1

INTRODUCTION


Buckling, as opposed to simple strength problems such as drawing,
pressure, bending and shearing, is primarily a stability problem. Buckling problem number
among the best known technical examples in stability theory. Buckling plays an important role in
almost every field of technology. Examples of this are:

Columns and supports in construction and steel engineering
Stop rods or valve actuation and connecting rods in motor
construction
Piston rods for hydraulic cylinders
Lifting spindles in lifting gear

Compression members, such as columns, are mainly subjected to axial forces. The principal
stress in a compression member is therefore the normal stress,

However, when a compression member becomes longer, the role of the geometry and stiffness
(Young's modulus) becomes more and more important. For a long (slender)
column, buckling occurs way before the normal stress reaches the strength of the column
material. For example, pushing on the ends of a business card or bookmark can easily
reproduce the buckling.
For an intermediate length compression member, kneeling occurs when some areas yield
before buckling. The failure of a compression member has to do with the strength and stiffness
of the material and the geometry (slenderness ratio) of the member. Whether a compression
member is considered short, intermediate, or long depends on these factors. More quantitative
discussion on these factors can be found in the next section.







2

OBJECTIVE



1) To determine the critical load

2) Observing the deflection shape of column of four different
configurations.
























3

THEORY

The ratio of the effective length of a column to the least radius of gyration of its cross section is
called the slenderness ratio (sometimes expressed with the Greek letter lambda, ). This ratio
affords a means of classifying columns. Slenderness ratio is important for design considerations.
All the following are approximate values used for convenience. A short steel column is one
whose slenderness ratio does not exceed 50; an intermediate length steel column has a
slenderness ratio ranging from about 50 to 200, and are dominated by the strength limit of the
material, while a long steel column may be assumed to have a slenderness ratio greater than 200
and its behaviour is dominated by the modulus of elasticity of the material. A short concrete
column is one having a ratio of unsupported length to least dimension of the cross section equal
to or less than 10. If the ratio is greater than 10, it is considered a long column (sometimes
referred to as a slender column).Timber columns may be classified as short columns if the ratio
of the length to least dimension of the cross section is equal to or less than 10. The dividing line
between intermediate and long timber columns cannot be readily evaluated. One way of defining
the lower limit of long timber columns would be to set it as the smallest value of the ratio of
length to least cross sectional area that would just exceed a certain constant K of the material.
Since K depends on the modulus of elasticity and the allowable compressive stress parallel to the
grain, it can be seen that this arbitrary limit would vary with the species of the timber. The value
of K is given in most structural handbooks. If the load on a column is applied through the centre
of gravity (centroid) of its cross section, it is called an axial load. A load at any other point in the
cross section is known as an eccentric load. A short column under the action of an axial load will
fail by direct compression before it buckles, but a long column loaded in the same manner will
fail by buckling (bending), the buckling effect being so large that the effect of the axial load may
be neglected. The intermediate-length column will fail by a combination of direct compressive
stress and bending. In 1757, mathematician Leonhard Euler derived a formula that gives the
maximum axial load that a long, slender, ideal column can carry without buckling. An ideal
column is one that is perfectly straight, homogeneous, and free from initial stress. The maximum
load, sometimes called the critical load, causes the column to be in a state of unstable
equilibrium; that is, the introduction of the slightest lateral force will cause the column to fail by
buckling. The formula derived by Euler for columns with no consideration for lateral forces is
given below. However, if lateral forces are taken into consideration the value of critical load
remains approximately the same.
4



Where:
F = maximum or critical force (vertical load on column),
E = modulus of elasticity,
I = area moment of inertia,
L = unsupported length of column,
K = column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end support of the
column, as follows.
For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), K = 1.0.
For both ends fixed, K = 0.50.
For one end fixed and the other end pinned, K = 0.699....
For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally, K = 2.0.
K L is the effective length of the column.
Examination of this formula reveals the following interesting facts with regard to the load-
bearing ability of slender columns.
Elasticity and not the compressive strength of the materials of the column determines the critical
load.
The critical load is directly proportional to the second moment of area of the cross section.
The boundary conditions have a considerable effect on the critical load of slender columns.


5

The boundary conditions determine the mode of bending and the distance between inflection
points on the deflected column. The inflection points in the deflection shape of the column are
the points at which the curvature of the column change sign and are also the points at which the
internal bending moments are zero. The closer together the inflection points are, the higher the
resulting capacity of the column.
A demonstration model illustrating the different "Euler" buckling modes. The model shows how
the boundary conditions affect the critical load of a slender column. Notice that each of the
columns are identical, apart from the boundary conditions.
The strength of a column may therefore be increased by distributing the material so as to increase
the moment of inertia. This can be done without increasing the weight of the column by
distributing the material as far from the principal axis of the cross section as possible, while
keeping the material thick enough to prevent local buckling. This bears out the well-known fact
that a tubular section is much more efficient than a solid section for column service.

