Dr.

Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

The role of Teacher Knowledge in Teacher Practices for Facilitating Language

Learning

Abstract:

Shulman (1986) (Appendix A) says that teaching is a complex phenomenon that

depends on the expertise in various knowledge systems that form the fundamentals
to teaching. Teaching draws very heavily on many kinds of knowledge. It is complex
because it involves the human mind of the learner and the teacher- their
experiences, individuality, differences, styles, beliefs and so on. Set in a dynamic
environment- the classroom which in turn is influenced by the socio-cultural,
political educational conventions. Traditionally, these knowledge bases have been
divided into two broad categories-the content knowledge and the pedagogic
knowledge. Content knowledge has traditionally been in focus until recently when
the shift has been towards the pedagogic knowledge. This term paper argues that
Teacher Knowledge in itself is not independent/static but is volatile due to the
reflective nature of the teacher on her classroom experiences and that the evolving
role of Teacher Knowledge will have a major stake in the teaching-learning process.
The paper attempts to answer the following

1. How has teacher knowledge (TK) manifested itself in teacher practices?

2. What implications do the reflective insights in TK hold for teacher and
teacher roles in facilitating Second language learning ?

Lay out of the Paper

The paper is divided into 2 parts which complementing each other discuss how
the emphasis on T.K journeyed from content knowledge base to pedagogic
knowledge base and how this shift has brought in a paradigmatic change in ELL/ELT
scenario. The first part attempts to trace a historical view of T.K across the annuls of
ELT to establish that T.K is influenced by the finding and concepts of psychology,
Linguistics, Applied Linguistics and Education. What is Language? How is a
language learnt? And how is a language taught? These questions are quite
important as an awareness of this area forms major segment of Teaching Practice.

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 Dr.Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

Part-I discusses very briefly with short descriptions of how the above 3 questions
determined the practicum of T.K with respect to the notion of Proficiency,
curriculum, materials, learners learning process and the methodology up to
1990’s.Part-II - Discusses the evolving view of the teacher knowledge in language
learning past 1990 with respect to learner-centred/directed Approaches in
facilitating Language Learning. The discussion is on how an awareness of TK
influences the teacher’s perspectives and thereby her Practices to learner issues-
roles, participation, learning process, learner differences and learner assessment.

Part- I – Historical view of the Teacher Knowledge

Introduction:

Traditionally, Teacher Knowledge has been divided into content knowledge

base (CKB) and pedagogic Knowledge base (PKB). CKB has been given a lot of
importance/emphasized and still retains its place in content-oriented domains of
Knowledge like mathematics and sciences however in the recent times PKB has
taken over especially in the language learning scenario. Schulman (1987) construes
a teacher as a researcher and mediator between theory and practice as one who
creates new meaning and understanding to classroom actions. He talks of two kinds
of knowledge bases- Content-Based Knowledge which is a deep knowledge of the
content itself and Knowledge of the curricular development which includes the aims
and objectives, materials, methods, the kind of learning experiences that the
learner should have...... which he collectively calls as Pedagogic content knowledge.
So for this paper Shulman’s two types of knowledge will be called as Teacher Knowledge (TK)
description we shall now trace the journey of the source of TK to see how it influenced teacher practices
in language teaching

The shifting sands:

We trace the journey of ELT back to the period between 1940- 1960’s when the
behaviouristic school of psychology reigned to its splendour. The structuralists and
the behaviourist schools considered language was a system of rules to be mastered
and language learning was seen as a habit formation therefore what was
“observable” was valued hence language teaching methods like grammar

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 Dr.Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

translation method which saw Language as content that could be broken down into
units to be mastered by rote/drill (habit formation) therefore teaching practices
involved pattern drills , repetitions, oral drills, grammar practices and in order to
facilitate learning (rote) the teacher had to model and manipulate the learning in
the form of response to a stimuli that develops over a period of time-Skinner (1957).
Teachers had to develop good language habits and avoid bad language habits. In
Behaviouristic SLA learner individuality and differences do not stand valid. The
ends-means educational objective involved the transfer of knowledge and hence
was born the grammar based curriculum in response to Tyler’s classical humanism
(1956). Therefore proficiency meant Linguistic Competence-knowing the grammar
of the language.

