PH10005/53: VIBRATIONS, WAVES & OPTICS

Week Starts Monday

9:15
3WN 2.1
Thursday
12:15
CB 1.11
Friday
9:15
5W 2.3
19 3 Feb Leture 1 Leture 2
2! 1! Feb Leture 3 Leture "
21 1# Feb Leture 5 Leture $ Prob class 1
22 2" Feb Leture # Leture %
23 3 Mar Leture 9 Leture 1! Prob class 2
2" 1! Mar Leture 11 Leture 12 Prob class 3
25 1# Mar Leture 13 Leture 1" Prob class 4
2$ 2" Mar Leture 15 Leture 1$ Mock Exam
2# 31 Mar Leture 1# Leture 1% Prob class 5
2% # &'r Leture 19 Leture 2!
29 1" &'r Leture 21 Prob class 6
& revision
Holliday
Lectures contact details: Sergey Gordeev: Office 3W4.17
E-mail: s.gordeev@bath.ac.uk.
Recommended textbooks
1. P.. !i"ler& #.P. Mosca. Physics for Scientists and Engineers
(W.). Free*an and Co*'any+ "
th
or ,ater edition-.
This te.tbook ontains *ost o/ the basi sy,,abus+ but you 0i,,
need to su'',e*ent the* 0ith additiona, *ateria,.
2. H.$. Pain. The Physics of Vibrations and Waves (Wi,ey+ Chi hetser+ $
th
or
any other edition-+ 2!!5.
This book o1ers a,, the re2uired *ateria, but in a *ore
*athe*atia, 0ay than Ti',er.
3. E. Hec%t. Optics (&ddison Wes,ey+ any edition-
3ery 4ood book on o'tis.
". &. Halliday' R. Resnick & $. (alker. Fundamentals of Physics (Wi,ey+ %
th

edition+ e.tended-+ 2!!%
Si*i,ar to Ti',er 5 Mosa+ ontains *ost o/ the basi sy,,abus.
)*+R,E ,!R+)!+RE
I. Oscillations
II. echanical Waves
III. !eometrical Optics
IV. Wave Optics
_______________________________________________________
1
I. OSCILLATION
-. ,im"le Harmonic Motion
. ,/00ested Readin0
Pain Cha'ter 1 Simple Harmonic Oscillations
!i"ler Cha'ter 1" Oscillations
1.1. -ntrod/ction
Periodic motion is *otion o/ an ob6et that re4u,ar,y re'eats+ i.e.
the ob6et returns to a 4i1en 'osition a/ter a /i.ed ti*e inter1a,.
7.a*',es:
7arth8 Moon+ *o,eu,es in a so,id8 7,etro*a4neti 0a1es
(,i4ht-8 ,ok8 ,ouds'eakers8 brid4es8 ta,, bui,din4s.
3ery i*'ortant kind o/ 'eriodi *otion is a ,im"le Harmonic
Motion 1,HM2.
1.2. Mec%anics o3 ,im"le Harmonic Motion
9n osi,,atin4 *ehania, syste*s there is a,0ays a /ore that ats
to redue dis',ae*ent o/ an ob6et and return the syste* to
e2ui,ibriu*. This /ore is a,,ed the restoring force" F
r
.
& ty'ia, syste* that e.hibits S)M:
9n e2ui,ibriu* : no /ore on the ob6et.

S# occurs whenever the restoring force is linearly

proportional to the displacement from equilibrium and
opposite to the direction of the displacement, i.e. F
r
-x.
Mode,:
a- no /rition8
b- *ass o/ s'rin4 is
ne4,i4ib,y s*a,, in
o*'arison 0ith the
*ass o/ b,ok
When the ob6et is dis',aed+ the s'rin4 e.erts a restorin0 3orce
-kx+ as 4i1en by )ooke;s La0:
kx F
r

(1.1-
0here k is the onstant o/ 'ro'ortiona,ity bet0een the dis',ae*ent
and the restorin4 /ore+ a,,ed the spring constant (or force
constant-.
The *inus si4n in )ooke;s ,a0 arises beause the /ore is o''osite
the diretion o/ the dis',ae*ent.
<sin4 Ne0ton;s Seond La0 o/ Motion 0e 4et
ma kx x a m x F or ! " ! "

(1.2-
This an be 0ritten as:
x
m
k
dt
x d

(1.3-
9/ 0e a,u,ate the di*ensions o/ k#m then 0e /ind that this has a
di*ension o/ (ti*e-
:2
+ so
(1."-
0here
m
k

is an an4u,ar /re2ueny.
72. 1." is a seond order di//erentia, e2uation. 9t is o/ten re/erred to
as the differential e$uation of Simple #armonic otion.
9ts so,ution is
( ) + t A x cos
(1.5-
0here A and are de/ined by the initia, onditions (i.e. dis',ae*ent
and 1e,oity at t=!-.
&ordin4 72. 1.5+ /untion x(t) has the /or*:
<nits: >eriod: in ?seonds;+
Fre2ueny: f=1/T in ?)ert@;+
&n4u,ar /re2ueny:
f
in ?radians 'er seond;.
3
$

