Types of Resistors

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Tutorial: 1 of 9
The Different Types of Resistors
Resistors ( R ), are the most fundamental and commonly used of all the electronic components,
to the point where they are almost taken for granted There are many different Types of
Resistors availa!le to the electronics constructor, from very small surface mount chip resistors
up to large wirewound power resistors The principal "o! of a resistor within an electrical or
electronic circuit is to #resist# (hence the name resistor) or to impede the flow of electrons
through them !y using the type of material that they are composed from Resistors can also act as
voltage droppers or voltage dividers within a circuit
$ Typical Resistor
Resistors are #%assive &evices#, that is they contain no source of power or amplification !ut only
attenuate or reduce the voltage signal passing through them This attenuation results in electrical
energy !eing lost in the form of heat as the resistor resists the flow of electrons through it

Then a potential difference is re'uired !etween the two terminals of a resistor for current to flow
This potential difference !alances out the energy lost (hen used in &) circuits the potential
difference, also known as a resistors voltage drop, is measured across the terminals as the circuit
current flows through the resistor
*ost resistors are linear devices that produce a voltage drop across themselves when an
electrical current flows through them !ecause they o!ey +hm,s -aw, and different values of
resistance produces different values of current or voltage This can !e very useful in .lectronic
circuits !y controlling or reducing either the current flow or voltage produced across them
There are many thousands of different Types of Resistors and are produced in a variety of forms
!ecause their particular characteristics and accuracy suit certain areas of application, such as
/igh 0ta!ility, /igh 1oltage, /igh )urrent etc, or are used as general purpose resistors where
their characteristics are less of a pro!lem 0ome of the common characteristics associated with
the hum!le resistor are2 Temperature Coefficient, Voltage Coefficient, Noise, Frequency
Response, Power as well as Temperature Rating, Physical Size and Reliaility
3n all .lectrical and .lectronic circuit diagrams and schematics, the most commonly used sym!ol
for a fi4ed value resistor is that of a #5ig65ag# type line with the value of its resistance given in
+hms, 7 Resistors have fi4ed resistance values from less than one ohm, ( 817 ) to well over
tens of millions of ohms, ( 91:*7 ) in value ;i4ed resistors have only one single value of
resistance, for e4ample 1::7,s !ut varia!le resistors (potentiometers) can provide an infinite
num!er of resistance values !etween 5ero and their ma4imum value
Stan!ar! Resistor Symols
The sym!ol used in schematic and electrical drawings for a Resistor can either !e a #5ig65ag#
type line or a rectangular !o4
$ll modern fi4ed value resistors can !e classified into four !road groups2
)ar!on )omposition Resistor 6 *ade of car!on dust or graphite paste, low wattage
values

;ilm or )ermet Resistor 6 *ade from conductive metal o4ide paste, very low wattage
values

(ire6wound Resistor 6 *etallic !odies for heatsink mounting, very high wattage ratings