In the late 1960’s and early 1970’s Chomsky’s work (1964) highlighted that the
unobservable –learner processing the learning held an explanation of how language
is selected for use and a better understanding of SLA. This paved way to concepts
of parole (the observable) and the langue (the unobservable Language ability). The
cognitivists were involved in studying the mental processes that see the learner as
an active participant in the learning process of thinking, observing, categorizing and
working out how language operates. The birth of the notion that Language is for
meaning-making, consequently learning a language would mean learning to process
the information and language teaching would mean facilitating language learning.
The onus was on studying the mental processes and Chomsky’s logic was that if
Language was rule governed and these rules had to be used then there must be a
system/ a device he called LAD, which processes assimilates accommodates and
stores it. Selinker (1972) postulated that without a LAS(language Acquisition
System) LAD cannot process language .

The methods of Language teaching that evolved has been functional

/Notional/ communicative approach governed by the principle that language is for
communication, attempted to make ‘communicative competence’ as the goal of a
language learning and that of language teaching was to facilitate it. Howatt (1984)
talks of the weak version of CLT and strong version of CLT and distinguishes
between the two by saying that the former stresses on learning to use English while
the latter using English to learn it. Therefore arises the question of ‘proficiency’- for
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 Dr.Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

a teacher practicing CLT what would constitute proficiency in Lang? For Dell Hymes
(1971) its linguistic competence for canale & swain(1980) it includes grammatical
competence, sociolinguistic competences discourse competence and strategic
competence (1981) for Bachman (1990) Language competence includes features
like Grammatical,Textual,Illocutionary and Sociolinguistic competencies making the
notion complicated. Halliday (1975) says competence is ‘meaning’ potential.
Brumfit and Johnson (1979) opine that meaning potential includes the various
components of competence. Therefore to foster language competency teachers
were to play the role of facilitator, co-learner and researcher (Breen & candling
(1980). Other roles like needs analyst, counsellor, group process manager- all of
which are away from the traditional role of knowledge giver, while simultaneously
the learner’s role too underwent metamorphic change from a passive receiver of
knowledge to that of a negotiator between the self, the learning process
Communicative ability involved understanding the form, the functional meaning and
social meanings so learners be given simulated and authentic real life texts that
would foster the use of language forms with communicative functions set in a
socially interactive reality. Therefore teacher activities moved towards sharing
information; processing information, simulation and role-plays and the classroom
became a social context, for, language served a functional purpose and was also
assessed for its social acceptance.

Interlude:-

Clearly, the linguist’s notion of the language coupled with the psychologists’
thoughts of how learning takes place brought in methods that have influenced the
practioner’s knowledge in the business of teaching from a state dominated by
learners’ passivity to the era where learner and learning processes that happen in
his head are valued. The change is noticed in curriculum development- Classical
Humanism to Reconstuctionism, materials and text works that were predominantly
grammatical structural to situational/ functional / communicative. Teacher’s role
from knowledge giver to counsellor, co-communicator, facilitator; the learner from a
position of being acted upon for passive learning /knowledge transfer to interacting
with knowledge and using language for communication is now the centre-stage
actor. Methods idealized have time and again been questioned -grammar-
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 Dr.Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

translation gave way to more communication-oriented methods which to have been

critiqued for their short-comings in delivering the competence to communicate.

Howatt (1984) says the weaker version seemingly doesn’t offer a significant
improvement over the structural approach as far as communication competence
is concerned and the strong versions belief that Language is acquired through
exposure and communication. However Ellis (2003) says that learners discover
the system in the process of engaging learning to communicate indicating that
the learner factors could be the cause for the differentiated varied success in
Language learning.