+ x
dt
x d

ma mg ky +
1.3 &is"lacement' 4elocity and cceleration
9/
( ) + t A x cos
Then 1e,oity is

! si%" + t A
dt
dx
v
(1.$-
and ae,eration is
x t A
dt
dv
a

! cos" +
(1.#-
Ara'hs (/or =!-:
Thus+
!elocity is "#$ out of phase with the displacement.
3e,oity is a *a.i*u* 0hen dis',ae*ent is @ero.
3e,oity is @ero 0hen dis',ae*ent is a *a.i*u*B
%cceleration is proportional to displacement and acts in the
opposite sense to the displacement.
Note that the *ini*u* isn;t the @ero 'oint. The dis',ae*ent+
1e,oity and ae,eration osi,,ate about @ero 0ith *a.i*u* /or
'ositi1e 1a,ues and a *ini*u* at their ,ar4est ne4ati1e 1a,ues.
The /re2ueny and 'eriod are re,ated to the sti//ness k o/ the s'rin4
and the 'arti,e *ass:
m
k
f

1

and
k
m
T
.
4
Note that s'rin4 onstant k is on,y a onstant /or s*a,,
dis',ae*ents .
Lar4e dis',ae*ents 0ou,d ause 'er*anent de/or*ation o/ the
s'rin4 and the syste* 0ou,d not osi,,ate 0ith S)M. This re*inds
us that SH& is only found for small displacements.
Example
&% air-track glider attached to a s'ri%g oscillates (ith a 'eriod of
1.)s. &t t*$ the glider is )cm left of the e+uilibrium 'ositio% a%d
movi%g to the right at 3,.3 cm#s.
"a! What are the am'litude a%d i%itial 'hase of the oscillatio%s-
"b! Write do(% a% e.'ressio% that describes 'ositio% of the glider
as a fu%ctio% of time.
"c! What is the glider/s 'ositio% at t*$.)s-
)
1.4. 5/rt%er exam"les o3 ,im"le Harmonic Motion
Fro* our basi de/inition+ 0e obser1e S)M 0hen the restorin4 /ore
is ,inear,y 'ro'ortiona, to dis',ae*ent. Then+ /or any si*',e
har*oni *otion+ 0e an 0rite out an e.'ression /or the force
constant0 k
! "
! "
t x
t F
k
x

so that
m
k

(1.9-
1.4.a. n *b6ect on a 4ertical ,"rin0
Shou,d take into aount 4ra1itationa, /ore mg in addition to the
/ore o/ the s'rin4 F
y
*-ky+ 0here y is the 1ertia, dis',ae*ent.
9n e2ui,ibriu*+ the s'rin4 is e.tended by a ,en4th y
$
.
,
&'',y Ne0ton;s seond ,a0 to the e2ui,ibriu* situation
to /ind y
o
:
$
$
ky mg
(1.1!-
For osi,,ations:
ma ky mg
(1.11-
This di//ers /ro* 72. 1.2 by the onstant ter* mg.
We an hand,e this e.tra ter* by han4in4 to a ne0 1ariab,e
y=y-y
0
.
For y+ 72. 1.11 redues to
(1.12-
and its so,ution is 72. 1.5 0ith x re',aed by y:
( ) + t A y cos
(1.5b-
1.4b. !%e ,im"le Pend/l/m
Model7 m is a 'oint
*ass onneted by a
*ass,ess+
ine.tensib,e strin4.
The restorin4 /ore a,on4 the ar o/ the ir,e:
si% mg F
r

(1.13-
7
The tan4entia, o*'onent o/ the ae,eration:

dt
s d
.
The tan4entia, o*'onent o/ Ne0ton;s seond ,a0 is thus

si%
dt
s d
m mg (1.1"-
For s*a,, an4,es
L
s
si%
:
$ or

+ s
dt
s d
s
L
g
dt
s d
(1.15-
and
( ) + t s s cos
$ 0ith
L
g

.
Thus /or small displacements+ the 'eriod o/ the 'endu,u* is
inde'endent o/ *ass o/ the bob and de'ends on,y on the ,en4th o/
the 'endu,u*.
Notie that the 'endu,u* does not e.hibit true S)M /or any an4,e.
9/ the an4,e is ,ess than 1!C+ the *otion is ,ose to and an be
modelled as si*',e har*oni.
1.5. Ener0y in ,im"le Harmonic Motion
We kno0 that /or any onser1ati1e /ore that there is a diret ,ink to
the 'otentia, ener4y o/ the syste*+ 4i1en by
dx
dU
F
x

(1.1$-
&s /or S)M
kx F
x

+ 0e an 0rite that
kxdx dU
and

1
kx U
(1.1#-
>arabo,i de'endene o/ 'otentia, ener4y on dis',ae*ent
is a general result /or anythin4 *o1in4 0ith S)M.
The kineti ener4y o/ the osi,,ator

