r' .

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-
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i
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1"
Lesson 4
-
Assuring Component Life
Lesson 5
-
Testing Design ConcePts
'!*'''
-:
1
49\V-
9
20
25
PENTON EDUCATION DIVISION
PENTON BUILDING CLEVELAND, OHIO 44113
A ffiAS[C
COURSE
Eru FRACTTI
RE M ECHAIUECS
Pkfr/,6ld
Prepared bY
CARL C. OSGOOD
Member. Technical AdvisorY Staff
Astro-Electronics
D iv-
RCA
princeton, N. J.
for
MACHINE DESIGN Magazine
CONTENTS
'
t !:rt r '
lt-_l__-:--tl
I-esson I
-
VifLaL rs rtautulc lYlcuiiairiu)'
Lesson 2
-
Building
on the F-undamentals
Lesson 3
-
Applying
Fracture Mechanics to Design
15
Rt
c -{//-
'-ji
--/'
!.
I
i
Copyrlqht l97l by Th. Prnton h'rbtlthlng Co'. Clcvtlrn<t' Ohlo'44113
f7
.8
0, basic course in
racture mecha,nics
What ls
Fracture Mechanics?
tsuilding on the
Fundamentals
Applying Fracture Mechanics
to Design
Assuring
Gomponent Ufe
I esttng
Design Concepts
Lesson 1
D
n
D
n
What is
Fracture
Mechanics?
Fnacrtrnrs can occur in pipelines, pressure vessels,
ship hulls, and aircraft structures at stresses below
the yield strength of the structural materials. Such
failures have often come as a surprise to both
user and designer because all t h e conventional
strength-of-materials rules had been followed. Oh-
viously, something was overlooked-<lr
not lmown
-in
tJre design process.
Conventional design theories account for stress,
material strength, and stress-concentration factors
at fillets, corners, and holes. But they do not con-
sider the flaws and minute cracks inherent in all
materials. When ductile materials such as alumi-
nrun, copper, and most steels are stressed, they
deform plasticaily around the tips of these cracks
and absorb local overloads. But when a material
cannot behave in a ductile mannsl-5ush as when
it is near or belovr its transition temperature, when
srrain rate is high (as in impact), or when the
stress system is complex and the material is phys-
ically constrained-it can fail at a relatively low
stress level.
Enter
f
rccture mechanics.
The concept of fracture mechanics recognizes
these basic facts of life-noncontinuity and non-
homogeneity-and provides a numerical method to
r
sa
I
psetend that you're
the captain of a Liberty ship, pounding in a heavy
sea
in the North Atlantic during the winter of lg4l..
fhe
ship's so new that rust has barely had time to set in.
5uddenly,
you
feel the deck .trembte, hear the snap of steel cracking,
and
see the bow drift away.
You've iust
observed what happens when sq:called ductile
metals
don't behave in a ductile mannsl-which is what fracture
mechanics
is all about.
Here
is the first part
of a five-part course that will explain how the
concept
of fracture mechanics evolved, how to recognize designs
to
which it should be applied, and how to put the concept to work.
Nomenclature
a
=
Half crack length, in-
E
=
Modulus of elasticity, psi
G
=
Crack driving force, lb
K
=
Stress-intensity factor, psi-in-)l
Kl"
=
Critical stress-intensity factor for simple cracking.
Psi-in-*
Kr
=
Stress-conceatration factor (local stress/gross
stress)
Q
=
Proportional constant for stress-lntensity-factor
equation
R
=
Resistance to crack propagation, lb
r
=
Polar coordinate (radius), ln
T
=
Surface tension, ln -Ib
t
=
Sheet thict
ness,
ia-
U'= PotenUal energy, iL-Ib
x
=
Factor of lVestergaard equetion
)
=
Factor of Westergaard cquation
Zt
=
'rfr/estcrgaard
functloa
a
=
Angular polar coordinate, deg
p
=
Radius of crack 6p, ln-
o!
