Hot working

Forming of metals at a temperature above the

re-crystallization temperature.
Uses the metal deformation property: their ability to flow
plastically in the solid-state without accompanying
deterioration of properties.
Advantages:
Porosity in metal is largely eliminated.
Impurities in the form of inclusions are broken up and distributed
thought the metal.
Coarse grains are refined; Physical properties improved.
Energy required to change shape is less.
Good Machinabilityand weldability; Ready to use products
Disadvantages
Rapid oxidation and scaling of the surface accompanying the poor
surface finish.
Hot working
Depends upon the material properly and sometimes
may be at room temperature (Lead, Zinc etc.)
Rolling, Forging, Extruding and Drawing are some
major hot working in metals.
Recrystallization
Temperatures
Cold Working
Working on metals at a temperature below the re-
crystallization temperature, usually at room temp.
Distorts the grain and does little towards reducing the
size of material.
Improves strength, machinability, dimensional accuracy
and surface finish of metals.
Lesser oxidation and scaling cold working allows thinner
sheets to be worked accurately.
Many processes and equipments are used for both hot
and cold work, but forces required are different.
Much more Pressure is needed than hot working and
there is no recovery of the distortion (Residual Stress).
Deformation is brought by distortion of lattice about slip
planes.
Cold Working
Advantages and limitations:
Many products are cold finished after hot working
to make them commercially acceptable, close to
tolerance and remove the scales and oxides.
Strength and hardness increases, loss in ductility.
Stresses are setup in metals that remains unless
removed by subsequent heat treatment.
Distortion and fragmentation of grain structure is
created.
Process is economical and rapidly produces parts in
mass productions.
Bending, Drawing, Spinning, Forming, Embossing,
Seaming are major cold working operations.
Hot Working: Metal Rolling
Steels can be formed to useful products in two ways:
1. The ingot is rolled into intermediate shapes: Blooms,
Billets and Slabs.
2. These are further rolled into plated, sheets, bars stock,
structural shapes or foils.
The ingots are uniformly heated in furnace (soaking
Pit) to the temp of 1200C and taken out and
rolled in rolling mills.
Metal Rolling
Most primary rolling is done in either a twohigh
reversing mill or a three-high continuous rolling
mill.
In two high reversing mills the pieces passes
through rolls, which are stopped and reversed in
direction repeatedly in subsequent rollers.
Grooves on the upper and lower rollers reduces the
dimension.
Limitations of rolling size (length) is eliminated in
three-high continuous rolling mill.
Rolling mills have sets of rollers arranged in line
for rolling heated ingot into particular shape.
Metal Rolling
A - Twohigh mill; Reversing.
B - Four high mills with backup rollers.
C - Three - high mill for back and forth rolling.
D - Cluster mill using four backing-up rolls.
Metal Rolling
2.4.2. Forging
Forging is a process in which the workpiece is shaped by compressive forces applied
through various dies and tools. It is one of the oldest metalworking operations. Most forgings
require a set of dies and a press or a forging hammer.
Unlike rolling operations, which generally produce continuous plates, sheets, strip, or
various structural cross-sections, forging operations produce discrete parts.
Typical forged products are bolts and rivets, connecting rods, shafts for turbines, gears, hand
tools, and structural components for machinery, aircraft, railroads and a variety of other
transportation equipment.
Open-die forging Closed-die forging Flashless forging
Work piece deformed with open-die, closed-die and flashless forging
Forging Classifications
Forging process is classified as
- Hammer or Smith Forging.
Drop Forging
Press forging
Upset forging
Roll Forging
Smith Forging
Forging
Process advantages:
Closing of voids in the metal
Reduced machining time
Improve the physical properties of the starting metal
Process disadvantages:
Possible scale inclusions in forging
Tooling cost can be high
Usually not used for short production runs
Forging Methods
Open-Die Drop Hammer - heated metal is
placed between diesa force is delivered
with a steam hammer.
Accuracy is not good
Complicated shapes are difficult to produce
Forging Methods
Open-Die Drop Hammer - Steam
Hammer
Forging Methods
Upset forging
Grip a barheat the endforge into desired
shape
Product examples
Bolts
Engine valves
Forging Methods
Impression Die Drop Hammer Forging -
Hot pliable metal is forces into the shape of
closed impression dies. This process is
typically performed in a progressive method
through a series of dies to control the flow.
