oviet control via 2omecon &@anuary #/%/) and the 5arsaw "act &#/'') *hort term causes: <ungarians expected more freedom under Frushchev The <ungarian 4ising [ +fter *talinSs death in #/'8 the ;oscow0controlled leader was replaced in Lctober #/'D by >agy <e came to office with liberal reforms and encouraged no totalitarianism, less trade with 2omecon, free trade with the 5est, a free press The A**4 was alarmed at the initial signs of MindependenceN and *oviet tanks entered -udapest >agy offered talks, but he made the mistake of saying <ungary was like +ustria, and that it should leave the 5arsaw "act This was seen as a final confirmation that <ungary wanted to break free Tanks attacked the city on % th >ovember #/'D Aniversity students took to the streets and demonstrated and toppled the bronze statue of *talin >agy said this was a symbolic act, the rising was anti0*talin, rather than anti0A**4 NB7 The 3est #i# nothin% to he"* Hun%$ry7 4esults : +bout $,,,,, people were killed and $,,,,, more imprisoned +ccording to <ungarian sources more than $,, thousand <ungarians went into internal exile *oviet control was restored, and >agy was arrested and tried in 4omania, then shot <e was replaced by Fadar Frushchev=s policy with the satellites was failing / The -erlin 5all ¬ the -erlin -lockadeH) Frushchev tried to get the 5est to recognise the 114 &Bast .ermany) <e met the A*+ on two occasions: a "aris, #/D, &;eeting with "res 1wight Bisenhower) The talks were wrecked by the A$ scandal &A$Qspy plane with photographic equipment, which flies above the radar trap) .ary "ower=s plane landed in the A**4, ;ay #/D,) 3n "aris Frushchev asked Bisenhower for an apology Bisenhower refused &+nd this meant that the tension between the superpowers was increased) b 6ienna, #/D# &;eeting with "res @? Fennedy) Frushchev wanted @?F to recognise the 114 and to arrange for the 5est to withdraw from -erlin Fennedy refused and later, on the $'th @uly, he made a speech about 5est -erlin: E-erlinZis more than a showcase of liberty 3t is even more than a link with the free world, a beacon of hope behind the iron curtain, and escape hatch for refugees= Frushchev retaliated on the #8th +ugust, #/D#, by building a %,km barbed wire fence across -erlin Telephone and postal links ceased between Bast and 5est -erlin The fence became a wall with a crossing called 2heckpoint 2harlie The -erlin 5all was built for two reasons: A*+ would not recognise the 114 To stop the flow of refugees from Bastern Burope into the 5est via -erlin -etween #/%C and #/D, the exodus amounted to $,,,,, people a month &Bstimated total $CC million This is very likely 5estern propaganda) 3t wasn=t 9ust the quantity of people it was the quality, because Technocrats were leaving 3n other words, Bast .ermany was losing all its professionals 5est -erliners protested and @?F sent his deputy to -erlin, :- @ohnson to -erlin who guaranteed freedom for 5est -erliners >othing else was done and the 5est -erliners felt betrayed &The wall did not come down until #/C/) The Co"# 3$r Outsi#e Euro*e Two foreign policies affected the 2old 5ar outside Burope: # The 2ommunist Bast The *oviets wanted to spread ;arxism around the world, and *outheast +sia was a likely area for conflict, because the A**4 and 2hina &led by ;ao Tse Tung after #/%/) bordered onto this area $ The 5est @ohn ?oster 1ulles, the A* *ecretary of *tate spoke of the E#oino theory5 which said that if one country in *outheast +sia fell to 2ommunism, the others would follow Jore$n 3$r -9:I0-9:I;/ 'ee your textbooks and refer to the map showing the main e(ents of the )orean *ar (19+,$ 19+-). -ackground : +t the start of the $,th 2entury, Forea was under 2hinese influence, but 4ussia and @apan wanted to control it @apan wanted it as a base to attack 2hina from, and 4ussia wanted it to protect its naval base at 6ladivostok #/,%0': The 4usso @apanese 5ar &@apan defeated 4ussia) and the treaty gave @apan the right to annex Forea This lasted until #/%' #/%': +t "otsdam &@uly) it was decided to divide Forea at the 8Cth parallel, with the intention of re0uniting it, after free elections The A**4 opposed the elections so the >orth of Forea became 2ommunist under Fim 3: *ung, and the *outh was +merica=s ally under 1r *yngman 4hee >orth Forea was slightly stronger, because it had some industry +lso, the *outh Forean leader, although representing democracy and capitalism was very corrupt *o much so, that his people demanded unification with the communist >orth, because they saw that conditions were better there #/%/: A*+ and A**4 pulled out of Forea and left two inchoate &under0developed) governments The >orth invaded the *outh The 5ar : $'th @une #/', : >orth Forea crossed the 8Cth "arallel and invaded *outh Forea They occupied *eoul, continuing across the rest of the south until only the area of "usan remained threatened The +mericans sent a force from their naval base on @apan to defend "usan ;eanwhile the A>L *ecurity 2ouncil met and used its military sanction &This was achieved unanimously because the A**4 did not attend, as the A>L would not recognize 2ommunist 2hina) *eptember #/', : + A>L force of #D nations led by .eneral ;ac+rthur made an amphibious attack at 3nchon ?rom here they relieved *eoul and caused the >orth Foreans to fight a war on two fronts The >orth Foreans were pushed back to the 8Cth parallel The A>L leader, Trygve :ie, allowed ;ac+rthur to go into >orth Forea to hold free elections ;ac+rthur advanced 9ust south of the !alu river border with 2hina, capturing "yong !ang and killing thousands +t this point, 2hina feared a none0;arxist neighbour in >orth Forea, and after several warnings &3gnored by A*+), the 2ommunist 2hinese armies invaded without declaring war -y early #/'#, ;ac+rthur=s forces were south of the 8Cth "arallel, and *eoul had fallen again, but the 2hinese had stretched their supply line, and were driven back to the 8Cth parallel ;ac+rthur was not allowed to go into >orth Forea because the A>L said that 2hina was not technically at war "resident Truman sacked ;ac+rthur, and this shows that the A*+, and not the A>L, was dominating the war "eacemaking &@une #/'# to @uly #/'8) ?or two years, fighting continued along the +rmistice :ine, near the 8Cth "arallel, while peace talks were held at Faesong The >orth Foreans and *outh Foreans argued over petty matters &eg seating arrangements) trying to make time for one side to clinch a victory $Gth @uly, #/'8: "eace was made at "anmun9on, which said that Forea should be divided at the 8Cth parallel, the *outh friendly to the A*+, and the >orth friendly to the A**4 4esults : There was no improvement on the #/%' position, except Forean agriculture and society was wrecked 8' million people had been killed &futile war) *ince #/'8 there have been no signs of unity *eptember, #/%': *B+TL &*outh Bast +sian Treaty Lrganisation) was set up as a "acific version of >+TL, which gave +merica the right to base their troops in: &-A""?+>T) ( -ritain, A*+, "hilippines, "akistan, ?rance, +ustralia, >ew Oealand, Thailand 3n #/G', *B+TL was disbanded, because some members left), eg ?rance Cu!$n Missi"e B$se Crisis 3mportant I Fey 1ates: #C/C 0 2uban 3ndependence from *pain #/8% 0 2uban 3ndependence from A*+ #/'$ 0 -atista regime in power #/'/ 0 ?idel 2astro in power #/D#, @anuary 0 A*+ aid to 2uba ended #/D#, +pril 0 +ttack at the -ay of "igs #/D#, 1ecember 0 2astro admitted his government was ;arxist #/D$, #Dth0$/th Lctober 0 2uban ;issile -ase 2risis :ong Term 2auses 3n #C/C, 2uba gained independence from *pain, and thereafter, until #/8%, it was controlled by the A*+, who invested in its economy &mainly sugar and tobacco) ?14 granted its independence in #/8%, and in #/'$, -atista came to power <e was right wing, and so acceptable to the A*+, but he was idle, inefficient and cruel "rofits dropped and the A* people with business interests complained ?rom #/'G, the A* supported the rise of a young &8,) 2uban lawyer, ?idel 2astro &born, #/$G), who led a band of 8,, fighters called the $Dth of @uly ;ovement They helped him gain power in @anuary #/'/ <e began to nationalize industry, collectivize farms and censor the press &This was in direct imitation of *oviet 2ommunism) The A*+ realized too late that they had sponsored a ;arxist with their investments and profits on 2uba at risk +merican aid to 2uba ended in @anuary #/D# 2uban capitalists fled to the A*+ 3t was not until 1ecember #/D#, that 2astro admitted his government was ;arxist -efore this he had been trying to get aid from both the A*+ and the A**4 *hort Term 2ause &The -ay of "igs) Bisenhower accepted the plan by a group of ex02uban nationalists to invade 2uba They were led by @osU 2ardona and supported by the 23+ The +mericans feared the spread of 2ommunism into +merica Ln the #Gth +pril #/D#, the groups landed in 2uba at the -ay of "igs, but they were completely outnumbered and rounded up by 2astro=s forces The whole affair had been a debacle for the 23+ They realized that, due to the success of the 2uban 4evolution, 2uban citizens were not going to betray their new government &They were weary of a government like -atistaSsH) Fennedy, the new president, was embarrassed, and denied his involvement This caused 2astro to make firmer links with the A**4 -Brin'$nshi*? The Cu!$n Missi"e B$se Crisis is $ %oo# eD$*"e o1 !rin'$nshi*+ !e&$use the 6SA $n# the 6SSR *ushe# e$&h other to the !rin' o1 ($r+ then !