=
Tensile stress,. psi
r
=
Sbear stress, Dsl
'Subscript
c identifies tle decrea-se iu fotential
eoergl'
due to deformation; o, the
potential
energy
prior to inducing
a crack; and T, tle increase in potential energy due to e
new surface-
'
tPrime indicates first differeotial
lSubscript x' y, and ry indicate tbe direction or plane Iu
which a stress lies.
account for minute cracks in materials. The frac-
ture-mechanics design parameters are: a tough-
ness (enerry-absorption) factor, applied stress, size
of crack, operating temperature, and t}te "state
of
st1g5s"-qrfuigfi is often far more complor t]an
that usually assumed.
This concept can be applied to any solid material,
although
most testing to date has been concentratd
on metals-
Reoson for Doubt
Early work on the effects of notches and holes
on
local stresses accounted for these discontinui-
r.h
/r1
o
Jr r
3 in.
l'
L0.00t
\
Lo.
305
rl
| 2 4 5 810 20 40 60 80100 200 400
0istorxe Aheod ot t{olch Tip lt0-3 in.)
.Fig-
l-Effect of crack-tip radiu!,. pr on stress eround
thc crack in err infioite plate C-urvcs iadicete dret
sre$-concentration fectors K, near a small cra& are
lerge, but not as lerge es drorc dcrived from the cooven-
tionel gcooctric apprech
1
rRclcrrocs
t.bglrtc{ rt cr}d oC lgao-
._400
;
!
zoo
v,
o
G
t00
o$Q
,!60
6a9
o
o
J
2n

0
Gl0
0.r o.2 0.3
Tilckntg (in)
t-1
Yield Srenl
(ot
0-27J
tl
V
/
t,
rocl n:islon C,R
-200 -r00 0 t00 200 300 400
Temperoture (F)
Ei1,* z-C-omparison of coovenrionel mcclreoice-l
propcr'
ricl of a tyiicat low-alloy steel I'ith is resistrnce to
cncking.
t5
.E
Es ro
cv
9
t!5
Eto
Es5
g
lr,
0
?0
u -Cl
ar-
lo
E-
0
200
0.4
E _o
l5O
:o
vt=
ties in a stress field, but these early theories were
unable to treat fine cracks- For instance, ap.plying
conventional
stress-concentration
factors to. f i n e
cracks resulted in large, unrealistic values; these
values have.- been subs,equently
modified by frac-
ture-mechanics
concepi,
Fig- 1. Also, the purely
geometric approach did not consider strain' load-
ing rate, and toughness-
However, these theories did point out certain
inconsistencies
in understanding
a material's
me-
chanicalpropertiesthroughconventionalstrength-
of-materials
concepts-
In conventional
design
theories, elongation
is often considered
to be a
qualitative measure of a metal's ability to yield
upon loading, thus redistributing
the sLresses
-
and
reducing stress concentrations
to tolerable
values'
HowevJr,
evaluating
a material's
fracture
resist-
ance by ils ability to elongate
is faulty
bgcause
elongation
is not directly related to two very rm-
portint design
parameters: operating
temperature
Ld section thickness, Fig. 2- Simila.rly,
elongation
of steel remains
essentially
constant
with temper-
ing temperature,
Fig- 3; ihis fact has led to the
fal-se conclusion
thal tempering
to the maximum
Vield
strength is desirable
and does not appreciably
reduce toughness.
Actually,
using
yield strength
as a guidJ to selectin!
a tempering
temperature
produles the minimum
notch
(crack) strength'
Fie-
g.
Notch strength
is a function
of operating
temperature
and, for many steels' falls rapidly
just below room temperature'
Thus' conventional
iesign thinking
compounds
the danger
of abntpt'
brittle fracturJ of a material
thought
to be ductile
on the basis of its room-temperature
eiongation'
Two APProoches
The techriolory
of fracture
mechanics
is
pres-
.nUy based ott t*o approaches
that are some-
what complementary
and
give generally
similar
re-
sults. one
"ppro"ih
grerr/ from
the recognition
,trJ
bie"
d"ls''l
o s-"
ptaiti ei tv
a!