2 Types of drop forge hammers
Mechanical
Gravity
Forging Methods
Impression Die Drop Hammer
Forging
Forging Methods
Impression drop-
forging dies and the
product resulting from
each impression. The
flash is trimmed from
the finished
connecting rod in a
separate trimming die.
The sectional view
shows the grain flow
resulting from the
forging process.
(Courtesy of Forging
Industry Association,
Cleveland, OH.)
Drop Forging
Dies, to produce to desired shape are matched and
separately attached to the moveable ram and fixed
anvil.
The forging is produced by impact or pressure, which
compels the hot and pliable metal to take shape of the
die.
Repeated blows of ram causes drastic flow to the
metal in the dies.
Complicated, irregular and bigger shapes can be
forged.
Pneumatic hammer and gravity drop or board hammer
are main drop forging hammers; working at 300
blows in a minute.
Pneumatic hammers are faster and more powerful
than gravity drop hammers.
Piston lift
gravity drop
hammer
Drop Forging
Press forging
Slow squeezing action in deforming the plastic
metal in presses as contrasted to the rapid impact
blows of hammer.
These presses are the vertical type and may be either
mechanically or hydraulically operates.
For small jobs closed impression dies are used and
only one stroke of ram is normally required to
perform the forging operation.
In forging press a greater proportion of the total
energy input is transmitted to the metal than in a
drop hammer press; and provides closer tolerance.
Forging presses are often used for sizing operations
on parts made by other processes.
Upset forging
It employs gripping a bar of uniform section in
dies and applying pressure on the heated end,
causing it to be formed to shape.
The length of stock to be upset cannot be more
than three times the diameter.
Sometimes combination of punch and die is
needed to finish the product.
Progressive Piercing - Upset forging
Roll Forging
These machines are primarily adapted to reducing
and tapering operations on short length of bar
stock.
The rolls on the machine are not completely
circular to permit the job to enter between rolls.
The circular portion of rolls are grooved as per
required shape of job.
Extrusion
It is similar to act of squeezing toothpaste from a
tube. Forcing out of metal from the confined
chamber through specially formed dies.
Metals that cannot be hot worked can be extruded
to uniform cross-sectional shape by aid of pressure.
Some metals as lead, tin and aluminum may be
extruded cold, where as other require the
application of heat.
Extrusion can be done in two ways:
Direct Extrusion
Indirect Extrusion
Extrusion
EXTRUTED Components
EXTRUTED Components
A bar of metal is forced through a die orifice by a compressive
force that is applied to a ram
The extruded piece that emerges has the desired shape and a
reduced cross-sectional area.
Extrusion products include rods and tubing, but shapes of irregular
cross-sections may be produced form the more readily
extrudablemetals, like Al.
Extrusion is increasingly utilized in the working of metals difficult
to form, like stainless steels, Ni-based alloys, and other high-
temperature materials
Extrusion
Aluminiumalloys
Plastics lead, tin, copper, titanium,
molybdenum, vanadium, steel can be
extruded.
Materials Extruded.
Extrusion often minimizesthe need for secondary machining,
Dimensional accuracy or surface finish
Cross-Sections to be Extruded
Figure 15.10 Poor and good examples of cross-sections to be extruded.
Note the importance of eliminating sharp corners and of keeping
section thicknesses uniform
Extrusion Processes
Hot extrusion
Keeping the processing temperature to above the
re-crystalline temperature. Reducing the ram force,
increasing the ram speed, and reduction of grain
flow characteristics. Controlling the cooling is a
problem. Glass may be used as a lubricant.
Cold extrusion
Often used to produce discrete parts. Increase
strength due to strain hardening, close tolerances,
improved surface finish, absence of oxide layer and
high production rates.
Direct Extrusion
Friction increases
the extrusion
force.
Hollow section is
formed using a
mandrel.