$&'e# #o(n !e1ore ($r ($s #e&"$re#7/ The #/D$ 2risis 3n the summer of #/D$ 4ussian advisers visited 2uba, and agreed to build missile bases facing ?lorida The plan was for the missiles to be delivered to 2uba later &3t is now believed that there were never any missiles on 2uba) Lctober #/D$ 0 a A$ spy plane photographed the bases, but when asked, 2astro denied they existed $$nd Lctober ( @?F, with his photographic evidence, broadcast to the +merican nation that the bases were a threat to national security, and he followed this by a naval blockade of the island This was siege warfare and to prevent the A**4 making deliveries Fhrushchev, the *oviet leader, offered a compromise that if the +mericans removed their missile bases from Turkey &on the A**4 border), he would dismantle the bases on 2uba Fennedy refused and gave the ultimatum that he would invade 2uba on the $/th Lctober, if the missiles were not dismantled Frushchev gave in on the $/th, and said he would remove the bases under A>L supervision 4esults : A*+ and A**4=s relations improved + hot"ine &direct telephone link) between 5ashington and ;oscow was linked up #/D8 ( The Test ban Treaty to stop the testing of nuclear devices in the air The A*+ claimed a victory, with Fennedy as a hero Lthers were concerned that he could have taken the world into a nuclear war Fhrushchev never recovered from his humiliation, and was deposed in Lctober #/D% 2uba remained isolated until the #/G,s when it befriended 2hina ;arxism did not spread into +merica, apart from a short0lived regime in 2hile &until #/G8)
Bxam ]uestions &Taken from past 3.2*B examinations) "apers # & % ]uestions 97 ?rance, .ermany and -elgium confirmed their boundaries as laid down in the Treaty of 6ersailles The 4hineland was confirmed as a demilitarized zone -ritain and 3taly 9oined in guaranteeing these frontiers and the demilitarization & summary of part of the .o"arno !reaties &a) 5hat was the 1awes "lan7 &b) 3n the #/$,s the :eague of >ations promised peace 5hy, then, did countries still make treaties with each other7 &c) 5as it the :ocarno Treaties which made Burope peaceful by then end of the #/$,s7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 27 <ow important were the effects on international relations of @apanese expansionism in 2hina7 Bxplain your answer ^C_ 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ;7 Ln G th Lctober #/', +merican forces crossed the 8C th parallel into >orth Forea They were taking the war into 2ommunist territory The new 2hinese 2ommunist government was worried by the +merican advance 3f the +mericans controlled airfields in >orth Forea, they would be close enough to bomb 2hinese factories and power stations &a) 1escribe the events in #/', which led to the intervention of the A> in Forea &b) 5hy did 2hina become involved in the Forean 5ar7 &c) 5as the intervention of the A> in Forea successful7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 =7 "hoto: + A* >avy ship &in the foreground) alongside a *oviet freighter loaded with missiles for 2uba &a) 5hat was the MThawN in relations between the A**4 and the A*+ between #/'D0D,7 &b) 5hy was there a crisis over 2uba in #/D$7 &c) <ow far was the improvement of relations between the two superpowers after #/D$ caused by the 2uban ;issile 2risis7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 I7 There are certain tasks the :eague is expected to do 3t is expected to settle international disputes peacefully, punish its members who go to war, and reduce armaments &a) 1escribe the structure of the :eague of >ations &b) 5hy did the :eague of >ations not give ;anchuria back to 2hina after #/8#7 &c) 3s it true that the :eague of >ations was a failure even before +dolf <itler came to power in #/887 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 67 "hoto: + photograph from a -ritish newspaper showing 3talian troops fighting, #/8D &a) 5hat actions were taken against 3taly by the :eague of >ations following the invasion of +byssinia7 &b) 5hy did most countries condemn 3taly=s invasion and occupation of +byssinia7 &c) <ow important was the invasion of +byssinia for the :eague of >ations Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 >7 +rticle %: 3n the event of an armed attack in Burope on one or more of the parties of the Treaty by any state of group of states, each of the parties to the Treaty shall immediately come the assistance of the state or states attacked /rom the *arsaw !reaty of /riendship0 1o$operation and 2utual &ssistan"e0 signed by &lbania0 3ulgaria0 14e"hoslo(akia0 5ungary0 East Germany0 6oland0 Romania0 and the 'o(iet 7nion0 14 2ay 19++. &a) 5hat arrangements were made by the +llies for the governing of .ermany after the defeat of the >azis7 &b) 5hy was the ;arshall "lan introduced7 &c) <ow important were the >orth +tlantic Treaty Lrganization &>+TL) and the 5arsaw "act7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 G7 "hoto of an A$ airplane &a) 5hat did Fhrushchev do to improve relations with the A*+ and 5estern Burope between #/''0D,7 &b) 5hy did relations between the A*+ and the A**4 become strained again in #/D,0#7 &c) 5as the 2uban ;issile 2risis of #/D$ brought about mainly by the actions of the A**47 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 :7 1iagram I Lrganigram of the :eague of >ations &a) 1escribe the work of two of the agencies or commissions of the :eague of >ations &b) 5hy was the :eague of >ations dominated by ?rance and -ritain7 &c) <ow far did the :eague of >ations achieve its aims in the #/$,s7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 907 @apan has been, and is, a loyal supporter of the :eague, and hopes to remain so <owever, @apan=s support will only continue if the :eague accepts our policy of preserving peace and order in the ?ar Bast !he 8apanese representati(e at the .eague of 9ation0 speaking after the publi"ation of the .ytton Report0 19-:. &a) 5hat were the aims of @apanese foreign policy in the #/8,s7 &b) 5hy was the :ytton 4eport produced7 &c) <ow important were @apan=s attacks on 2hina in the #/8,s7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 997 2artoon: + -ritish cartoon about the .erman invasion of "oland in #/8/ + bulldog represents -ritain and it is growling at the .erman burglar &a) 5hat was the policy of appeasement followed by -ritain and ?rance in the #/8,s7 &b) 5hy did -ritain and ?rance go to war against .ermany over "oland7 &c) <ow far had <itler achieved his aims in foreign policy by the end of #/8/7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 927 "hotos: +merican landing craft approach *outh Forea, #/', I 2heering crowds in -udapest, <ungary as the 4ussians agree to move out, Lctober #/'D &a) 1escribe how the Truman 1octrine was put into practice &b) 5hy did the Anited >ations intervene in Forea in #/',7 &c) To what extent did the *oviet Anion increase its influence in the world between #/%' and #/D,7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 9;7 +s compensation for the destruction of the coal mines in northern ?rance and as part payment towards the total reparations due from .ermany for the damage resulting from the war, .ermany gives ?rance control of the coal mines situated in the *aar basin &n extra"t from the !reaty of ;ersailles. &a) 5hat territorial terms of the Treaty of 6ersailles affected .ermany in Burope7 &b) 5hy did .ermans dislike the other terms of the 6ersailles Treaty7 &c) <ow far was the rise of the >azis to power the result of .erman dissatisfaction with the terms of the Treaty of 6ersailles7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 9=7 "hoto: + .erman military parade through the streets of -erlin at the time of the -erlin Llympic .ames, +ugust, #/8D &a) 3n what ways did <itler try to give the impression that .ermany was a great country7 &b) 5hy did the >azis persecute minorities in .ermany in the #/8,s7 &c) <ow successful had <itler=s domestic policies been by #/8/7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 9I7 5hat use could be made of the Treaty of 6ersaillesH Bach one of the points of that treaty could be branded on the hearts and minds of the .erman people until D, million men and women are aflame with rage and shame &dolf 5itler writing in 2ein )ampf%0 19:4. &a) 3n relation to the peace settlement of #/#/0$,, what was meant by mandates and plebiscites7 &b) 5hy was the Treaty of 6ersailles severe on .ermany7 &c) <ow far had .ermans accepted the terms of the Treaty of 6ersailles by the end of #/$87 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 967 "hoto: Bnthusiastic 6iennese demonstrate in favour of the +nschluss, #$ ;arch #/8C &a) 1escribe the events of #/8C which led to +nschluss &b) 5hy did -ritian and ?rance permit the +nschluss7 &c) 5ere <itler=s policies towards +ustria and 2zechoslovakia in #/8C0/ completely successful7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 9>7 2artoon: +n +merican cartoon showing the ;arshall "lan giving help to Burope &a) 1escribe how "oland and 2zechoslovakia became 2ommunist0controlled as a result of the *econd 5orld 5ar &b) 5hy did the wartime unity of the +llies break down in #/%'0G7 &c) 5hich country had the more successful policies in Burope between #/%' and #/%/ ( the A*+ or the A**47 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 9G7 M.orbachev=s visit to Bast .ermany encouraged protests against the deeply unpopular 2ommunist regime +t a torchlight parade down the Anter den :inden in Bast -erlin a crowd of thousands to everyone=s surprise broke into chants of E.orby, .orby, .orby, save us= 3n an extraordinary turnabout, a *oviet leader was now hailed by Bastern Buropeans as a saviour from the their own government=s tyrannyN & des"ription of Gorba"he(%s (isit to East 3erlin in <"tober 19=9. &a) 5hat was .lasnost7 &b) 5hy was *olidarity formed in "oland in #/C,7 &c) <ow far was the collapse of *oviet 2ommunism due to the reforms of .orbachev7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 9:7 M*tresemann was ?oreign ;inister of the 5eimar 4epublic from #/$8 to his death in #/$/ <e guided the return of .ermany to international status <e supported closer relations with the 5estern "owers 3n #/$D he shared the >obel "eace "rize with -riand of ?rance <itler, however, regarded *tresemann as a traitor to the .erman causeN &a) 5hat was the ;unich "utsch7 &b) 5hy was *tresemann=s foreign policy a success7 &c) <ow far had 5eimar .ermany recovered from its earlier problems by #/$/7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 207 "hoto: "olitical prisoners at the Lranienburg concentration camp &a) 5hat was a >azi concentration camp7 &b) 5hy did the >azis introduce the E?inal *olution=7 &c) To what extent did .ermans turn against <itler during the course of the *econd 5orld 5ar7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 297 The :eague may be a difficult scheme to work, but the significant thing is that the "owers have promised to make it work ;ankind has, in the short space of ten years, 9umped from the old order to the new 5e are witnessing one of the great miracles of history /rom a spee"h made in 19-,. &a) 1escribe two successes the :eague of >ations had in the #/$,s in solving disputes &b) 5hy was the :eague of >ations quite successful in the first ten years of its existence7 &c) EThe good work of the :eague was destroyed by the 1epression of the #/8,s= 1o you agree7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 227 "hoto: +n +byssinian village bombed by 3talian aircraft in the invasion of #/8D &a) 1escribe the attacks that @apan made on 2hina in the #/8,s &b) 5hy was 3taly able to defeat the +byssinians7 &c) <ow important for events in Burope were <itler=s pacts with 3taly and @apan7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 2;7 "hoto: The execution of a 6ietcong suspect during the Tet Lffensive, #/DC &a) 5ho were the 6ietcong and what part did they play in the 6ietnam 5ar7 &b) 5hy did involvement in the war become increasingly unpopular in the A*+7 &c) <ow successful was A* policy towards 6ietnam in the period #/D80G'7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 2=7 "hoto: + ?reikorps unit in ;unich, ;ay #/#/ &a) 1escribe the activities of the ?reikorps in .ermany, #/#/0$, &b) 5hy were there so many uprisings and disturbances in .ermany in the years #/#/0$$7 &c) <ow far was .ermany=s treatment in the 6ersailles peace settlement unfair7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 2I7 + @ew may not be a citizen of the 4eich <e has no vote <e may not fill public office ;arriages between @ews and nationals of .erman or similar blood are forbidden Extra"t from the 9uremburg .aws0 'eptember0 19-+. &a) 1escribe the treatment of the @ews in >azi .ermany from #/8' &b) 5hy were the @ews persecuted by the >azis7 &c) -y the end of the #/8,s, did <itler rule .ermany by oppression or by popular support7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 26 +rticle #D: *hould any member of the :eague resort to war, it shall be regarded as having committed an act of war against all other members of the :eague, and this will end immediately all trade and financial relations with that member /rom the 1o(enant of the .eague of 9ations. &a) <ow did the :eague of >ations hope to prevent future wars between nations7 &b) 5hy did the :eague of >ations fail to restrict the aggression of @apan in the #/8,s7 &c) <ow far was the :eague of >ations a failure7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 2>7 M3 now have to inform the <ouse that in the event of any action which clearly threatened "olish independence and which the "olish .overnment accordingly considered it vital to resist with their armed forces, <is ;a9esty=s .overnment would feel themselves bound at once to lend the "olish .overnment an assurance to this effectN 9e(ille 1hamberlain speaking in the 5ouse of 1ommons0 -1 2ar"h 19-9. &a) 5hen <itler cam to power, what did he hope to achieve in foreign policy7 &b) 5hy did -ritain go to war over "oland in #/8/7 &c) <ow far was the Treaty of 6ersailles to blame for the outbreak of war in #/8/7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 2G7 M?rom *tettin to Trieste on the +driatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent -ehind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of 2entral and Bastern Burope ( 5arsaw, "rague, 6ienna, -udapest, -elgrade, -ucharest and *ofia +ll these famous cities and the population around them lie in the *oviet sphere and are sub9ect, not only to *oviet influence, but to a very high and increasing measure of control from ;oscowN *inston 1hur"hill speaking in /ultom0 2issouri0 7'& in 194>. &a) 5hat was decided at the !alta 2onference7 &b) 5hy was Bastern Burope largely in the hands of the A**4 