!.' lemPe-Ttqre-'st
The other, *or" *iiiuc"r
ipproich'
was derived
from consideraiiont
ot
:lr
tgggt-f-teld 'and 'the
ptasticzol._1!!hq!9.s--oJ-cg9!<s-
Transition'Temperature
Approach:
Every
materi-
al has a tempei.iut"
below
-which
it becomes
brit-
tle- In ttris conaition,
a material
cannot
plasti-
cally
yield to absorb stress concentrations
at crack
t6;; ;h"s it fractures
at a relatively
low stress'
Varioustestsshowthat,intlrepresenceofa
sharp
notch or defect, a material
undergoes
an
"Ut
tpt transition
from ductile
to brittle
behavior
over a narrow temperature
range'
These- tests are
based
on the change of a predetermined
material
pt"pa*V. togetttet,
ttt" tests,
properties''
and test
results
are
grouPed into four categorles:
. Tough'Frongible
(Brittle) Tronsition
Tempera-
t:urel
At this point' the. capability
of the material
,it'*i,nttand
gr6ss :piastic
deformation
in the
pi.t.tt..
of a crack decreases
rapidly
to near
zero-
.]ro"trre-Mode
Transition
Temperature:
Here'
ii'," mode
of crack
propagation
changes
with
Cecreasing
temperature
from fibrous
to planar
lot"utugej,
o' f'otn a full shear to a flat fracture
surface-
o
Fracture-Stress
Transitio
n Temperature:
At this
poinr, the fraciure
strength
of a sharply
notched
'rp".i*.n
decreases
rapidly
to well below the
yield strength'
.
Crach
- Arrest
Transition
Temperature
(CAT) :
Belorv
this temperature,
a running
crack cannot
be stoPPed.
Flxotxc
tHe Tn.c,NsrTtoN
RaNcE:
The Charpy
V-
notch impact
test is most often used to find the
)
transition
range
because
several
transition
1sryl-'
p.-t,r..r-inciuding
tough-frangible
and
-fracture-
mode temperatu,.'---+"tt
be determined
from one
set of data, Fig- 4-
Another test in the tough-frangible
category
de-
termines
the nil-ductility
transition
temperature
(NDT). This is a drop-weight
test that defines
the temperature
below
rvhich a notched
specimen
cannot
withstand
a small amount
of
plastic defor-
mation. A plate specimen
is supported
at the ends
and impact-loaded
at midspan'
A brittle weid bead
on the underside
(tension side) of the
plate is
the crack s'uarter.
The highest
temperature
at which
the sPecimen
breaks is the NDT'
Tests for the crack-arrest
ternperature
(CAT)
develop
a fast-moving
brittle crack and determine
the stress-temperature
conditions
necessary
to stop
the craclc In one test, a plate is loaded to a uni-
form tensile stress and a temperature
gradient is
applied across the width' A crack is started
l---
an'explosive
charge on the cold side of the
plar
---
The tensile stress- on the
plate keeps the crack
gi";*e until the crack reaches
a point where the
i"-p"ritut"
is high enough
to
permit sufficient
plastic flow to stJp the crack' Using a series of
tests where stress is varied, the stress-temperature
relationship
for crack arrest is found'
UstNc TRnxsntoN
Tt;vtpgReTUREs:
The transi-
tion-temperatuie
approach
to fracture
mechanics
is
used to compare
the fracture
resistance
of several
materials.
However,
its application
to design
may
be complex or, in some
instances'
impractical'
To
compare
materials,
almost
any of the various.transi-
tion categori.t
can be.used
with a reasonable
de-
gree of confidence;
the material
that has the lowest
transition
,u*p"-t"t"
(NDT' CAT'
etc') is likely
to be the most fracture resistant-
Results of transition-temperature
tests cannot be
expressed directly in load-carrying terms. However,
a fracture-analysis diagram (FAD)
--derived
from
laboratory tests and service failures-relates ap-
plied stiess, defect size, and temperature, Fig. 5.
This diagram is applicable to the structural grades
of steel (between y2
and 2-in- thick) that have
a pronounced ductile-to-brittle transition behavior.
