Introduction To Fiber Optics PDF

R
Telecommunications and Energy Networks Division

Daniel Daems - September 1997
I N T R O D U C T I O N I N T R O D U C T I O N
T O T O
F I B E R O P T I C S F I B E R O P T I C S
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Introduction to Fiber Optics
CONTENTS
WHAT IS FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION?............................................... 3
HISTORY OF FIBER OPTICS ....................................................................... 4
BASICS OF OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION............................................ 7
Index of Refraction.................................................................................................. 7
Total internal reflection: Snells Law..................................................................... 8
Decibel (dB) Definition......................................................................................... 10
TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS..................................................................... 11
General .................................................................................................................. 11
Multimode, Step Index.......................................................................................... 12
Multimode Graded Index Fiber ............................................................................. 13
SingleMode Fiber ................................................................................................ 14
Production of Optical Fibers ................................................................................. 16
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBERS............................................... 18
FIBER OPTIC CABLES ............................................................................... 19
Why are cables needed? ........................................................................................ 19
Fiber Optic Cable Constructions ........................................................................... 20
FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION............................................................... 25
Light Sources......................................................................................................... 25
Detectors................................................................................................................ 30
TDM: Time Division Multiplexing....................................................................... 31
Comparison With Copper Networks ..................................................................... 32
References:
Optical Fiber Systems Technology, Design and
Applications
Charles K. Kao
McGraw-Hill Book Company
Technicians Guide to Fiber Optics
Donald J. Sterling, Jr.
Delmar Publishers Inc.
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WHAT IS FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION?
THE TRANSPORTATION OF OPTICAL SIGNALS THROUGH AN
OPTICAL FIBER
CODER
SEQUENCES OF
PULSES (BITS)
INFORMATION
LIGHT
SOURCE
PULSES
OF LIGHT
DECODER
OUTPUT PULSES OF CURRENT
FIBER
DETECTOR
Principles of voice transmission
A voice will create an analog modulated electrical signal in the phone.
A coder or analog to digital converter will transform the analog electrical signal
into a digital electrical signal.
Digital electrical signal consists of electrical pulses.
These pulses will drive a light source.
Optical pulses are then sent through an optical fiber to a detector.
The detector will transform the optical pulses back into electrical pulses.
A digital-to-analog converter will regenerate an analog electrical signal from the
incoming digital signals.
This analog electrical signal is transformed back into an analog acoustical
signal in the telephone set.
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HISTORY OF FIBER OPTICS
First Experiments With Light Transmission
Sunlight
Water
Water jet
In 1890, John Tyndall demonstrated that light could be bent around a corner
when it travels through a jet of pouring water.
He claimed that light was guided through the water beam by total internal
reflection of the light.
Light travelling in a medium with a high refractive index (water) surrounded by a
medium with a lower refractive index will be reflected at the contact surface of
the two media.
This principle of total internal reflection is still used in optical fiber transmission.
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HISTORY OF FIBER OPTICS (CONT.)
Bell's Photophone
RECEIVER
TRANSMITTER
200 meters
An Early Free-Space Optical System
In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell patented a telephone which used modulated
light to carry speech.
A series of lenses and mirrors brought sunlight onto a flat mirror attached to a
mouthpiece.
The voice vibrated the mirror, thereby modulating the incident light.
The receiver was a selenium detector whose electrical resistance varied with
the intensity of the modulated light.
Bell managed to transmit voices over a distance of 200 meters.
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HISTORY OF FIBER OPTICS (CONT.)
1927 Baird and Hanell use optical fiber bundles to transmit television
screen information to another location.
1960 The first laser was built.
1966 A technical study by C. Kao and C. Hockam proposed that optical
fibers could be competitive to copper wires when losses could be
reduced to 20 dB/km.
1970 Production of the first optical fibers with losses below 20 dB/km
(Corning).