by #/%D7 &c) ELnly *talin of the +llies achieved what he wanted as a result of the war with .ermany= 1o you agree7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 2:7 ;ap: The 2uban ;issile 2risis &a) 1escribe the -ay of "igs incident &b) 5hy did the A**4 install missile bases in 2uba7 &c) EThe 2uban ;issile 2risis was not as serious as it appeared at the time= 1o you agree7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ;07 +s soon as 3 received my salary, 3 rushed out to buy the daily necessities ;y daily salary, as editor of a magazine, was 9ust enough to buy one loaf of bread and a small piece of cheese +n acquaintance of mine, a clergyman, came to -erlin from a suburb with his monthly salary to buy a pair of shoes for his baby -y the time he arrived, he could only afford to buy a cup of coffee !he re"olle"tions of a woman who li(ed in 3erlin during 19:-. &a) 1escribe the effects of the hyperinflation of #/$8 on the lives of .erman people &b) 5hy did ?rance and -elgium occupy the 4uhr in #/$87 &c) <ow far did *tresemann restore pride and prosperity to .ermany7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ;97 The 4eich "ress :aw of % Lctober #/88 ordered that all editors had to be .erman citizens of +ryan descent, and not married to a @ew They had to keep out of their newspapers Eanything which in any manner is misleading to the public, tends to weaken the strength of the .erman 4eich, or offends the honour and dignity of .ermany= &a) 5hat was the Bnabling :aw &+ct) of #/887 &b) 5hy did <itler seek to control all forms of the media7 &c) <ow far had <itler=s policies gained the support of the .erman people by #/8/7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ;27 :ook at the statistics, and then answer the questions which follow 1ec #/#% % 1ec #/#/ / >ov #/$# G, @an #/$$ #/$ +ug #/$$ #,,,, @an #/$8 #C,,,, @ul #/$8 #D,,,,, +ug #/$8 #,,,,,,,, >ov #/$8 %,$,,,,,,,,,, German 2arks needed to one 7' dollar%s worth of goods. &a) 1escribe the effects of hyper0inflation in .ermany in #/$8 &b) 5hy did hyper0inflation occur in .ermany in #/$87 &c) <ow far was *tresemann responsible for .erman recovery from #/$8 to #/$/7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ;;7 3 am beginning to understand some of the reasons for <itler=s amazing success <e is restoring glory and colour to the lives of $, th century .ermans This morning=s meeting was more than 9ust a colorful show There was a hush over the 8,,,,, people packed into the hall <e walked slowly down the centre aisle while 8,,,,, hands were raised in salute 3n such an atmosphere no wonder that every word <itler spoke seemed like a message sent from .od /rom the diary of a German0 'eptember 19-4. &a) 5hat were the >uremberg :aws &#/8')7 &b) 5hy were @ews persecuted in >azi .ermany7 &c) EThe main reason the >azis were popular was their anti0@ewish policy= 1o you agree7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ;=7 *tudy the sources, and then answer the questions which follow *ource + Today in the <all of ;irrors of 6ersailles the disgraceful Treaty is being signed 1L not forget itH .ermany will press forward to reconquer its proper place among nations Then will come revenge for the shame of #/#/ /rom a German newspaper on the day of signing of the !reaty of ;ersailles. *ource - @uly #/$# 8 @uly #/$$ / @uly #/$8 $$,',, *eptember #/$8 #,,8G,,,,, >ovember #/$8 %G,,,,,,,,,,,,, !he pri"e of a loaf of bread in German 2arks0 19:1$-. &a) *tudy *ource + 5hat can you tell from this source about .erman attitudes to the Treaty of 6ersailles7 *upport your answer with reference to the source &b) *tudy *ource - <ow far does this source show that inflation was a ma9or problem in .ermany between #/$# and #/$87 Bxplain your answer &c) *tudy both sources <ow useful are these sources as evidence about the problems that .ermany faces after #/#/7 Bxplain your answer &d) 5hy did the government have difficulty controlling the outbreaks of violence that occurred between #/#/0$87 &e) <ow successfully did *tresemann overcome .ermany=s economic problems between #/$80$/7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ;I7 *tudy the sources, and then answer the questions which follow *ource + The new ;inistry of "ropaganda Bnlightenment has no other aim than to unite the nation behind the ideal of the national revolution 3f this aim has been achieved then the people can 9udge my methods if they wish: that would be unimportant, for the ;inistry would then have achieved its goal @ospeh Goebbels speaking in 19--. *ource - 1uring the #/8,s, 3 myself was to learn how easily one is taken in by an untruthful and censored press and radio in a totalitarian state Though, unlike most .ermans, 3 was able to read foreign newspapers every day and listened regularly to foreign broadcasts, my 9ob meant the spending of many hours a day in reading through the .erman press, checking the .erman radio, consulting with >azi officials and going to party meeting 3t was worrying to find that a steady diet of bias and lies made an impression on one=s mind and often misled it 3t is difficult to escape the results of continuous propaganda *illiam 'hirer0 an &meri"an ?ournalist0 writing in 19+9. 