Part-II: New Directions

Research in SLA by Ellis (1985) Skehan 1989, Brown & Spada (1999), have
established the following

(1) Teaching does not and cannot determine the way the learners’ language
will develop.
(2) Learners necessarily don’t learn what teachers teach?
(3) Teaching is not equal to learning and that every learner is unique.
(4) Every learner is unique and constructs his own view of the knowledge he
comes across.

The above statements explain the variability in the successful learning of a

Language which has reverted back to studying the learner, the processes and the
strategies he applies. The third school of psychology “Humanism” takes the notion
of learner holding the key to successful learning. Piaget’s notion on learner
constructing meaning of his experiences thereby assimilating or accommodating
the experiences, Bruner’s notion that anybody can learn anything if they learn how
to learn with a purpose for learning and learning in optimal conditions and Kelly’s
personal-construct theory that states that learners are actively involved in
constructing their understanding of things which will be different for different
learners heightens the dynamism of the learning process, seen as precursors to the
notions expressed by psycho-humanists like Erikson who stated that human
development reflects the way in which an individual passes the pre-determined
stages and the challenge set by the society. This brings home the fact that learning
is a life-long process and that real-life learning involves challenges which often need

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 Dr.Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

help from others - learning involves the whole person with emotions and feelings
with a purpose that is needs-driven-Maslow (1970).

How is the discussion on TK relevant to teacher practices?

Individual contours of the Rainbow:

Communicative Language Teaching

One of the noted language philosophers of the century Paul Grice in his book ‘logic
and conversation’ talks of the principle of co-operation whereby he says that all acts
of communication be it oral/written involves an act of co-operation and Vygotsky’s
ZPD and socio-cultural theory make Learning a social entity and therefore requires
the learners different levels of skills and knowledge to work in collaboration.
Vygotsky’s holistic approach to language and the concept of ‘mediation’ in a socio-
cultural context is central to vygotskey’s ZPD which stresses that the soul of
learning lies in the social interaction The learners as they work through the task in
pairs/ groups might arrive at different outcomes which the T.K will now deem to be
natural.

1. The learners are seen as individuals with their innate differences, styles,
personalities.
2. Learning is by focusing on the process involved.Inspite of its advantage CLT
the power of taking decisions regarding learning materials, method,
methodology, mode of assessment still with the teacher.
3. Learner Autonomy though Holec (1981) says should be the aim/ goal of all
teaching /learning situation, is not realized to its fullest here.
4. An awareness of ‘this aspect’ of CLT could trigger reflection on the teacher-
practices to look for a viable solution thereby a scope for action research.

Brain Compatible Teaching and Multiple Intelligences

This concept place central value to the learners’ ability that is inborn fixed at the
time of birth and is not likely to change since it is invariably seen as a stable
construct. Gardener (1991) attributes individual differences between learners to the

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 Dr.Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

different kinds of brain functioning with regard to different languages and Domains
(generic). How will this knowledge help the teacher and her work?

Experience has shown that learners at school may be extremely good at one
domain and not so interested in another. A child could be good at mathematics but
not in his language so he could be the logical-mathematical intelligence. The
awareness of MI could clarify to the teacher the reason for the poor performance
and accordingly plan/select material that would maximize learning according to the
learners’ own intelligence code-paving way for individualizing language learning.

Again, the teacher’s awareness of individual styles and preferences could pave
way to differentiated learning. Cotteral (2006) Writes of an activity in writing
where all the learners are working on the same task but in a differentiated manner-
make a write up on the ‘Time’ and its distinctive features as portrayed in the book –
A is with ‘The year 2055’-Living on moon, B is with the 'Diary of Anne Frank’ C is
with ‘Japan-post world war II – overtly the same but distinctly different. Caine.G and
caines.R(1991) -Twelve principles for ‘Brain-Based Education acknowledge that

1. each learner is unique,

2. requires the teacher to bank on learner’s experience
3. connect his schemata to learning ,
4. bank on the type of intelligences they relate to-
5. requiring the teacher’s practices to acknowledge individual learners one-
on-one.