1970 First semiconductor laser.
1973 Optical fibers with losses of 4 dB/km (@ 850 nm).
1974 Optical fibers with losses of 3 dB/km (@ 850 nm).
1976 Fusion splicing machine to interconnect fibers.
1976 Low loss fibers (0.5 dB/km @ 1300 nm).
1977 First commercial transmission systems based on optical fibers.
1979 Optical loss of fibers 0.2 dB/km @ 1550 nm
1983 Singlemode optical fibers commercially available, but too difficult
to use.
1985 Telecom industry standardises on singlemode fiber.
1986 FOSC 100D (mainly for trunk and junction networks).
1989 FOSC 100B (smaller size).
1993 FIST (for distribution networks).
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BASICS OF OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION
INDEX OF REFRACTION
n = 1
n = 1.5
Velocity = c Velocity v < c
The refractive index, symbolised by n, of a material is the ratio of the velocity of
light c in free space (vacuum) to its velocity v in a specific material:
n= c/v
The velocity of light in free space is about 3.108 meter/second.
Light in a medium with a higher index of refraction (like glass or water) will
travel slower than light in free space.
Typical values for refractive index are:
water 1.3
glass 1.5
air 1.0003
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BASICS OF OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION (CONT.)
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION: SNELLS LAW
Light passing from a material of higher
refractive index to one of a lower one
refracts away from the normal.
A small portion of the light is reflected on
the interface of the 2 media with different
refractive index.
When the angle 1 of the incident light is
increased, the angle 2 of the refracted
light will increase too.
n2
n1
1
2
n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2
When the angle 1 of the incident light is
chosen in such a way that the angle 2
of reflection becomes 90, the angle 1
is called the critical angle c.
If the angle 1 of the incident light
increases beyond the critical angle all
light is totally reflected back at the
interface.
n2
n1
1 1
1
>
c
= 1/sin (n
2
/n
1
)
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Core
Cladding n2 = 1.46
n1 = 1.48
Coating
c
NA
Acceptance cone
Numerical Aperture: NA = sin
NA
= n
1
. cos
c
where the critical angle:
c
= Bgsin (n
2
/n
1
)
Only light that enters the fiber core with an angle smaller than the angle NA
will be propagated in the core.
These angles form a cone, called the acceptance cone.
The numerical aperture NA is another measure for the angle of the acceptance
cone.
Light which enters the core with an angle above the angle NA will escape
from the core and will be lost in the cladding of the fiber.
Typical values
Step index multimode: NA = 0.2
Singlemode: NA = 0.11
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DECIBEL (DB) DEFINITION
dB (loss) = -10 log
10
(P
OUT
/P
IN
)
where: P
OUT
= Power out (in Watt)
P
IN
= Power in (in Watt)
Example
If the power out is only half of the power in:
dB loss = -10 log
10
(1/2) = 3 dB
Note that the loss expressed in dB gives only a relative expression of the power
loss.
The absolute power loss is not known (the wattage value lost is unknown).
The optical loss through a fiber is expressed in dB/km.
Optical fibers manufactured today will have a loss of 0.3 dB/km for light with a
wavelength of 1550 nm.
This means that for a 1 km length of optical fiber the outgoing optical power is
93% of the ingoing optical power.
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TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS
GENERAL
Multimode, Step I ndex.
These fibers are hardly used in telecommunication networks today because of
their limited bandwidth.
This is expressed by the bandwidth-length figure (100 MHz.km for step index
multimode fiber).
The bandwidth expresses the maximum amount of information per second that
can be sent through a fiber.
In this case you can send:
100 MHz through 1 km of fiber
500 MHz over 200 meters of fiber
Multimode step index fiber is still used in very specific applications, e.g. in the
nuclear industry using radiation resistant fibers.
Multimode, Graded I ndex.
These fibers are more difficult to make because of the complex refractive index
profile in the core.
Graded index fibers will have a larger bandwidth compared to the step index
multimode fibers (up to 1000 MHz.km).
These graded index multimode fibers are mainly used in Lans (Local Area
Networks).
SingleMode, Step I ndex
The production of these fibers requires high precision due to the small tolerances
on the dimensions.
About 85% of world-wide production is singlemode fiber.