'hirer had li(ed in Germany during the 19-,s. &a) *tudy *ource + 5hat can you tell from this source about .oebbels= attitude towards propaganda7 *upport your answer with reference to the source &b) *tudy *ource - <ow far does this source show that *hirer was impressed by >azi propaganda7 Bxplain your answer &c) *tudy both sources 3s one of these sources more useful than the other as evidence on how the >azis controlled the .erman people7 Bxplain your answer &d) >ame two media that .oebbels promoted using propaganda &e) <ow did the >azis use education to spread their ideas7 &f) 5hy were the >uremberg rallies effective7 &g) 5as propaganda a more effective way of keeping the support of the .erman people than terror7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ;67 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow: 5e want a peace which will be 9ust 5e want a stern peace because the occasion demands it, but the severity must not be for vengeance, but for 9ustice +bove all we want to protect the future against a repetition of the horrors of this war .loyd George speaking about the 6aris 6ea"e 1onferen"e. a) 1escribe what 2lemenceau and :loyd .eorge each wanted to achieve in the peace settlement of #/#/0$, b) 5hy did the Treaty of 6ersailles cause problems for .ermany in the years up to #/$87 c) 5as the Treaty of 6ersailles fair7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ;>7 *tudy the cartoon &Ancle *am leaning against a keystone, missing from the :eague of >ations bridge) a) 5hat were the aims of the :eague of >ations7 b) 5hy did the :eague of >ations have some successes during the #/$,`s7 c) <ow far can the failure of the :eague of >ations in the #/8,s be blamed on the .reat 1epression7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ;G7 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow The -erlin 5all is an open attempt to remove the right to free movement throughout the city, in direct opposition to the ?our "ower agreement reached in "aris on $, @une #/%/ @ean Rusk0 7' 'e"retary of 'tate0 speaking in &ugust 19>1. a) 1escribe how the -erlin 5all affected the people living in -erlin b) 5hy was the -erlin 5all built7 c) <ow far can the decline of *oviet power in Bastern Burope be blamed on the *olidarity movement7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ;:7 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow 3t was a beautiful autumn evening, the height of the crisis, and 3 went out into the garden into the open air to smell it, because 3 thought it was the last *aturday 3 would ever see & "lose ad(iser of 6resident )ennedy talking about the e(ening of :A <"tober 19>:. a) 1escribe relations between 2uba and the A*+ in the period #/'/0#/D# b) 5hy was the A*+ concerned about *oviet missiles in 2uba7 c) Fhrushchev claimed that the 2uban ;issile 2risis was a victory for the *oviet Anion 1o you agree with this view7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 =07 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow 5e demand the union of all .ermans in .reater .ermany +ll citizens shall have equal rights and duties Extra"ts from the 9a4i 6arty 6rogramme0 19:,. a) 1escribe the ideas and policies of the >azi "arty in the #/$,s b) Bxplain why the >azi "arty had little success before #/8, c) MThe effects of the 5all *treet 2rash provided the main reason why <itler was able to become 2hancellor of .ermany by #/88N 1o you agree with this statement7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 =97 *tudy the photograph, and then answer the questions which follow &"hoto depicting thousand of .erman men ready to work on the first highway or autobahn in #/88) a) 1escribe the actions taken by <itler to reduce unemployment b) 5hy did the >azis discourage women from going out to work7 c) <ow total was the control the >azis had over the .erman people before #/8/7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 =27 *tudy the sources, and then answer the questions which follow *ource + -illion mark notes were passed on quickly because tomorrow one would no longer pay in notes but in bundles of notes Lne afternoon 3 rang +unt :ouise`s doorbell The door was opened slightly ?rom the dark cam a distressed voice: M3`ve used sixty billion marks worth of gas ;y milk bill is one million -ut all 3 have left is two thousand marks 3 don`t understand what is happening any moreN /rom the autobiography of a German who li(ed through the hyperinflation of 19:-. *ource - The causes