Using the FAD and knowing one of the transition
temperatures (most commonly NDT), the com-
bination of stress and defect size that will cause
catastrophic failure can be approximated for a giv-
en material. Below the CAT curve, the probability
of crack propagation
is small. Above the CAT, the
constant fiaw-size cdrves show the stress-tempera-
ture combinations that will intiate fracture
For high-enerry tear materials, applying the FAD
:t'* i? ::"#::';,,1' liL, ffff ' :l . T,',flHH
tion temperatures (preferably NDT). Then, if you
know the applied stress, you can estimate the size
of defect required to start a brittle fracture. Con-
versely, if you know the operating temperature
relative to NDT and the size of a defect that exists
in a structure, you can estimate the stress t}at
will start a fracture-
Certain limirations restrict the general use of the
FAD. Because it is based on the stmctural grades
of steel that have an abrupt ductiletcr.,b;ti,l; X;:i.
tion, its use should be restricted to these materials.
It is not applicable to the ultrahigh-strength steels
or to aluminum and titanium alloys because t}ese
materials do not have this abnrpt transition be-
havior.
Stress-Analysis Approach: The analytical
apr
proach to fracture mechanics is based on the stress
field in the vicinity of the ever-present crack.
The
most useful way of determining this stress is from
the relationship between stress ahd changes in the
surface and potential
energiei of a.part-
This approach to fracture mechanics assumes
that a part contains only one crack with one plas-
tic zone at its tip. There is no need to consider
multiple cracks because failure is as complete
when
a part fractures into two pieces as it is into
three.
The stress analysis for fracture mechanics
be.
Froclure
opPeoronce
Encrgy
T, Tz Tr T{
Temptrolrre
-+
Fig.,{-Tnnsi tion ternpcnnrrcs and correspondia.B casrq.y
..vels obrined from Cherpy- V-notch
-
inpect ierc
7r,
is the trznsition rcrnp&rnrrc derermincd bi a fixed
levei
of impact cnergy Er (e lcvel rher can often bc estiaritJ
from producer" dea)- The fncrure-appc2nocc tnnsidoa
tempcnture (FATT), Tz (arbi,;erily
akea * 507o brittle
znd 50Vo shczr frzcture), ir uscd lo comparc thc fr:cnrre
resisance of differcnt mete.ie!' Ts ic the aridpoint
tear-
pcrenrier- with corre-tpondiag :"qtgy lcvel Ea. A[.*r ?r,
fracnrre is entirdy rhear.
r00
I
I
.o
Lz
o
a
st
,5
et
s
5
509
la
g
CD
gYs
rtt
=
l5O
C\
o
=
t00
E
o
c
O
;50
:s
c
o
o
b
c
o
fa,
250
200
4
34vs
r6vs
14
Ys
400 600 800 1,000 .
Tempering Temperolure (Fl
NoT+lzc
liq.
3--How remnerlng rcrnpccrure affccs
ud
notch
strength of a it"iot.ir iii.t-t
Fis. 5-Fncnrre analysis diegram (FAD). Tt-.c
OIT
cutrve is the critical strcs-tempcrature rcletionrhip
ftor
stopping a nrnning craclc- Orher curves above rre- CrtT
cJrve represcnt consnnt flew sizes and indicete combine-
tions of stress and tempcfilrure that rr.ill cause frecnrre.
1,200
elontedon
ield ttrength
(ot
0.2%l
Froclure
Stress
NOT NDI+60
Tenperolurr (Fl
gins
wift the theory of elasticity, but includes the
efts:t
of crack-tip plasticity.
C;'acx-SrABrt.rry
(GnrrrrrH) TecHNreuei Con-
sider
an infinite sheet of elastic material, subject
to uniform
biaxial stress q at infinity, into which
a cr;rck'of
length 2a ii introduced- Potential enerry
U of the system is:
g'=Uo-Uq-FU1
(l)
where
Uo is the potential energy prior to introduc-
ing the
crack, U. is the decrease in potential enerry
due to deformation (strain enerry and boundary
forct
work), and U. is the increase in surface
ener
ilJ due to the new surface. The
potential ener-
W
r'f
deformation is:
r o2o2t
tt
E
whr,re
t is the sheet thickness and E is the m@ulus
of elasticily of the material. The surface energ/
is ;imply the surface tension of the material, T,
timci
the new crack surface area.