This fiber type guarantees the largest bandwidth (100,000 Mhz.km), with
electronics as the limiting factor for the bandwidth.
Coating
Cladding
Core
These fiber types will be discussed in more detail in the following sections.
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TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS (CONT.)
MULTIMODE, STEP INDEX
Core
Cladding
Higher order mode
Fundamental mode
125 m 50 m
Index profile
A mode can be considered as the path that a light ray follows when travelling
through a fiber.
Each mode carries a quantity of optical energy.
In a multimode step index fiber with a 50 m core over 1000 modes can exist.
The path length for each mode will be different and therefore light rays will take
different times to travel the length of the fiber.
This spreading of light energy is called modal dispersion and causes the
spreading of the light pulse when travelling through the fiber.
Eventually, 2 pulses will merge together and cannot then be distinguished from
each other.
Optical fiber
Pulses
Pulses merged
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MULTIMODE GRADED INDEX FIBER
Core
Cladding
125 m 50 m
Index profile
By using a parabolic refractive index profile in the core the refractive index in
the central axis of the core will be higher than that at the outside of the core.
Due to this profile, a light ray diverging from the center of the core will be
gradually bent until it rejoins the center of the core.
Light thus travels through the fiber in a sinusoidal pattern.
Light travels faster in a lower index of refraction.
Hence those rays that follow the longest path by travelling near the outside of
the core will have a faster velocity in this region.
In contrast, light travelling near the center of the core has a lower velocity.
As a result, all rays tend to reach the end of the fiber at the same time.
This graded-index fiber reduces modal dispersion to less than 1 ns/km.
In addition, pulse spreading will be lower and therefore a higher bandwidth can
be achieved.
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SINGLEMODE FIBER
Core
Cladding
125 m 10 m
Index profile
Modal dispersion can be eliminated by reducing the cores diameter until only
one mode is propagated through the fiber.
Singlemode fibers have a very small core diameter ranging from 7 to 10m.
Higher order modes will immediately disappear into the cladding. Because
there is no modal dispersion, the available bandwidth is increased to
100 GHz.km.
Singlemode transmission only occurs when the transmitted light has a
wavelength above a certain limit, called the cut-off wavelength. Below the
cut-off wavelength the fiber will act as a multimode fiber. Typically the cut-off
wavelength is around 1200 nm.
Not all single-mode fibers use a step index profile.
More complex designs like depressed cladding are used to optimize the
transmission at a certain wavelength.
Index
Radius
Index
Radius
Step Index Depressed Cladding
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Fiber types are designated according to the type of protective coating:
Primary-coated fibers (diameter 250 m).
Secondary-coated fibers are primary-coated fiber with an extra coating (diameter
900 m).
Ribbonized fibers (or ribbon) are primary-coated fibers placed next to each other
in one plane.
An acrylate coating or polyester tape keeps the fibers together.
Typically 4-, 8- and 12-fiber ribbons are used; but in the past 2-, 6- and 10-fiber
ribbons existed too.
Today, some manufacturers are planning for 16- and 24-fiber ribbons.
Advantage of ribbons:
less time is required to splice a large number of fibers.
Disadvantages:
splice loss is higher than for single-fiber splices due to the lack of individual
fiber alignment.
Todays ribbon fusion splicing machines only use V-groove alignment.
At the equipment side of the network the fibers need to be separated from the
ribbon, by ribbon fan-out.
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PRODUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBERS
Several techniques are used to make optical fibers.
Most of them first make a preform made out of pure silica glass.
This pure glass can only by made by gaseous chemical reactions.
This is the only way to reduce the number of impurities to 10 - 50 parts per
billion. Impurities like iron and copper atoms will cause attenuation of light
inside the fiber.
Later, optical fiber will be made out of the preform.
The following techniques exist to make preforms:
OVD: Outside Vapour Deposition (Corning)
VAD: Vapour Axial Deposition (Japan)
MCVD: Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition (AT&T)
PCVD: Plasma Chemical Vapour Deposition (Philips)
Most production techniques are based on the chemical reaction of gasses
(SiCl
4
, O
2
and CH
4
) at temperatures of between 1000 and 1500C.