Another bit of information that may be gleaned from this equation is the effect of length on
critical load. For a given size column, doubling the unsupported length quarters the allowable
load. The restraint offered by the end connections of a column also affects the critical load. If the
connections are perfectly rigid, the critical load will be four times that for a similar column
where there is no resistance to rotation (in which case the column is idealized as having hinges at
the ends).
Since the radius of gyration is defined as the square root of the ratio of the column's moment of
inertia about an axis to cross sectional area, the above formula may be rearranged as follows.
Using the Euler formula for hinged ends, and substituting A r2 for I, the following formula
results.

Where F/A is the allowable stress of the column, and l/r is the slenderness ratio.
Since structural columns are commonly of intermediate length, and it is impossible to obtain an
ideal column, the Euler formula on its own has little practical application for ordinary design.
Issues that cause deviation from the pure Euler column behaviour include imperfections in
geometry in combination with plasticity/non-linear stress strain behaviour of the column's
material. Consequently, a number of empirical column formulae have been developed to agree
with test data, all of which embody the slenderness ratio. For design, appropriate safety factors
are introduced into these formulae



6

EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS


Column Buckling Apparatus
Uses : to get the load that has been given.




Diagram of Column Buckling apparatus.
7




Weights
Uses : act as loads on the beam.




Venire Caliper
Uses : to measure the size.


8



PROCEDURE

1. The apparatus on a level table was placed.
2. The three configurations on the apparatus were setup (a c).

a)


Two pin-ended column


b)


Fixed and fixed column


c)

Fixed and pinned column


9

d)


Fixed and free column



3. The weight on the top of the column until column deflects was applied.
4. The deflection shapes of the columns were observed. The shape of the deflection was
sketched.
5. Next step for the next configuration was repeated. The results record were obtained.
6. The shape of deflection was observed and compared. Then, the shape that finding was
discussed and compared with theoretical shape of deflection.















10

DATA





























11

DISCUSSION

Based on the experiment column and stability that have been done, data was
collected in order to determine the critical load and observation of the deflection shape of
column of four different configurations was done. The condition of the column was first, having
both ends pinned supported and both ends fixed supported. Next, is one pinned and one end
fixed supported while the last one was one end free and fixed supported column. The
calculation was done and final data were tabulated in table. The data calculated was being
compared with the theoretical value in order to see its percentage error by using this formula,

Percentage Error = Theoretical value Experiment
Theoretical value

From data calculated, the critical load for both ends pinned supported is 28N
while the theoretical value for this type of column is 30.394N and this shows that there are no
big differences between these two values. Their percentage error was 9.485%. The deflection
shape of this column was having a buckling occur onto it.
Next, the critical load for pinned and fixed supported is 14N while its theoretical
value was 9.97N respectively. Their percentage error was highly differ from what have been
predicted which is -40.42% and this show that the material, cross section and length could not
hold the compressive load that being given onto it. Buckling is occur to this column based on the
observation that have been made.
For the both fixed supported column, its critical load and theoretical value were
29N and 28.34N respectively. The value does not differ too much and its acceptable. The
percentage error for this column were too small which is -2.33% and also its deflection shape
was buckling and bend over from its supporter when it reached its reasonable length.
For column that have fixed and one free supporter, its critical load was 8N and its
theoretical value is 6.88N which indicate that the experiment data was not too highly differ from
theory value. The percentage error for this type of column was -16.28% which slightly higher
than its supposed too. This maybe because of error that occur during conducting the
experiment or reading taken was not accurate and does not follow the procedure given. The
deflection shape for this column is its bend over from the supporter and having a buckling curve.
Finally, the experiment conducted was successfully done and data collected was
being analyze carefully. The final results was accepted and the error that occur during
conducting this experiment have been handled thoroughly.


12

CONCLUSION

In this report an experiment to determine the critical load and to observe the
deflection shape of the column has been presented successfully. As the experiment were
finalize the data was compared with the result obtained theoretically. The data obtain from this
experiment was tabulated in a table. As for conclusion, the average data collected shows that
most of the point and load been distributed have higher percentage of error from the theory.
Therefore, the experiment and data gain were merely acceptable.






















13

REFERENCES


- INTERNET
http://scholar.google.com.my/scholar?q=column+stability+lab+repo
rt&btnG=&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&as_vis=1 (12.42 a.m.)(2 OCT
2014)
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/solid_mechanics/columns/intro.cf
m (12.50 a.m.)(2 OCT 2014)
http://www.scribd.com/doc/215644454/Experiment-No5-column-
stability (1.03 a.m.)(2 OCT 2014)