Ur
=
latT
Combining Equations 1,2, and 3 gives:
t&o2t
Ur=Uo-T*4atT
E
The minimum
potentiat enerry
\*ith respect
to
crack size is a stable equilibrium
position, whereas
the ma:rimum potential energy is unstable' Thus,
the change in the potential enerry with respect
to
crack sii-e
(the first derivative of Equation 4) is
the erack driving force, G, and the resistance, R"
t&a
G=-=27-R
Cnncr-Tlp
Srness-FlElo AppnoecH: The most
common fracture is the direct opening of a crack'
where
thp motion of the crack face is normal to
the plane of the face (ModeJ)
,
Fig- 7- The elastic
streis field near the crack till can be described by
the theory of elasticity (i.e., plane stress or plane
strain). The analysis of the simple
(Mode I) crack
is applicable to more complex cases (lvlodes II and
III) where shear motion occurs between the crack
faces.
In general, a plane extensional linear elasticity
problem can be solved by finding a stress function
ihat satisfies a suitable biharmonic equation such
that the resulting stresses and/or displacements
also safisfy the given boundary conditions
of a
problem.
Forthesimplecrack,theWestergaardfunction'
in the form z
-
x * iy, has proved (both mathe'
matically and by experience) to "fi!" this apprcach
to fracture mechanics- Using this function,
t-he
stresses ctst oyt
and r'
are expresed by:
c,
-
fReallZ
-
Y[Imag]Z'
(6)
.*
o,=
fReallZ*YUmag)Z'
';
-- -Y[Real]Z'
where function z (z) will give stresses that' auto'
matically satisfy the elastic theory. Thus, oniy
fur.ction! z@) that satisfy the boundary conditions
of a crack
problem must be found
Near a crack tip, the adjacent crack surfaces
are
:|-::::-f:::, d!:t".f!:g the character of z(z) in that
vicinity. Assuming a coordinate origin at the right
end oi a crack
parallel to the x-axis, Fig. 8, z be'
comes:
;_
tG)
z*
where
f
(z) must approach a real constant'at
the
origin.
-Tttus,
r3, arrd c, appro?ch zero at the crack
siiriouc (i,iie su.-i"ii ;i siress-frle) - However,
S
character of
f
(z) at any distance from the crack
tip is unspecified and can be adiusted
to solve
-iny
configurations of simple symmetrical cracks
Therefore, in the crack tiP region:
(2)
(4)
(o
E
Equation 5 describes the unstable condltion
(un-
stairie
-irccause
this is a riiaidtrrtiur l*irtii
ior a
craek in a perfectly brittle material- Because
plas-
ticity and other effects in the crack-tip region in-
crease a material's. resistance to crack extension,
R
=
2I is only the approximate resistance to crack
propagation.
For ductile materials' t h e additive
ternrs are large compared to 2T. However, frac-
ture in brittle materials can be assumed to be an
enetry-nxts exchange where the rate of elastic
enurry available, G, opposes the material's dissipa-
tion rate, R. Rapid extension of a crack occurs
when
G exceeds R. (As a rule of thumb, tough
materials have Gs greater than 50 ft-lb
per in-:;
brittle materials have Gs smaller than this value.)
The relation between crack stobility and energy
rote is shown in Fig. 6. The available energy rate
increases with applied stress. Therefore, upon load-
ing. the material state (brittle or ductile) at any
time is the first intersection of the G and R curves,
and load can be lncreased until the instability
point
"
I
o,*o
where K1 is a real constant.
If polar coordinates (a
d) are fixed at the origin,
the stresses become:
(8)
t/ 2rz
r,=
KI
.cos
t
(t
tiEz\
r 3t \
-sin_.16_
I
(9)
22
c f r 3, \
.
cos-. I I *sin-. Jin- I
2
\
2 2t
K1
ty=:
{
2rr
i(r 0
,tu=:
'
3in-
!
2rr 2
03c
cos-. cos-
aa
hr*
The factor
K1, the crack-tip stress-intensit5r fac_
tor, is a constant
in that vicinity and depen-ds on
the body
configuration
and the mode of loading.
(The stress-intensity
factor should not be confused
with stress-concentration
factors, Kr, which are a
function of part geometry.)