of hyperinflation were complicated but the .ermans did not see it that way They blamed the reparations of the 5eimar 4epublic which had accepted reparations and was the government in power during the chaos of #/$8 ;any middle0class .ermans never forgave the 4epublic for the harm they believed it had done to them /rom a 3ritish textbook0 199:. a) *tudy *ource + 5hat can you tell from this source about the impact of hyperinflation on .erman people7 *upport your answer with reference to the source b) *tudy *ource - <ow far does this source show that the 5eimar government was to blame for the hyperinflation7 Bxplain your answer c) *tudy both sources 3s one the sources more useful than the other as evidence about the hyperinflation7 Bxplain your answer d) 5hat were reparations7 e) 1escribe how *tresemann brought the #/$8 crisis to an end f) 5hy did the >azis stage a putsch in ;unich in >ovember #/$87 g) M3t was +merican loans rather than *tresemann`s policies that enabled .ermany to recover from the disasters of #/$8N 1o you agree7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 =;7 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow 3f the :eague had extended economic sanction on oil 3 would have had to withdraw from +byssinia within a week 2ussolini speaking after his su""essful "onBuest of &byssinia. a) 1escribe the successes of the :eague of >ations in the #/$,s b) 5hy did the :eague fail to deal with @apanese aggression against ;anchuria7 c) M3t was the +byssinian crisis that destroyed the :eague of >ations as an effective peacekeeping bodyN <ow far do you agree with this statement7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 ==7 *tudy the cartoon, and then answer the questions which follow &+ -ritish cartoon about the re0 militarization of the 4hineland in #/8D 3t shows a goose, dressed up as a >azi soldier with many weapons, stepping on the :ocarno Treaty) a) 1escribe the events in the *aar in #/8' b) 5hy did -ritain and ?rance allow .ermany to re0militarize the 4hineland in #/8D7 c) M<itler`s desire for lebensraum was the most important reason for the outbreak of war in #/8/N <ow far do you agree with this statement7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 =I7 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow 5e must fight this war if we are to live in a world where every country can shape its own future 5e are in 6ietnam because we have a promise to keep Lver the years we have made a national pledge to help *outh 6ietnam defend its independence 6resident 8ohnson speaking to the &meri"an people in 19>+. a) 5ho were the 6ietcong7 b) 5hy did the A*+ get involved in the war in 6ietnam7 c) <ow far can the +merican withdrawal from 6ietnam be blamed on military failure7 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 =6 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow The rule of the working class means real democracy 3t means the use of power to get rid of middle and upper class people 3t means the smashing of the ruling classes with all the brutality that the working class can develop Rosa .uxemburg in late 191=. a) 5ho were the *partacists7 b) 5hy did many .ermans hate the Treaty of 6ersailles7 c) To what extent did the 5eimar 4epublic recover after #/$87 Bxplain your answer 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 00000 =>7 *tudy the sources, and then answer the questions which follow: *ource + 5e stilll know little about the dreadful events of 8, @une 5e only know that men whom <itler constantly praised are dead 5e are told that they are now dead because they were involved in a conspiracy -ut so far no evidence has been produced to prove this conspiracy & 3ritish newspaper arti"le0 19-4. *ource - 5ithout telling me, 4ohm made a plan with .eneral von *chleicher that the present regiime in .ermany could not be continued; that the army and navy must be combined and that 4ohm ws the man for this post 3 decided to put an end to this plan Therefore, 3 decided to dismiss 4ohm, to arrest him and a number of *+ leader 3 gave orders to shoot those that were guilty of treason Bveryone will know in future that treachery towards the state will end in certain death 5itler%s spee"h to the Rei"hstag0 1- 8uly 19-4. a) *tudy *ource + 5hat can you tell from this source about the >ight of the :ong Fnives7 *upport your answer with reference to the source b) *tudy *ource - <ow far does this source show the extent of opposition to <itler7 Bxplain your answer c) *tudy both sources 3s one of these sources more useful than the other as evidence about <itler`s leadership7 Bxplain your answer d) .ive two features of the >azi totalitarian state e) 5hat were the >uremberg rallies7 f) 5hy did <itler want to gain support of .ermany=s youth7 g) <ow far did <itler use unlawful methods to achieve power in #/8808%7 Bxplain your answer