1
mv E
kin

(1.1%-
and the tota, ener4y at any *o*ent o/ ti*e is

1
mv kx E
tot
+
(1.19-
For any osi,,ator+ 0e an 0rite

( )
( )

si%
cos

m k
t A v
t A x

+
+
(1.2!-
There/ore
1
( ) ( )

1
si%

1
cos

1
kA
t A m t kA E
tot

+ + +
(1.21-
Fro* this 0e an on,ude that ener4y in S)M is onser1ed.
1.6. !%e #eneral ""licability o3 ,im"le Harmonic Motion
9n S)M+ the restorin4 /ore is @ero
( ) $
r
F
at the e2ui,ibriu* 'oint.
&s
dx
dU
F
r

the 'otentia, ener4y at this 'oint has its *ini*u*.
For small displacements+ 0e *ay e.'and '(x- in a Ma,aurin:
Tay,or series:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ... $

1
$ $

+ + +
dx
U d
x
dx
dU
x U x U (1.22-
9/ 0e hoose the @ero 'oint o/ 'otentia, ener4y suh that '(!-=!
then t0o /irst ter*s in the e2uation abo1e are e2ua, to @ero. Thus
0e an 0rite that+ a''ro.i*ate,y+

1
! " kx x U
(1.23-
0here ( ) $

dx
U d
k .
The s*a,,:a*',itude *otion near a,*ost any 'oint o/ e2ui,ibriu* is
desribed a''ro.i*ate,y by a 'arabo,i 'otentia, 0e,,. With
inreasin4 a*',itude o/ osi,,ations+ ontributions o/ ter*s 0ith
hi4her deri1ates in 72 1.22 beo*es ,ar4er and ,ar4er and the
*otion 0i,, be anharmonic.
Example
A 0.5-kg cart connected to alight spring for which the force
constant is 20N/m oscillates on a horizontal, frictionless
airtrack.
a) Calclate the total energ! of the s!stem and the
ma"imm speed of the cart if the amplitde of the motion
is # cm.
$%) &hat is the 'elocit! of the cart when the position is 2
cm(
$c) Compte the kinetic and potential energies of the
s!stem when the position is 2 cm.
2
SUMMARY
Simple H!m"#i$ M"%i"#
Simple harmonic motion will occur whenever an
object moves from equilibrium under a restoring force
that is linearly proportional to the displacement from
equilibrium, i.e. it moves with a linear restoring force.
&e'i#i#( E)*%i"# '"! SHM
$

+ x
dt
x d

+e#e!l S"l*%i"#
( ) + t A x cos
P!",i#( %-% m"%i"# i. .imple -!m"#i$ m"%i"#
We can demonstrate that a motion is SHM if we can
show that, following the definition above, F
x
=-kx
where k is a constant - the force constant of the
motion.
E#e!(ie. i# Simple H!m"#i$ M"%i"#
Potential energ!

1
kx U
"inetic energ!

1
mV E
kin

#otal $nerg!

1
m A k A E
total

U#i,e!.li%/ "' Simple H!m"#i$ M"%i"#
For small dis%lacements from e&'ilibri'm, in most
%otential wells, the motion of a dis%laced mass can be
a%%roximated to be sim%le harmonic motion with a
force constant, k*U(0).
1$
II. Damped armonic !scillations
" Suggested #eading
3ai% 4ha'ter Dam!d #iml! $armoni% &otion
5i'ler 4ha'ter 14 's%illations
-ntrod/ction
9n rea, osi,,atin4 syste*s the *ehania, ener4y o/ the syste*
di*inishes in ti*e+ and the *otion is said to be damped.
The *ehanis* o/ da*'in4 is viscous friction.
We 0i,, assu*e that the *a4nitude o/ the dam"in0 3orce an be
taken to de'end on the re,ati1e s'eed v bet0een the 'arts o/ the
syste*:
v ( F
d

(2.1-
0here b is the damping force constant. This is nor*a,,y a 4ood
a''ro.i*ation /or ,o0 1e,oities.
)"ample*
11
Fi4. 2.1 & da*'ed osi,,ator.
The *otion is da*'ed by the
',un4er i**ersed in the ,i2uid.
2.1. &i33erential E8/ation 3or &am"ed Harmonic motion
&'',yin4 Ne0ton;s seond ,a0 0e 4et:
a m F F
d r


+
(2.2-
0here
r
F

is the restorin4 /ore and d

F

is the da*'in4 /ore.