Because
stresses
in Iinear erasticity depend liae.
arly on applied load, Equation
g
implies that stress-
intensity factors must be, in part,
composed
of
the load- Examining the dimensions
of Equation
g
thow-s
that K, must also contain length paiameters
for the bodies invorved,
incruding J.".t rength cr-
Thus,
I(r=
e. o,\l
From Equation L-the enerry criteria for crack
stability in brittle materials-instability
occurs at
a constant stress-field
intensity at tjre crack tip.
The stress fields surrounding
tjre tips of simpie
cracks have the same distribution
and airrer galy
in their intensity from one case to another. tLri,
unstable crack grofih
takes place
when intensity
Kr reaches a critical value, Kr". This value is a
material property
and reflects a material's abifiry
to withstand a given
stress at a crack-tip.
This value can be applied to cracks where a
small zone of plasticity
is present.
For a given
material, plasticity
always disturbs the elasti.lfiua
equation (Equation
9) in the same.way, and con-
sequently,
failure occurs at an
..apparent"
field
intensit5r,
K1. Also, K,
=
Kr" can
-be
used as a
"brittle fracture" criterion for ductile materials,
if the material's
resistance
curve is shaped like the
one shown in Fig. 6. This curve is iuitable for
most high-strength
materials, but it is often iaap
propriatc
for low strength and Ngh-toughness ma-
terials-
A summary of the stress-intenslry factors
is given
in Table l.
FrxprNc Srnrss-h.rreNslTy
Fectons: Tbe strex
intensity factbr, K, can be ob^iair.ed for;a:-;-;=
;;.-i
shapes from tJre theory of elasticity.
The
-o"i
O-
rect method is to compute K from the westergaard
O2
Hotf Croct trngth
Fig- fi-{reck ertension cnergy
G and
_R
vcrsus cnck tcngth
_foi
a?i iJeally
Vhen stress is low, G<R
""a-.oif.
Ta1l1t 1t
a.. When stress incrczses
ro
,.r
-
l(r the crack glows.
Mode Iii
Fis. 7-Thrcc displaccment modes for crack surfacer-
(10)
tlode
II
!t
5r
\i---
gE
c' !t
co
Fo
;e
n9
':t
oG
E
Fis- 8-Rehtionship
bcrwcen strcss-intcnsirv
fzctor K
3:,4
stress componints
in the
"ia;ry-"F-i
Jiai-U'p.
valucs r aad d are polar
coordi^oatcs..
o
clrssrpll'tron tzte
brittlc m:teriel.
lcngrb renirr
tlre poiot whcrr
lnslobilitt point
Slole ot lor :lre's
OirlorKc lron Crock Frml
sress
function, z, which must be estimated, on
die
basis of experience.
For specialists in the
ileor|
of elasticity, guessing
tl,e functions is noc
difficult.
But for the less experienced, techniques
for
finding K for_ two general c"ses are presented
below.
Case l: For the Griffith shape (an infinite
sheet
with an edge crack on the x-axis, extending
-a
I x
S o,
gdth
uniform bia-.cial stress, o, at in-
nrury)
the stress function is:
oz
L_ (ll)
vv4
where z
=
x + iy, with the origin at the center
of the crack- Boundary stresses, from Equation 6
Srei o,
=
s,
=
ol Txt
=
0, aS
lZl
*
co. On the CraCk
surface: o,
=
r,,
=
0. If the right-hand crack lip
is moved to the origin, z become s z * a-
o(z * o) (z * 2a)-n
z*
K, becomes:
j(12)
Kr
=
o(rra)'A (13)
which is the constant of proportionality for Equa-
tion 10.
Case 2: For an infinite sheet having a centrally
located crack with a pair of equal and opposite
wedge forces, P (force per unit thickness), at the
center of the crack prylng it open, the stress func-
tion is:
Pa
L-
Toble I
-stress-lntensity
Foctors
for Tensile Looding
B:slc Equation
Ky2
-
Qo%a
Modlbdng Faitor
Q.