Glass is deposited onto an existing glass tube or rod.
The refractive index can be increased by adding germanium (as GeCl
4
) to the
gasses.

O
2
flow meters, mass
flow controllers and
manifold
O
2
H
2
multi-burner
torch
deposited core
glass layer
O
2
Cl
2
exhaust
dust
fused quartz tube
SiCl
4
GeCl
4
bubblers
BCl
3
translation
The end product is a preform with a diameter of 5 cm and a length of 30 cm.
From this the fiber will be made in subsequent production steps.
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PRODUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBERS (CONT.)
The preform contains the core and cladding in the correct dimensional
proportions.
By heating the preform a fiber can be drawn from it.
The fiber is immediately protected with a UV curable polymer coating to prevent
mechanical degradation of the glass surface.
18/09/97
Waveguide Draw Schematic
tensile strength
monitor
winding
drum
drawing
tractors
coater
waveguide
diameter
monitor
furnace
preform
downfeed
mechanism
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CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBERS
Attenuation
Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels through a fiber.
It is caused by 3 factors:
Raleigh scattering,
absorption, and
bending losses.
Raleigh scattering is the loss of optical energy due to imperfections in the fiber
and from the basic structure of the fiber.
Scattering decreases rapidly at longer wavelengths.
Absorption: Higher wavelengths above 1700 nm are heavily absorbed by the
glass molecules.
Impurities like water- (OH
-
), iron- and copper-ions will absorb optical energy in the
regions of 1250 nm and 1390 nm.
Bending: (micro and macro bends). Excessive fiber bending will cause the critical
angle for total internal reflection to be exceeded.
Light will escape from the core and will be lost inside the cladding.
This phenomenon can be utilised to tap off light from a fiber without breaking the
fiber (= bent fiber coupler).
The spectral attenuation curve of an optical fiber is shown below:
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Wavelength (nm)
0
.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5 Attenuation (dB/km)
Absorption peak
of water
1st window 2nd window 3rd window
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FIBER OPTIC CABLES
WHY ARE CABLES NEEDED?
To Protect Fibers During I nstallation
Cabling will protect the fragile optical fibers from mechanical or environmental
influences.
Todays fiber optics cables are made in such a way that can be installed as if they
were copper cables (pulling through ducts, direct buried).
Only a few limitations need to be taken into account, i.e. maximum pulling force
and bend diameter.
Protection of Fibers During Cable Lifetime
When properly specified, fiber optic cables can survive in any environmental
condition that can be imagined.
This requires the correct construction and material choice for all cable elements.
Fiber I dentification
After the cabling process the fibers can still be individually identified.
This is achieved by using color codes or location in the cable.
Fibers need to be bundled in such a way that they are easy to retrieve from the
cable (for example when they need to be spliced to other cables).
Maintaining Optical and Mechanical Properties of Fibers
The cabling process should be done in such a way that the fibers are not put
under mechanical stress.
The optical characteristics of the fiber should not be affected during the lifetime of
the cable.
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FIBER OPTIC CABLES
FIBER OPTIC CABLE CONSTRUCTIONS
4 basic cable designs are used today:
Loose tube
Slotted core
Central core
Tight buffer
These cable constructions use different cable jacket materials and types of
mechanical protection, depending upon the environment or application.
Cable jacket materials are polyethylene, polyurethane, PVC or Teflon.
Mechanical protection can be steel sheaths or wires, glass or aramid
yarns, etc...
Some cables are completely metal free (i.e. all-dielectric) to prevent
lightning strikes.
The number of fibers per cable can range from 1 to 1000! There are
even cables containing 5000 fibres!
Sometimes copper pairs are included in the cable to allow
communication when working on a cable or to allow the use of humidity
sensors.
Most cables are grease-filled to prevent the ingress of water when the
cable jacket is damaged.
Others are use materials which swell in the presence of water and hence
prevent its ingress.