9/ the osi,,ations our a,on4 the x:a.is on,y the abo1e e2uations
redues to
x x
ma (v kx
(2.3-
/ro* 0hih
$

+ + kx
dt
dx
(
dt
x d
m (2."-
The ,atter is a,,ed the e$uation of motion of a damped harmonic
oscillator.
This e2uation is o/ten 'resented in the /or*
$

+ + x
dt
dx
dt
x d
(2.5-
0hih si*',i/ies the subse2uent a,4ebra. )ere
! " m (

is the dam"in0 constant and
m k
$

is t%e circ/lar 3re8/ency

o/ the osi,,ations 0hih 0ou,d ha1e ourred had there been no
da*'in4.
1
2.2. ,ol/tions 3or &am"ed *scillations
72.2.5 is a seond order di//erentia, e2uation. 9ts 4enera, so,ution+
deri1ed /u,,y in the *aths *odu,e.
& re*inder o/ the tehni2ue (yo) m)st (! a(l! to *ork t+ro)g+
t+is on yo)r o*n,-:
For the ase o/ $

the tria, so,ution
t
A! x

(2.$-
4i1es au.i,iary e2uation
$

+ +
(2.#-
So has t0o 1a,ues

0 1
t
(2.%-
There are 3 ases to be onsidered:
(a- $
>
(%eavy dam"in0 or overdam"in0-
(b- $

(critical dam"in0-
(- $
<
(li0%t dam"in0-
13
1a2 *verdam"in0 1 $
>
2
The ondition $
>
*eans that
mk ( 4

>
(s+o* t+is,- 0hih i*',ies
that the 1isous /rition /ore ter* do*inates the restorin4 /ore
ausin4 hea1y da*'in4 o/ the osi,,ator.
72.2.% 4i1es t0o rea, distint roots
1
and
2
.
&ordin4 to 72.2.$ the 4enera, so,ution is
t t
! A ! A x

,
_

,
_

+
+

$

$

1

(2.9-
0here %
1
and %
2
are arbitrary onstants o/ inte4ration 0hih ha1e to
be deter*ined /ro* the initia, onditions+ suh as the 'osition and
1e,oity o/ the 'arti,e at so*e instant.
5i0. 2.2. Heavy dam"in0. Mass dis"laced 9 mm and released
3rom rest7
:
;:.2 s
<1
' ;:.5 s
<1
' %
1
;9.4 mm and %
2
;<:.4 mm.
Note there are no oscillations. The dis',aed *ass ree's bak+
or re,a.es+ to its e2ui,ibriu* 'osition 1ery s,o0,y.
14
1b2 )ritical dam"in0 1 $

2
This so,ution ,eads to a si*',i/iation o/ 72. 2.5 suh that
t
! - At x
$
! "

+
(2.1!-
&4ain+ % and ( are arbitrary onstants deter*ined by the set o/
initia, onditions. The e.'onentia, ter* is ne1er @ero. The ter*
"At.-!0 /or so*e initia, onditions+ an 4i1e one 'ass o/ the
osi,,ator throu4h its e2ui,ibriu* 'osition but the *otion is not
reo4nisab,e as an osi,,ation
& ty'ia, *otion o/ this kind is sho0n in the Fi4. 2.3 be,o0.
This *otion resu,ts in a /ast deay o/ the *otion bak to its
e2ui,ibriu* 'osition.
+ig. 2.#. Critical damping. ,he retrn to the e-ili%rim
position is faster than in the case of o'erdamping.
Critia, da*'in4 is e*',oyed in *any 'ratia, iru*stanes+ in
shok absorbers in sus'ension syste*s+ in the desi4n o/ e,etria,
*eters etc.
1)
1c2 (eak dam"in0 1 $
<
2
This is 'hysia,,y the *ost interestin4 ase. The so,ution (2.9- is sti,,
1a,id+ but the e.'onents are o*',e. 2uantities:
[ ] t A A i t A A !
! A ! A ! x
t
t i t i t

$ 1

$ 1
1
si% ! " cos ! "

$

$

+ +
1
]
1

(2.11-
For 4enera,ity+ A
1
and A

*ust be o*',e. 2uantities+ but ,ear,y

"A
1
6A
/
! and i"A
1
-A
/
! *ust be rea,. >uttin4 these res'eti1e,y as D
and )+ 0e ha1e
[ ] t D t 0 ! x
t
$

$
si% cos

+

(2.12-
0hih is one 0ay o/ e.'ressin4 the 4enera, so,ution.
&n a,ternati1e /or* o/ the so,ution is obtained by introduin4 the
'hase onstant +
[ ]

+

t a! x
t
$
cos
(2.13-
0here a is the a*',itude o/ the *otion at ti*e t*$.
This so,ution is on1enient,y e.'ressed as
( )

+

t a! x
t
7 cos
(2.1"-
0here

$
7
(2.15-
1,
No0 this is si*i,ar to 72. 1.5+
( ) + t A x cos
/or /ree osi,,ations+
but the a*',itude ter* A has been re',aed by
t
a!