Crack tlrough infinite Platej
Iuternal circular crack:
Internal elliptical cradc
Long surface crack (shallow):
Eliptical surface craclc
frf
g-J
o
I
l[(62-a\7c21
a
a
o
a
o
I
4lrrz
L/Q2
t.2
1.2162
sinzd dd
L_
From
rz!ffi
Whea this is compared with Equations 7
and the orign is relocatd at the crack
becomes:
where d is the angular polar coordinate
Cir-cular cracls c
=
crack radius
Eliptical cracls: a
=
Ienglh of semiminor axis
c
=
lengtb of semimajor axis
Questions
l. What parameter distinguishes tough materials
from brittle materials?
2. On a conventional stress-strain plot showing
both elastic and plastic aclion, which of the
following is true?
a- BrittJe materials can. exist at any yield
point
level;
b. Brittle materials can exist at any ultimate
. fracture lqvel-
'
3. Distinguish between the stress{oncentration
factor, Kr, and the stress-intensity factors, K,
Ro K1, K1", etc.
'
RrrrrExcEs
L Y. \FcEr rnd S !-kres-"Qrttlcrl Apprrts.l of frcturr
Xcclralc+" rrprbt troEB srrapostuEo oD ltrctur. Toutlacsr
TsdLDa r-Dd Itl Appllcrttoor, ASn{, STP No. 3EL 19Ea
2- J. L
qhrn;oD,
!r. rud \tr. F. Bmr.l. Jn-"Protltg tB ftrctutt
X.cb.lDlcr," llacEtxt DErcx, ldlr. 5, 19?0.
3. E- t. Wcucl,
j! rt
-"f,seJrrccrlaf
Mctbodr tor tbc D.:taE a!d.
Sehcuor ol !{rtcrlrlr Atallst l:leturc." W*tlaglottsr Res-
Irb.., AD tO10O5, Ju,nr 2{, 196{L
{. J. L SbrDloq, Jr.-"tr:rstun t{ccbrllcs," }[IcErNr DtE to}r,
EcpL 2a. 196?.
5. P. C. Prdr r,!d C. C. Sif"Strcss Alrtfie ol Craclr." ttlB
Totglts4tt. ?cttl*g aad, Itt Lr?ltcotlo t, A.gT!a,
gIP.
38L
Answers
'u5.(ttl8uOD
x (actog :Jo suolsuaup'-ar.fl r{1it'r
'uopern8lJuoc ued e
Jo
cllsFaloererp s!
leq]
q15m1 E
Jo
puE ssarts
p
Jo
slJnpord are faqa
'dp
4oere
B
lE
ssarls aql aqFosap pue 'stoleey
d11sua1u1-ssa4s arp sX aql
?oor
rlllou aql
le
ssa4s aql JaAo ssaJls uoll3as ssor8 'lEulruou aql
'sasruqs oAU
Jo
oltu ssaluolsuaulp aql sl
,X
'g
('araq pa:ou8J s1
fltult leuoluodo:d
pue
luld
plal/( uaaryrlaq uoll
-Jul?slp ,(uV)
';(11ec1rse1d
ur:ogap
?ou ll!/v\ ielral
-etu anllrq e 'uorllur;ap .,(g
'arul
sl q
luauralels
'Z
..'urf,
Jad 8Ja
ro r'ul
.Iad q1-11 u1 ,t11ecrd.(1 'earE
tlun
rad
IloA\
'I
)
fl
P
(r4)
and 8,
tip, Kr
(1s)
stress field dimin-
and running cracks
K1
-
(ra)'A
In this situation, the crack:tip
ishes as the crack gets longer,
are sometimes self-arresting.
Stress-intensity factors can also be computed
from stress-concentration factors as the notch
radius,
p, appnlaches zro. The maxirnum stress
occurs on the notch and is proportional to the
stress field around iL Thus:
K1
=
cc.".rpll (16)
where C is a constanl For an ellipticat hole,
taking the limit as
p
-+
0 gives C
-
ox/2. Thus:
.
tta
K1
=
lim-
---
'
glarr
p+0 2
This may be used to
I crack
pta ( l7)
lvlode determine K, for any
Next lesson further
of fracture mechanics.
I
I
J
explains the fundamentals