Indoor cables are not generally grease-filled.
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Fiber Optic Cable Constructions (cont.)
Loose-Tube Cable
Loose-Buffer-Tube Cable Cross Section
In a loose-tube cable design the fibers lie in a buffer tubes having diameters
ranging from 1 to 3 mm.
Typically one loose-tube contains 4 to 12 primary-coated fibers.
The tube isolates the fiber from the rest of the cable and the mechanical forces
acting on it. As the cable expands or shrinks with changes in temperature, the
fibers are not affected.
The diameter of the loose-tubes depends on material choice, the temperature
range,minimum bend diameter, number of fibers, etc.
The fiber in the tube is slightly longer than the tube itself.
The overlength is about 0.1 to 0.3%.
Cable reinforcement elements:
The central strength members can be made of steel or fiberglass reinforced
epoxy rods.
It will give mechanical protection to the fibers against push and pull forces
during and after installation of the cable or during extreme temperature
variations.
In almost every cable aramid yarns or kevlar are used to give mechanical
protection against tensile stresses during and after installations.
This type of cable is used in: USA, UK, Germany, Belgium, The Netherlands, etc.
overcoated central
member
(steel/dielectric)
kevlar
PE jacket
fiber
loose tube
buffer (filled)
interstitial
filling
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Slotted-Core Cable
Slotted-Core Cable Design
A slotted-core cable consists of a grooved polymeric core extruded around a
strength member.
Each slot can contain several fibers (up to 18) or ribbons (up to 5 ribbons).
The slots perform in the same way as a loose-tube (keeping fibers free from
mechanical stress).
Slotted-core cables can have 2 to 12 grooves per core.
Slotted-core constructions for single fibers are no longer popular because of
difficulties in cable preparation.
However, slotted-core is gaining more interest for ribbon constructions.
The slotted-core cable design gives excellent protection in direct-buried
applications due to the crush resistance of the core.
Single fiber cables are used in: France, Sweden, Denmark, Italy, and New
Zealand.
Ribbon fiber cables are used in: Japan, Italy, and Sweden.
extruded plastic
fiber(s)/
twisted pair
heat-barrier
polyethylene
outer jacket
tensile member
(steel or dielectric)
R Page 23 of 32
Central Core Cable
Central core cable is used mainly in the USA and Finland.
The single fibers or ribbons are located in one big, strong tube.
The strength members are placed outside the centre.
AT&T's most popular ribbon cable hold 16 ribbons with 12 fibers/ribbon
(= 192 fibers in total).
The ribbons are stacked on each other inside the central tube.
coated fiber
polyester
tape
fiber core and
cladding
HDPE outer
sheath
intermediate
sheath
inner sheath
lightguide
ribbon
stainless
steel wires
R Page 24 of 32
Tight Buffer
The primary-coated fiber (250 m) is covered by an extra coating with a
diameter of 500 to 1000 m.
This secondary-coated or tight coated fiber is then covered by kevlar yarns to
give it mechanical protection during handling of the cable.
The cable jacket is a flame retardant PVC jacket.

This cable construction is used for patchcords (= connectors on both sides) or
pigtail cords (= connector on one side) in central offices (racks) or at customer
terminations, or in other words: at the extremities of the network.
This cable construction will also be used in cross connect points.
A similar construction exists with a primary-coated fiber inside a small loose-tube
(900m). This construction is called semi-tight.
flame-retardent
PVC jacket
kevlar
buffered fiber
(500 - 1000 m)
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FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION
LIGHT SOURCES
A light source converts the electrical signals into optical signals.
Two types of semiconductor sources are used in optical-fiber transmission:
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
LD (Laser Diode)
Advantages of LDs Compared to LEDs
Higher bit rates
High optical power output
Higher coupling efficiency into fiber
Small spectral width (results in less chromatic dispersion)
Disadvantages of LDs compared to LEDs
Threshold current (lasing starts above threshold current, typically 50 mA)
Complicated electronics
More expensive
Shorter lifetime
Depending on the required transmission bandwidth, distance and reliability, a
choice is made between the use of LEDs or LDs.