+ and the
iru,ar /re2ueny ter* has beo*e

$

.
The a*',itude o/ the *otion dereases e.'onentia,,y 0ith ti*e. &,so
the /re2ueny o/ the osi,,ations is s*a,,er (D
!
-.
The 'eriod o/ this *otion an be de/ined as the ti*e bet0een the
'oints < and W in the /i4ure abo1e:

$

T
(2.1$-
17

,
_

7 cos

t a! x
t
2.3. =o0arit%mic &ecrement
The rate at 0hih the a*',itude o/ osi,,ations dies a0ay is
haraterised by lo0arit%mic decrement o/ the deay.
9t is de/ined as the natura, ,o4arith* o/ the ratio o/ t0o suessi1e
*a.i*u* dis',ae*ents (i.e. *a.i*a that are se'arated by one
'eriod-:
1
l%
+

n
n
a
a

(2.1#-
For 0eek da*'in4+ aordin4 to 72. 2.1"+ *a.i*u* dis',ae*ents
orres'ondin4 to ti*es 7 nT t
n
and 7 ! 1 "
1
T n t
n
+
+
a''ro.i*ate,y
orres'ond to the 'oints 0here
( ) 1 7 cos + t
:
7 ! 1 "
1
7
T n
n
nT
n
a! a
a! a
+
+

(2.1%-
Fro* 0hih

7 T (2.19-
11
2.4. !%e >/ality 5actor or ><5actor
The 2ua,ity o/ osi,,ator is deter*ined by the /ration o/ its ener4y
that is ,ost 'er y,e o/ its dis',ae*ent.
The $uality factor is de/ined as the in1erse o/ the /rationa, ,oss o/
ener4y:
E
E
E E
1

(2.2!-
0here E is the tota, ener4y at ti*e t and
E
is the ener4y ,oss
o1er one 'eriod (at ti*e t!.
*:/ator is a di*ension,ess 2uantity (a nu*ber-.
3ery ,i4ht,y da*'ed osi,,ators ha1e a *EE1. For e.a*',es+ a
tunin4 /ork *i4ht ha1e a *:/ator in the ran4e o/ 1!
3
:1!
"
.
Let us esti*ate the ener4y o/ osi,,ator 0hen it reahes its
*a.i*u* de1iations at ti*e t and t.T.
&s v(t)= v(t.T)=0 the ener4y o/ osi,,ator is e2ua, to the e,asti
'otentia, ener4y stored in the s'rin4

kx
E .
Takin4 into aount that
( )

+

t a! x
t
7 cos
and that at 'oints o/
*a.i*u* de1iation
( ) 1 7 cos + t
0e 4et

t
! ka
E

(2.21-
There/ore+ the tota, ener4y o/ the syste* deays e.'onentia,,y 0ith
ti*e.
12
The rate o/ han4e o/ ener4y is
E
! ka
dt
dE
t

(2.22-
The ener4y ,oss 'er one 'eriod is
(2.23-
There/ore+ the F:/ator an be 0ritten as
7

T E
E
1

(2.2"-
Notie that 8 is inde'endent o/ ti*e and the atua, ener4y
'ossessed by the 1ibratin4 syste* at any 4i1en instant.
2.5. &ecay time
The di//erentia, e2uation 2.22 /or ener4y has the /o,,o0in4 so,ution
t
! E t E

$
! "

(2.25-
0here E
$
is the initia, ener4y o/ the syste*.
72. 2.25 an be a,so 0ritten in the /or*

t
! E t E

$
! "
(2.2$-
0here *1B(2- is the decay constant.
How many periods exist in the decay time, +
hat is easy to calculate,


! #"
! #" 1
7
1
1 T

-$.$./
So we can see that the number of periods in the time
constant of the decay is 01#1.
Example
&hen middle C on a piano $fre-enc! 2.2 /z) is strck, it
loses half its energ! after 0s.
$a) &hat is the deca! constant, 2 (
$%) &hat is the 1-factor for this oscillation(
$a) &hat is the fractional loss of energ! per c!cle(
$
SUMMARY
We are ass'ming a dam%ing force that is %ro%ortional
to the velocit of oscillator bod.
x x
(V F
#his gives an ex%onential deca in the energ of the
oscillator,
( )
t
! E t E

$

where coefficient
m
(

is called
the 0mpi#( $"#.%#%1
2"(!i%-mi$ 0e$!eme#% =
1
l%
+

n
n
a
a

0here a
n
and a
n.1
are t0o suessi1e a*',itudes one 'eriod a'art.
#he 34'$%"! is defined b the fractional energ loss
%er ccle and fo'nd to be
E
E
1

#he e&'ation of motion for a dam%ed harmonic
oscillator is
$

+ + x
dt
dx
dt
x d

#he sol'tion for an 'nderdam%ed oscillator is
[ ]

+

t a! x
t
7 cos
where

$
7
0 which is a lower fre&'enc than an
'ndam%ed oscillator with the same force constant.
1
---. 5orced 4ibrations and Resonance
. ,/00ested Readin0
>ain Cha'ter he Forced Oscillator
Ti',er Cha'ter 1" Oscillations
3.1 -ntrod/ction
Gsi,,atin4 syste*s ha1e natural frequencies (
m k #
$