To produce tubing by extrusion, a mandrel must be fastened to the
end of the extrusion ram
The mandrel extends to the entrance of the extrusion die, and the
clearance between the mandrel and the die wall determines the
wall thickness of the extruded tube
One method of extruding a tube is to use a hollow billet for the
starting material
Extrusion of Tubing
Indirect Extrusion
Metal is forced to flow
through the die in an
opposite direction to
the rams motion.
Lower extrusion force
as the work billet
metal is not moving
relative to the
container wall.
Lateral Extrusion
Figure 15.14 Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process. The extruded parts are stripped
by the use of a stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the punch.
Impact Extrusion
Other Types of
Extrusion
Types of extrusion: (a) indirect; (b) hydrostatic
Hydrostatic Extrusion
Hydrostatic Extrusion
Advantages
Reduced friction
None at the chamber wall
Lower at the die face
Can be done at room or
elevated temperatures
Ram force less than direct
extrusion
Very good for brittle materials
Disadvantages
Requires more sophisticated
tooling (costs more)
Must prepare billet face to get a
good seal at the start of the
process
Extrusion Temperature Effects
Extrusion at elevated temperatures
For metals and alloys that dont have sufficient ductility
Problems
Cooling
Oxide films developed
Not good surface finish
Dummy block
Form skull of oxide
Extrusion Defects
a) Centre-burst: internal crack due to excessive tensile stress at
the centre possibly because of high die angle, low extrusion
ratio.
b) Piping: sink hole at the end of billet under direct extrusion.
c) Surface cracking: High part temperature due to low extrusion
speed and high strain rates.
Pipe and tube Manufacturing
Butt Welding
Electric Butt Welding
Piercing
Tube Extrusion / Drawing
Tube Drawing
Cold Working of Metals
Cold Rolling
Tube finishing
Wire drawing
Metal Spinning
Shear Spinning
Stretch forming
Cold forming
Coining and Embossing
Riveting, Staking and Stapling
Seaming
Shot Peeing
Cold Rolling
Tube Finishing
Tubing, which requires dimensional accuracy,
smooth surface, and improved physical properties, is
finished by either Cold Drawing or Tube Reducer.
Hot rolled tube is chemically treated to wash all
scales and is drawn in draw bench.
Wire Drawing
Wire is made by cold-drawing of hot-rolled rod
through one or more dies.
Wire drawn through each die is cleaned in acid bath
to remove scale, rust and is coated.
Both Single-draft or Continuous processes may be
used.
Single-draft Process
Metal Spinning
Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming
Spinning
a cold-forming operation in which a rotating disk of sheet metal is
shaped over a male form or mandrel
Form attached to the
Headstock spindle
Final shape
Steps in
spinning
Original blank of
sheet metal
Follower held in
tailstock
Metal Spinning
It is the operation of shaping thin metal by pressing it
against a form while it is rotating.
The process is limited to symmetrical products.
Work is done in speed lathe provided with some
means of holding work against form.
Forms are usually turned from hard wood and
attached to the face of lathe.
Almost all the parts are formed with aid of blunt hand
tool that presses the metal against form.
Lubricants as soap wax, oil are used.
Used for kitchen wares, Funnels etc
Shear Spinning
Used for spinning thick metal plates.
Power driven rollers are used in place of conventional
hand spinning.
The roll formers force the plate to conform to the mandrel
with reduction of wall thickness up to 80% by the
combination of rolling and spinning.
In conventional spinning the wall thickness remains about
the same through the operation, metal plates are merely
bend into new contour.
Stretch Forming
Forming of large sheets of thin metal involving
symmetrical shapes or double-curve bends.
A single die mounted on a ram is placed between two
slides that grip metal.
The die moves vertically and slide moves horizontally
causing the metal to be stretched above elastic limit
conforming the shape of die.
Cold forming
Cold working by a compressive force or impact that
causes the metal to flow in some predetermined shape
according to the design of dies.
Sizing is the simplest form of cold forging, which is
process of slightly compressing of steel to obtain
close tolerance.
Cold heading of bolts, rivets is process to produce
heads by cold forming.
Intra-forming is a process in which metal is squeezed
at a high pressure onto a die or mandrel to produce an
internal configuration
Coining and Embossing
Coining is performed in dies that confine metal and
restrict its flow in lateral direction.
Due to need of high pressure, restricted to soft alloys.