In general LDs are used in telecommunications while LEDs are more frequently
used in LANs (Local Area Networks) for data transmission.
R Page 26 of 32
FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION (CONT.)
Light Sources (cont.)
LED
+ -
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
The recombination of electron-hole pairs in the depletion zone of heavily doped
P-N junctions creates light.
The light emitted has a wide spectral width (i.e. many wavelengths are emitted).
A typical spectral width value is 100 nm.
Power
Wavelength (nm)
1300 1200 1400
100 nm
The refractive index, together with the velocity of light, depends on the
wavelength of the transmitted light.
When light is used with many spectral components at different wavelengths,
each component will travel at a different velocity through the fiber.
This is called material dispersion or chromatic dispersion.
The effect is very similar to modal dispersion.
Optical pulses with many spectral components will spread when travelling
though a fiber and this will limit the bandwidth of the transmission line.
The only way to solve it is to use a light source with a very narrow spectrum: the
laser diode.
R Page 27 of 32
LIGHT SOURCES (CONT.)
Laser Diode (LD):
emitting region
active layer
confining layers
(double
heterojunction)
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
There are many types of LDs, but all are based on the same physical
phenomenon.
Below a certain current, called the threshold current (typically 50 mA) the LD
will act as an LED.
Once the threshold current is exceeded a laser effect will take place. Photons
passing atoms in an excited state will pick up the energy from this atom and will
be amplified.
More photons are created and these photons will in turn create other photons
when passing excited atoms.
This avalanche effect will create a high power, monochromatic and coherent
light.
The spectral width of the emitted light is around 4 nm (compared to 100 nm for
an LED).
R Page 28 of 32
Power
Wavelength (nm)
1300 1200 1400
LED
LD
4 nm
With this small spectral width the chromatic dispersion will be negligable.
The optical pulses will not spread out and this will result in a huge potential
bandwidth
R Page 29 of 32
Coupling Efficiency
The following typical coupling losses are achieved for interconnections of sources
with fibers:
LD in singlemode fiber: 5 dB (32% into fiber)
LD in multimode fiber: 2.5 dB (56% into fiber)
LED in singlemode fiber: 30 dB (0.1% into fiber)
LED in multimode fiber: 12 dB (6% into fiber)
Despite the high coupling losses
the optical power can still be very
high inside the fiber.
Never look directly into the source
or into the fiber end of a cleaved
fiber or connector.
Remember that you can not see
the infrared light.
R Page 30 of 32
DETECTORS
A detector converts optical energy into electrical energy.
The most commonly used detector is the semiconductor photodiode.
A lightly-doped intrinsic layer separates the heavily-doped P-type and N-type
materials = PIN diode.
P I N
+ -
Light
V
+ -
Current
Light that falls in the depletion region will create an electron-hole pair.
These carriers will start to move when an electric field is applied to the diode
i.e. a current is generated.
The intensity of the current is proportional to the amount of incident light.
Avalanche photodiodes (APD) work on the same principle as the PIN diode, but
due to a stronger electrical field the generated primary electron-hole carriers will
generate secondary electron-hole carriers through collisions with neutral atoms.
As a result a higher current is generated for the same amount of light.
R Page 31 of 32
TDM: TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
A/D A/D A/D
Time Division Multiplexer
LD
Detector
Demultiplexer
D/A D/A D/A
Pulses shifted in time
Fiber
R Page 32 of 32
COMPARISON WITH COPPER NETWORKS
Advantages of Fiber
Lighter
No electromagnetic effects
No electrostatic interference (lightning)
Fewer amplifiers required
Large bandwidth (when using singlemode fiber)
Difficult to tap-off light without being detected
Disadvantages of Fiber
Relatively new technology (about 20 years of experience)
High cost in local access network
A cable accident can disconnect thousands of people because of the large
bandwidth per fiber (about 10.000 voices are possible per fiber)
Fiber handling can cause transmission errors in active fibers due to
uncontrolled bends

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