- at 0hih
they 1ibrate 0hen e.ited.
7.a*',es: be,,s+ dru*s+ 'endu,u*s etc.
9/ 0e 0ant to *ake so*ethin4 1ibrate at a di//erent /re2ueny (2-
then 0e *ust a'',y a periodic driving force atin4 0ith the
re2uired /re2ueny 2.
9/ the /re2ueny o/ the dri1in4 /ore is e2ua, (or 1ery ,ose- to that o/
the natura, /re2ueny 3
!
then ener4y is e//iient,y trans/erred /ro*
the dri1in4 /ore to the osi,,ator inreasin4 the a*',utude . This
'heno*enon is a,,ed resonance.
7.a*',es o/ resonane:
& hi,d;s s0in4
&n o'era sin4er 0ho auses a 4,ass to rak in res'onse to
the dri1in4 /ore o/ the sound 0a1es /ro* her 1oie.
Tao*a Narro0s brid4e (Ti',er '. 5!3-
3.2 &i33erential E8/ation 3or
5orced *scillations
Hestorin4 /ore: -kx
Ia*'in4 /ore:
dt
dx
( (V
Iri1in4 /ore: F
!
sin(2t-
&''yin4 Ne0ton;s seond ,a0:
! si%"
$

t F
dt
dx
( kx
dt
x d
m + (3.1-

This 4i1es the e2uation desribin4 a har*onia,,y dri1en osi,,ator
0ith ,inear da*'in4:

! si%"
$

t F kx
dt
dx
(
dt
x d
m + + "3.!
$&. (.) will be easier to handle if we make some
s'bstit'tions. Similar to the %revio's cha%ter! -
*am%ing constant!
m
(

+at'ral ang'lar fre&'enc!
m
4

,
m
4

2
!

Maxim'm driving acceleration!

m
F
a
!
!

#his gives the &i''e!e#%il E)*%i"# "' 5"!$e0
O.$ill%i"#.
$make sure that you can show this)
! si%"
$

t a x
dt
dx
dt
x d
+ +
,(.(-
We are 4oin4 to /ind the steady state response o/ the syste*
i4norin4 the initia, transient res'onse. 9n /at+ the transient *otion is
a o*bination o/ so,utions to the e2uation /or the undri1en osi,,ator
(/ound in the 're1ious ,eture- and the steady state so,ution that 0e
4oin4 to obtain.
3131 T-e T!il S"l*%i"#
We will ass'me a stead state motion of the form
( ) ( ) t A t x si%
,(..-
#he res%onse of the sstem to the driving will have an
am%lit'de, A, and a %hase lag, , between the stead state
motion and the driving force.
$.%. S%e0/ S%%e Re.p"#.e "' &!i,e# O.$ill%"!
[Start of proof] (the proof is examinable ! )
The final solution must satisfy,

! si%"
$

t a x
dt
dx
dt
x d
+ +
(3.3a
!f
( ) ( ) t A t x si%
then
( ) t x
dt
x d

(3."
3
Substituting these values into #q. 3.3a, we find
( ) ( )
( ) t a
t A t A

+
si%
cos ! si%"
$

$

(3.$
o solve this equation and find expressions for % and we will
compare the coefficients of the
( ) t si%
and
( ) t cos
on the left
hand and right hand side of the expression above. 5f the equation is
correct for all frequencies and times then the coefficients must
always be equal.
%irst, we must re&e'press the driving term in terms of the
response.
( ) ( ) + t t si% si%
(3.(
)sing trigonometric identity
( ) A - A - - A cos si% si% cos si% + +
we get
( ) ( ) ( ) + t t t cos si% si% cos si%
Substituting this into #q. 3.$, we find
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

+
+
t a t a
t A t A
cos si% si% cos
cos ! si%"
$ $

$
(3.*
This is an identity valid for all times, t3 so we can equate
the coefficients. +e find that,
$

si%
a
A

(3.,a
( )
$

$
cos
a
A

(3.,b
Therefore-
( )

$

$

cos si%
1
]
1

,
_

+
a
A
a
A

(3.,c
and sin
/
.%os
/
=1 so we can get-
4
Ampli%*0e #0 P-.e Re.p"#.e "' &!i,e# O.$ill%"!:
AMPLITU! of "!SPONS!
( ) ( )

$
$
+

a
A
,(./0-
From
( )

$

ta%
cos
si%

we get
PHASE 2A+ "' RESPONSE
1
]
1

arcta%

,(.//-
[END OF PROOF]
We 0i,, no0 in1esti4ate the /or* o/ the /re2ueny res'onse at ,o0
/re2uenies+ hi4h /re2uenies and at the osi,,ator;s natura,
/re2ueny.
)
,"ecial cases
1a2
=o? 5re8/ency =imit7 DD
!

&*',itude:

$
$

a
A
(3.12a-
>hase ,a4: =! (3.12b-
So,ution:
( ) ( ) t
a
t x si%

$
$

(3.12-
The dri1en body *o1es in 'hase 0ith the dri1in4 /ore 0ith an
a*',itude that is in1erse,y 'ro'ortiona, to the s2uare o/ its natura,
/re2ueny.
1b2
Resonance Re0ion7
!
1strictly s"eakin0' t%e resonance 3re8/ency is

$

2
&*',itude:

$
a
A
(3.13a-
>hase La4:

(3.13b-
So,ution:
( )

,
_

1
]
1

si%

t
a
t x
(3.13-
1c2 Hi0% 5re8/ency =imit: EE
!