Embossing is more of drawing or stretching operation
and doesn't require high pressure.
Punch diameter is reduced so it touches only a part of
the blank that is being embossed.
Used for making name plates, identification tags etc.,
where embossed design is raised from the parent
metal.
There is very little squeezing.
Riveting, Staking and Stapling
These processes are used to fasten parts
together.
Reverting operation uses a solid rivet through
holes made in parts and presses to shape by
punch.
Staking is a similar operation in which metal
of one part is upset to cause it to fit tightly
against other.
STAKING
process of permanently
joining parts together when
one part protrudes through a
hole in the other; a shaped
punch is driven into the end
of the protruding piece where
a deformation is formed
causing a radial expansion,
mechanically locking the two
pieces together
Seaming
Used in the manufacture of drum, cans and products
made of light gage metals.
Different types of seam are used.
Shot Peening
This method of cold working has been developed to
improve the fatigue resistance of the metal by setting up
compressive stresses in its surface.
This is done by blasting a rain of small shot at high
velocity against the surface to be peened.
As shots (grit) strikes, small indentations are produced
causing a slight plastic flow of the surface metal.
This causes the setting compressive stress on outer and
tension on inner layer of surface.
Surface is slightly hardened and strengthened by cold
working.
Surface roughness and finish can be varied according to
the size of shots.
Sheet metal forming processes
Punching
Piercing
Blanking
Notching
Perforating
Slitting
Lancing
Parting
Shaving
Trimming
Fine Blanking
Corner bending
Die Bending
Deep Drawing
Redrawing
Reverse drawing
Cutting
Bending
Drawing
Stretch forming
Spinning
Shearing
Schematic illustration of the shearing process
with a punch and die.
Characteristics of Shearing
Punching, Blanking - Shearing
Operations
FIGURE (a) Punching (piercing) and
blanking. (b) Examples of various shearing
operations on sheet metal.
Blanking
Shear Angles For Punches and
Dies
The use of shear angles on punches and dies.
Progressive Dies
Schematic illustration of the making of a
washer in a progressive die. (b) Forming of the
top piece of an aerosol spray can in a
progressive die. Note that the part is attached to
the strip until the last operation is completed.
Sheari ng
- the mechanical cutting of materials without the
information of chips or the use of burning or melting
for straight cutting blades: shearing
for curved blades: blanking, piercing, notching, trimming
Aluminum
Brass
Bronze
Mild steel
Stainless steel
Sheari ng
Blanking
during which a
metal workpiece
is removed from
the primary metal
strip or sheet
when it is
punched.
punch-out: workpiece
remaining strip: scrap
Sheari ng
Pier cing
punch-out: scrap
remaining strip: workpiece
Sheari ng
Sl i t t i n g
- shearing process used to cut rolls of
sheet metal into several rolls of narrower
width
used to cut a wide coil of metal
into a number of narrower coils
as the main coil is moved through
the slitter.
Shearing
Lancing- forms either a line cut
(slit) at the end of the sheet
Perforating- piercing a large
number of closely spaced
holes
Sheari ng
Notching
-same as piercing
- edge of the strip or black forms part of the punch-out
perimeter
Nibbling- produces a series of
overlapping slits/notches
Sheari ng
Sh av i n g
- finishing operation in
which a small amount of
metal is sheared away
from the edge of an
already blanked part
- can be used to
produce a smoother edge
Sheari ng
- punch and die operation
used to separate a
stamping or other product
from a strip or stock
Cu t of f
Punching
Cutting tool is a round/rectangular punch,
that goes through a hole, or die of same shape
F t X edge-length of punch X shear strength
Punch
die
sheet
crack
(failure in shear)
clearance
die
piece cut away, or slug
t
F t X edge-length of punch X shear strength
Punch
die
sheet
crack
(failure in shear)
clearance
die
piece cut away, or slug
t
Punching
Main uses: cutting holes in sheets; cutting sheet to required shape
typical punched part
nesting of parts
Body of a final component with sheet metal
component with multiple
bending operations
component with punching,
bending, drawing operations
Bending
Classifications of Bending Processes
Roll Forming
Roll
Seaming
Straightening
Draw and Compression
Flanging
Angle
Bending
Angle Bending
Bending Press Bending Press
Bending
Roll Bending
bending where plates, sheets and rolled shapes can
be bent to a desired curvature
Roll bending toll can bend plate up to 50 mm thick
Bending
Tube Bending
Tube Bending Tube Bending
- workpiece is clamped
against a bending form and
the entire assemble rotates to
draw the workpiece across a
stationary tool
Bending
Roll For ming
- involves the progressive bending of metal strip as it
passes through a series of forming rolls
Any material that can be bent can be roll- formed
Bending
Seam i n g
- Bending operation that can be used to join the
ends of sheet metal to form containers such as
cans, pails and drums
Bending
Str aightening
also known as flattening
opposite of bending
Bending
Methods of Reducing or
Eliminating Springback
Common Die-Bending
Operations
Bending Operations In a Press
Brake
Various Bending Operations
Examples of various bending operations.