Self-Directed Learning(SDL):

In contrast to Brain-compatible Teaching, Theory of multiple intelligences and

CLT which require the teacher to cater to the needs of the learner with the meta-
awareness of what the purpose of language learning, learner differences, styles,
motivational levels, SDL puts -

1. the onus of learning on the learner

2. assessing the needs,
3. the aim of learning,
4. securing learning resources,
5. Implementing activity and
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 Dr.Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

6. Evaluating the learning.

Allowing greater autonomy, the teacher here is a resource person to whom the
learner can decide to turn to if needed usually in the Distance mode of education.

Project-Based/Task-Based Language learning :

“Project-based learning is an approach in which learners investigate a question, solve a problem, plan and
event, or develop a product” (Weinstein, 1999).Based on the constructivists, Experiential learning
,Learner Autonomy concepts projects provide hands-on experience to real life learning and helps acquire
skills for the 21st century. Project work focuses on content learning rather than on specific language
targets where as Tasks are activities which get the student to process language features. However the
focus is overtly on the meaning-making and covertly on the language. The teacher is a project manager,
facilitator, traffic cop, partner, consultant, conductors of a symphony of learning resources and
experiences for their students. Simkins, Cole, Tavalin&Means (2002).While the learner plays the roles of
of a peer tutor, Creative curriculum designer productive learning member and a teaching assistant.
1. Project work is student-directed.
2. Project work is cooperative rather than competitive
3. Project work leads to the authentic integration of skills and processing of information from varied
sources, mirroring real-life tasks.
4. Project work culminates in an end product that can be shared with others, giving the Project a real
purpose.
5. Project work is potentially motivating, stimulating, empowering and challenging.(Stoller, 2002)

The winding up: Implications

As kumaravadivelu( 1994 ) says of the Post- Method era that no method can
be superior over the other and that teachers need to be sensitive to learner
variables complementing which Prabhu (1983) says it is the teacher’s sense of
plausibility that is to decide the viability and practicality of the ‘method’ that suits
their contexts and learning styles. The knowledge of the pedagogic & content
coupled with reflection on the teacher’s part now puts greater responsibility on the
teachers. The language teacher now has to look into broadly the following-

○ Involving the whole person

○ Encourage and develop the personality, identify and self-
esteem.
○ Develop the knowledge of the process of learning
○ Allow for individual choice, differences
○ Individualize learning
○ Encourage and foster peer/group collaborated work
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 Dr.Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

○ Work on a one-to-one basis.

In conclusion Widdowson (1990), giving a word of caution to the teachers

regarding the influx of ideas from various fields, advocates a model of mediation
(where by the teacher looks for relevance of the theory/ idea to her contexts) with
two interrelated-interdependent processes-appraisal and application.

Application = Interpretation ----------------- Conceptual evaluation

Application = Operation -------------------- Empirical Evaluation.

Unlike Diane Larson-Freeman, Widdowson says that a head-down-jump at whatever

technique method that comes to hand would sound haphazard but not ‘eclectic’ and
since the stage of ‘evaluation’ includes both the teaching point-of-view and the
learning-point-of-view, it would sound logical to involve the learners rather than
treating them as ‘guinea pigs’ to be experimented over seeing them as their
partners, co-learners, co-discoverers, co-negotiators, co-assessors will make both
teaching a fulfilling experience and learning worthwhile. The message is loud and
clear for the teacher there’s emphasis on enhancing the teacher-practices-reflection
rather than on the ‘method’ that the teacher will follow.. NCFTE 2009 recognises the
potent effect that a teacher has on the learner and learning. A teacher’s
effectiveness depends on her training, her willingness to learn as a learner from her
learners, her beliefs and attitude that undergo dynamic changes with in-service
training, reflection and self monitoring. I believe that it is not just the contentual
and pedagogic knowledge that influence a teacher and her practices but the way
she views language, her beliefs, attitudes and the on-going reflection of what will
work and what won’t work play a very vital role.
It is well known that the quality and extent of learner achievement are
determined primarily by teacher competence, sensitivity and teacher
motivation.-Siddique NCFTE Document.