&*',itude:

a
A
(3.1"a-
>hase La4:

(3.1"b-
So,ution:
( ) ( )

t
a
t x si%

$
(3.1"-
,
3.6. &etails o3 t%e Resonant Res"onse
We an see that there 0i,, be a ,ar4e a*',itude 0hen a syste* 0ith
a s*a,, da*'in4 onstant is dri1en at its natura, /re2ueny. The
/re2ueny 0ith the 4reatest syste* res'onse is de/ined as the
resonance 3re8/ency /or the syste*.
When the da*'in4 is s*a,, (,ar4e *-+ the 0idth o/ the resonane
ur1e is narro0. 9/ the da*'in4 is 4reater then the osi,,ator absorbs
ener4y o1er a 0ider ran4e o/ /re2uenies and thus the 0idth is
*uh 4reater. For s*a,, 1a,ues o/ da*'in4 the re,ation /or the
Fua,ity /ator+ * is,
f
f
1

$ $

(3.15-
Thus the * /ator is a diret *easure o/ the shar'ness o/
resonane.
)o0 *uh e.tra *otion do 0e 4et at resonaneJ This is easy to
a,u,ate.
1
a
a
amlit)d! fr!4)!n%y lo*
r!sonan%! at amlit)d!

1
]
1

1
]
1

$
$
$
$
(3.1$-
1 S*mm!/ "' Imp"!%#% 5!e)*e#$ie.
So, this now gives 's three im%ortant fre&'encies to
remember for oscillating sstems.
7
,im"le
Harmonic
Motion
&am"ed Harmonic Motion &riven Harmonic *scillator
Natura,
/re2ueny
<nderda*'ed osi,,ator
/re2ueny
Hesonant /re2ueny
m
k

$
7

$

r!s
Example 1
Find an expression for the resonance frequency of a driven
oscillator in terms of the parameters of the defining differential
equation
! si%"
$

t F kx
dt
dx
(
dt
x d
m + +
which gives a solution for the driven amplitude,
( ) ( )

$
$
+

a
A
.
Example 2
An oscillator consists of a mass of 0.02kg suspended from a spring
with a spring constant of 50 !m. "t is su#$ected to a damping
force of the form bv where v is the velocity and #%0.5 kg s
&'
, and
is driven #y a harmonically varying force of amplitude ( and
frequency 550 rpm. )alculate the amplitude and phase lag of the
resulting steady state vi#ration.
1
S*mm!/
#he differential e&'ation for a driven dam%ed
harmonic oscillator is! -
! si%"
$

t a x
dt
dx
dt
x d
+ +
#he S#$2*3 S#2#$ res%onse to the driving can be
fo'nd 'sing the trial sol'tion

( ) ( ) t A t x si%
which gives (you must #e a#le to prove this)
AMPLITU! of "!SPONS!
( ) ( )

$
$
+

a
A
PHASE 2A+ "' RESPONSE 1
]
1

arcta%

#his enables 's to define the 4-factor for a driven

oscillator b!
1
a
a
amlit)d! fr!4)!n%y lo*
r!sonan%! at amlit)d!

1
]
1

1
]
1

$
$
$
$
*he idea of resonance is useful for many #ranches of physics
and scientists often want to o#tain resonance in order to detect
something or avoid resonance to stop something from #reaking.
&#!'LE( SEE) *
Simple armonic (otion +S(,
1. (-asi%) & boat at a%chor bobs u' a%d do(% (ith the (aves. 5he boats
moves ) cm above a%d ) cm belo( its e+uilibrium 'ositio%0 a%d makes o%e
com'lete u'-a%d-do(% c9cle ever9 4 s. What are the am'litude0 'eriod0
fre+ue%c90 a%d a%gular fre+ue%c9 of the motio%-
2
:&%s: ) cm0 4 s0 $.) ;<0 1.)7 rad#s=
. (#tandard) &% ob>ect oscillates (ith a sim'le harmo%ic motio% alo%g
the . a.is. ?ts 'ositio% varies (ith time accordi%g to the e+uatio%
1
]
1

,
_

+
4
1
cos 4 t x
(here all 'arameters are i% @? u%its "meters0 radia%s0 seco%ds!.
"a! Aetermi%e the am'litude0 fre+ue%c90 a%d 'eriod of the motio%.
"b! 4alculate the velocit9 a%d acceleratio% of the ob>ect at a%9 time t.
"c! Aetermi%e the 'ositio%0 velocit90 a%d acceleratio% of the ob>ect at t*1 s.
"d! Aetermi%e the ma.imum s'eed a%d ma.imum acceleratio%.
"f! Aetermi%e the dis'laceme%t of the ob>ects bet(ee% t*$ a%d t*1 s.
:&%s: "b!
1
]
1