Bead Forming
FIGURE 7.25 (a) Bead forming with a
single die. (b) Bead forming with two dies
in a press brake.
Flanging Operations
Methods of Making Honeycomb
Materials
Roll-Forming Process
Stretch-Forming Process
Schematic illustration of a stretch-
forming process. Aluminum skins for
aircraft can be made by this process.
Spinning Processes
Schematic illustration of spinning processes: (a)
conventional spinning and (b) shear spinning. Note that
in shear spinning, the diameter of the spun part, unlike
in conventional spinning, is the same as that of the
blank. The quantity f is the feed (in mm/rev or in./rev).
Shapes in Spinning Processes
Typical shapes produced by the conventional-
spinning process. Circular marks on the
external surfaces of components usually
indicate that the parts have been made by
spinning. Examples include aluminum kitchen
utensils and light reflectors.
Internal And External Tube
Spinning
Examples of external and internal tube spinning and
the variables involved.
Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming
COLD DRAWING
for sheet metal, it refers to the forming of parts where plastic form
occurs over a curved axis
for wire, rod, or tubing, it refers to the process of reducing the cross
section of the material by pulling it through a die
A. Rod, Bar and Tube Drawing
Rod or bar drawing
Die
Rod
If the product cannot be
bent or coiled
conveniently, straight-pull
draw benches are
employed on finite-length
stock
Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming
Tube Drawing
can be used to produce high quality tubing where the product requires
the smooth surfaces, thin walls, accurate dimension and added strength.
Mandrel
Die
Tube
Die
Die
Floating
plug
Drawi ng and Sheet Metal Forming
Wire Drawing
involves smaller diameter material
Direction
of travel
Starting stock
in coil form
Lubrication box
Die
Draw
block
Carbide die
Steel casing
Back relief
Land
Approach angle
Entrance angle
Back radius
Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
Redrawing Operations
Reducing the diameter
of drawn cups by
redrawing
operations: (a)
conventional
redrawing and (b)
reverse redrawing.
Small-diameter deep
containers undergo
many drawing and
redrawing
operations.
Drawing Operations
Examples of drawing operations: (a) pure drawing and (b)
pure stretching. The bead prevents the sheet metal from
flowing freely into the die cavity. (c) Possibility of
wrinkling in the unsupported region of a sheet in
drawing.
Deep-drawing Process
This procedure is the first step in the basic process by which aluminum
beverage cans are produced today. The stripper ring facilitates the
removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Variables in deep
drawing of a cylindrical cup. Only the punch force in this illustration
is a dependent variable; all others are independent variables,
including the blankholder force.
Metal-Forming Process for Food
and Beverage Containers
Deep Drawing
die
die
die die die
punch
punch
punch
punch
blank
part
blank holder
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Examples of deep drawn parts
die
die
die die die
punch
punch
punch
punch
blank
part
blank holder
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
die
die
die die die
punch
punch
punch
punch
blank
part
blank holder
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Examples of deep drawn parts
Tooling: similar to punching operation,
Mechanics: similar to bending operation
Common applications: cooking pots, containers,
The parts are formed at a rapid rate large amount of energy is applied for
a very short interval of time also called High Velocity Forming processes
Explosive
TNT - Trinitrotoluene
Die Materials- Al alloy, steel, wood,
RCC, Plastics and Composites
Explosive Forming Process
Explosive forming, is distinguished from conventional
forming in that the Punch is replaced by an explosive
charge
Techniques of
Explosive Forming:
Stand off technique
Contact technique
The detonation builds up extremely high pressures (upto30,000MPa)
on the surface of the work piece resulting in metal deformation
Under water Explosive Forming Process
.(i) explosive charge is set in position (ii) pressure pulse andgas bubble
are formed as the detonation of charge occurs, (iii) work piece is
deformed, and (iv) gas bubbles vent at the surface of water.