Therefore I believe that Shulman’s model needs to account for these aspects also.
Therefore the model could be something like this, though this model needs to be
empirically established – it is a teacher’s intuition that has formulated this model.
For, as Siddique in the NCFTE 2009 Document says - Knowledge is a continuously
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 Dr.Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

evolving process of reflective learning. This paper concludes on a note that as

teachers become eclectic and reflective the Teacher’s Knowledge Base becomes
dynamic and keeps changing with newer insights their experiences brings into
language teaching and learning therefore the model which is cyclic in nature.
The 21t century hs started visualing teachers as professionals and expect a teacher
to be sensitive ,flexible, and responsive to the learners’ and the society’s needs and
demands.
Modified (proposed) Shulman’s (1986) Model

Teacher’s Knowledge Base

Formal Research
1. Contentual Knowledge
2. Pedgogic Knowledge
1. Access to
3. Curriculum Knowledge
journals, 4. Knowledge of Learner and
Teache
books,new Their Characteristics.
r Teacher
5. Knowledge of Educational
sletters. beliefs attitude
Objectives, ends, values &
2. Peer purposes.
reflectio
collaborati 6. Knowledge of Educational
nAction
Contexts.
on

3. Seminars

Teacher As
Active Mediator
and Transformer

Bibliography

1. Kumaravadivelu, B. (1994). The post method condition: Emerging strategies

for second/foreign language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 27-49.
2. Stoller, F. L. (1997). Project work: A means to promote language and content. FORUM 35/4.
Retrieved March 19, 2002, from World Wide Web: http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/
vols/vol35/no4/p2.htm

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 Dr.Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

3. Lee S. Shulman, 1987 “Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New

Reform,” in Teachers, Teaching, and Teacher Education, ed. M. Okazawa-Rey,
J. Anderson and R. Traver (Cambridge: Harvard Educational Review,), 313-34.
4. Jacobs, George M., Farrell, Thomas S. C. 2003. Understanding and
implementing the CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) paradigm. RELC
Journal 34:1. 5-30.
5. Lee S. Shulman “Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching,”
Educational Researcher (February, 1986): 4-14.
6. Brumfit C J and Johnson . K (1979) The Communicative Approach to Language
Teaching Honkong .OUP.
7. Cousin B ( 1981) The role of tutor or helper in a self directed EFL course-
Sterling experience in Self Directed Learning. Ed by David Carver (1981).
8. Widdowson H G (1990), Aspects of language learning ,Honkong, CUP.
9. Prabhu, N. 1987. Second language pedagogy: a perspective. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
10.The NCFTE 2009 document.
11.Weinstein, G. (1999). Learners’ lives as curriculum: Six journeys to immigrant
literacy. McHenry, IL: Delta Systems.

12. Simkins, M.,Cole, K., Tavalin, F., and Means, B.(2002). Increasing student learning through
multimedia projects. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

13.
14. Widdowson H G(1979) Explorations in Applied Linguistics, London, CUP.
15. Fried-Booth, D. (2002). Project work. New York: Oxford University Press.
16. NCFTE Document -2009 under Review. Downloaded from the net.
17. Gulbahar H. Beckett (2005), “Academic language and literacy socialization through project-based
Instruction”, Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 15:1 191–206.

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 Dr.Kishore Kumar
Course: Theoretical Foundations In Language Teaching
Assignment done by: Uma Maheshwari C

Teacher’s Knowledge Base

Appendix A

1. Contentual Knowledge
Shulman’s Model of Teacher Knowledge.(1987)
2. Pedgogic Knowledge
3. Curriculum Knowledge
4. Knowledge of Learner
and Their Characteristics.
Teacher As 5. Knowledge of Educational
Formal Research Active Mediator Objectives,ends,values &
and purposes.
1. Access to Transformer 6. Knowledge of Educational

journals, Contexts.

books,new

sletters.

2. Peer

collaborati
ACTION
on

3. Seminars

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