,
_

+
4
1
si% 4 t v
0 "c! -.13 m0 1.12 m#s0
7.2 m#s

0 "d! 1., m#s0 32.) m#sB "f! -).,, m=

3. (#tandard) :0omaring siml! +armoni% motion *it+ )niform %ir%)lar
motion=
& 'article rotates cou%terclock(ise i% a circle of radius 3 m (ith a co%sta%t
a%gular s'eed of 1 rad#s. &t t*$0 the 'article has a% . coordi%ate of m a%d
is movi%g to the right. Aetermi%e the x coordi%ate as a fu%ctio% of time.
:&%s.:
( ) 141 . $ 1 cos 3 t x
=
?f the 'article (ere 'erformi%g a sim'le harmo%ic motio% alo%g the x
coordi%ate0 (hat should be its a%gular fre+ue%c9 a%d i%itial 'hase to have
the same x"t! de'e%de%ce-
4. (-asi%) ?f the am'litude of a sim'le harmo%ic oscillatio% is tri'led0 b9
(hat factor is e%erg9 cha%ged - :&%s: 2=
). (#tandard) 5(o mass-s'ri%g s9stems & a%d C oscillate so that their
e%ergies are e+ual. ?f k
&
*k
C
0 fi%d the relatio% bet(ee% the am'litudes of
oscillatio%. :&%s:
A -
A A
=
,. (#tandard) & block of mass $.) kg co%%ected to a light s'ri%g for
(hich the force co%sta%t is 1$$ D#m is free to oscillate o% a hori<o%tal0
frictio%less surface. ?t is give% a% i%itial velocit9 of ) m#s at x*$
"e+uilibrium 'oi%t!.
Ei%d:
"a! the total e%erg9 of the bod9B
"b! the am'litude of oscillatio%sB
"c! the velocit9 (he% the dis'laceme%t is half the am'litudeB
"d! the dis'laceme%t (he% the velocit9 is half the i%itial velocit9B
"e! the dis'laceme%t (he% the ki%etic a%d 'ote%tial e%erg9 are the sameB
"f! the fre+ue%c9 a%d 'eriod of the motio%B
3$
3lot the dis'laceme%t0 velocit90 a%d acceleratio% agai%st time for o%e
'eriod.
:&%s: "a! ,.) FB "b! $.3) mB "c! G4.34 m#sB "d! G$.31 mB "e! G$.) mB "f!
.) ;<0 $.44s=
7. (#tandard) 5he shock absorbers i% a% old car (ith mass 1$$$ kg are
com'letel9 (or% out. Whe% a 21$-D 'erso% climbs slo(l9 i%to the car to
its ce%tre of gravit90 the car si%ks .1 cm. Whe% the car0 (ith the 'erso%
aboard0 hits a bum'0 the car starts oscillati%g u' a%d do(% i% @;H. Hodel
the car a%d 'erso% as a si%gle bod9 o% a si%gle s'ri%g0 a%d fi%d the 'eriod
a%d fre+ue%c9 of oscillatio%. :&%s: 1.11 sB $.2 ;<=
1. (#tandard) &% a''le (eighs 1 D. Whe% 9ou ha%g it from the e%d of a
lo%g s'ri%g of force co%sta%t 1.) D#m a%d %egligible mass0 it bou%ces u'
a%d do(% i% @;H. ?f 9ou sto' the bou%ci%g a%d let the a''le s(i%g from
side to side through a small a%gle0 the fre+ue%c9 of this sim'le 'e%dulum
is half the bou%ce fre+ue%c9. "Cecause the a%gle is small0 the back a%d
forth s(i%gi%gs do %ot cause a%9 a''reciable cha%ge i% the le%gth of the
s'ri%g.! What is the u%stretched le%gth of the s'ri%g- :&%s: m=
2. (#tandard) & sim'le 'e%dulum co%sists of a ).$$$$ kg mass sus'e%ded
b9 .$$$$ m (ire. ?t is 'ulled 1$.$$$$ cm from the vertical a%d released.
Ei%d the ma.imum velocit9 of the 'e%dulum to ) sig%ifica%t figures0 usi%g
g*2.1$$$ m#s

:
"a! e.actl9 "from the e%erg9 co%servatio% la(!0 a%d
"b! maki%g the small oscillatio% a''ro.imatio% "i.e. usi%g
t s s x cos
$

!.
:&%s: "a! $.14 m#sB "b! $.13, m#s=
1$. (0+all!nging) ?f (e attach t(o blocks of masses m
1
a%d m

to either
e%d of a s'ri%g of s'ri%g co%sta%t k a%d set them i%to oscillatio%0 sho( that
the oscillatio% fre+ue%c9
( )
1
k
0 (here *m
1
m

#"m
1
6m

! is the
reduced mass of the s9stem.
11. (#tandard) O%e of the vibratio%al modes of the $0l molecule has a
fre+ue%c9

*1.2,21$
13
rad#s. Isi%g the relatio% stated i% the 'revious
'roblem0 fi%d the Js'ri%g co%sta%tK for $0l molecule. :&%s: 13.1 D#m=
31