The use of
water as the
energy transfer
medium ensures
a uniform
transmission of
energy and
shock waves of
the explosive
blast.
Explosive Forming Process
Applications. Explosive forming
Contact technique of Explosive Forming.
The process is generally used for bulging of tubes.
Explosive forming is mainly used in
Aerospace industries
Automotive related components.
Difficult to Form Components
production prototype forming and
Forming large size components for
which conventional tooling costs are
Very high.
Steel plates 25 mm thickness , 4 m diameter
Can bulge steel tubes as thick as 25 mm.
Advantages of Explosive Forming
Die costs are low,
Easy maintenance of tolerances,
Possibility of forming most metals,
No spring-back effect.
Low production cost
The limitation needs skilled personnel and
permission required from Govt.
Electrohydraulic-Forming process.
Electro hydraulic forming also known as electro spark forming
Electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy for the forming of
metallic parts.
A bank of capacitors is first charged to a high voltage and thendischarged
across a gap between two electrodes, causing explosions on to the work piece,
which is filled with some suitable medium, generally water.
These explosions produce shock waves that travel radiallyin all directions at
high velocity until they meet some obstruction.
If the discharge energy is sufficiently high, the work piece is deformed.
The deformation can be controlled by applying external restraints in the form
of die or by varying the amount of energy released.
Electrohydraulic-Forming process.
Advantages
EHF can form hollow shapes with much ease and at less cost compared to
other forming techniques.
EHF is more adaptable to automatic production compared to other high energy
rate forming techniques.
EHF can produce small to intermediate sized parts that don't have excessive
energy requirements.
Accuracy of parts produced
Accuracy of electro hydraulically formed parts depends on the control of
both the magnitude and location of energy discharges and on the dimensional
accuracy of the dies used.
it is possible to precisely control the energy within specified limits, therefore
the primary factor is the dimensional accuracy of the die. External dimensions
on tubular parts are possible to achieve within 0.05 mm with the current state
of technology.
In electromagnetic forming, the initial gap between the work piece
and the die surface, called the fly distance , must be sufficient to permit the
material to deform plastically. From energy considerations, the ideal pressure
pulse should be of just enough magnitude that accelerates the part material to
some maximum velocity and then let the part come to zero velocity by the
time it covers the full fly distance. All forming coils fail, expendable coils fail
sooner than durable coils, and because extremely high voltages and currents
are involved, high safety precautions should be followed.
Magnetic-Pulse-Forming Process
This work piece is placed in or near a coil. A high charging voltage is supplied
for a short time to a bank of capacitors connected in parallel. When the
charging is complete, A high voltage switch triggers the stored electrical
energy through the coil.
A high intensity magnetic field is established which induces eddy currents
into the work piece, resulting in the establishment of another magnetic field.
The forces produced by the two magnetic fields oppose each other with the
consequence that there is a repelling force between the coil andthe tubular
work piece that causes permanent deformation of the work piece.
Electromagnetic Forming
Mainly used for swaging type
operations
The part is formed without
physical contact with any object
Part need to be electrically
conductive
The process is also called Electro Magnetic Forming
Applications of Electromagnetic forming process
Fabrication of hollow, non circular, or
asymmetrical shapes from tubular stock.
The compression applications involve
swaging to produce compression, tensile,
and torque joints or sealed pressure joints,
Swaging to apply compression bands or
shrink rings for fastening components
together.
Flat coils have been used on flat sheets to
produce stretch (internal) and shrink
(external) flanges on ring and disc
shaped work pieces.
Electromagnetic forming has also been
used to perform shearing, piercing, and
rivetting.
Applications
Applications