0emiconductor Resistor 6 /igh fre'uency<precision surface mount thin film technology
There are a large variety of fi4ed and varia!le resistor types with different construction styles
availa!le for each group, with each one having its own particular characteristics, advantages and
disadvantages compared to the others To include all types would make this section very large so
3 shall limit it to the most commonly used, and readily availa!le general purpose types of
resistors
Composition Type Resistors
Caron Resistors are the most common type of Composition Resistors )ar!on resistors are a
cheap general purpose resistor used in electrical and electronic circuits Their resistive element is
manufactured from a mi4ture of finely ground car!on dust or graphite (similar to pencil lead)
and a non6conducting ceramic (clay) powder to !ind it all together
)ar!on Resistor
The ratio of car!on dust to ceramic (conductor to insulator) determines the overall resistive value
of the mi4ture and the higher the ratio of car!on, the lower the overall resistance The mi4ture is
moulded into a cylindrical shape with metal wires or leads are attached to each end to provide
the electrical connection as shown, !efore !eing coated with an outer insulating material and
colour coded markings to denote its resistive value
Caron Resistor
The Caron Composite Resistor is a low to medium type power resistor which has a low
inductance making them ideal for high fre'uency applications !ut they can also suffer from noise
and sta!ility when hot )ar!on composite resistors are generally prefi4ed with a #)R# notation
(eg )R1:k7 ) and are availa!le in .= ( >?:@ tolerance (accuracy) ), .1? ( >1:@ tolerance) and
.?A ( >B@ tolerance) packages with power ratings from :1?B or 1<A of a (att up to ? (atts
)ar!on composite resistors are very cheap to make and are therefore commonly used in electrical
circuits /owever, due to their manufacturing process car!on type resistors have very large
tolerances so for more precision and high value resistances, film type resistors are used instead
Film Type Resistors
The generic term #Film Resistor# consist of Metal Film, Carbon Film and Metal Oxide Film
resistor types, which are generally made !y depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an o4ide
film, such as tin6o4ide, onto an insulating ceramic rod or su!strate
;ilm Resistor
The resistive value of the resistor is controlled !y increasing the desired thickness of the
deposited film giving them the names of either #thick6film resistors# or #thin6film resistors#
+nce deposited, a laser is used to cut a high precision spiral heli4 groove type pattern into this
film The cutting of the film has the effect of increasing the conductive or resistive path, a !it like
taking a long length of straight wire and forming it into a coil
This method of manufacture allows for much closer tolerance resistors (1@ or less) as compared
to the simpler car!on composition types The tolerance of a resistor is the difference !etween the
preferred value (ie, 1:: ohms) and its actual manufactured value ie, 1:C= ohms, and is
e4pressed as a percentage, for e4ample B@, 1:@ etc, and in our e4ample the actual tolerance is
C=@ ;ilm type resistors also achieve a much higher ma4imum ohmic value compared to other
types and values in e4cess of 1:*7 (1: *illion 7Ds) are availa!le
Film Resistor
"etal Film Resistors have much !etter temperature sta!ility than their car!on e'uivalents,
lower noise and are generally !etter for high fre'uency or radio fre'uency applications "etal
#$i!e Resistors have !etter high surge current capa!ility with a much higher temperature rating
than the e'uivalent metal film resistors
$nother type of film resistor commonly known as a Thic% Film Resistor is manufactured !y
depositing a much thicker conductive paste of C&Ramic and "&Tal, called Cermet, onto an
alumina ceramic su!strate )ermet resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors and
are generally used for making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi6resistor networks in
one package for pc!,s and high fre'uency resistors They have good temperature sta!ility, low
noise, and good voltage ratings !ut low surge current properties
"etal Film Resistors are prefi4ed with a #*;R# notation (eg *;R1::k7) and a ); for )ar!on
;ilm types *etal film resistors are availa!le in .?A (>B@ E >?@ tolerances), .9= (>1@
tolerance) and .19? (>:B@, >:?B@ E >:1@ tolerances) packages with power ratings of ::B
(1<?:th) of a (att up to 1<? (att Fenerally speaking ;ilm resistors are precision low power
components
'irewoun! Type Resistors
$nother type of resistor, called a 'irewoun! Resistor, is made !y winding a thin metal alloy
wire (Nichrome) or similar wire onto an insulating ceramic former in the form of a spiral heli4
similar to the film resistor a!ove These types of resistors are generally only availa!le in very
low ohmic high precision values (from ::1 to 1::k7) due to the gauge of the wire and num!er
of turns possi!le on the former making them ideal for use in measuring circuits and (hetstone
!ridge type applications
They are also a!le to handle much higher electrical currents than other resistors of the same
ohmic value with power ratings in e4cess of C:: (atts These high power resistors are moulded
or pressed into an aluminum heat sink !ody with fins attached to increase their overall surface
area to promote heat loss and cooling These types of resistors are called #)hassis *ounted
Resistors# They are designed to !e physically mounted onto heatsinks or metal plates to further
dissipate the generated heat increasing their current carrying capa!ilities even further
(irewound Resistor
$nother type of wirewound resistor is the Power 'irewoun! Resistor These are high
temperature, high power non6inductive resistor types generally coated with a vitreous or glass
epo4y enamel for use in resistance !anks or &) motor<servo control and dynamic !raking
applications They can even !e used as space or ca!inet heaters
The non6inductive resistance wire is wound around a ceramic or porcelain tu!e covered with
mica to prevent the alloy wires from moving when hot (irewound resistors are availa!le in a
variety of resistance and power ratings with one main use of power wirewound resistor is in the
electrical heating elements of an electric fire which converts the electrical current flowing
through it into heat with each element dissipating up to 1::: (atts, (1k() of energy
Gecause the wire is wound into a coil, it acts like an inductor causing them to have inductance as
well as resistance and this affects the way the resistor !ehaves in $) circuits !y producing a
phase shift at high fre'uencies especially in the larger si5e resistors The length of the actual
resistance path in the resistor and the leads contri!utes inductance in series with the #apparent#
&) resistance resulting in an overall impedance path H impedance (H) is the com!ined effect of
resistance (R) and inductance (I), measured in ohms and for a series $) circuit is given
as, H
?
J R
?
K I
?

(hen used in $) circuits this inductance value changes with fre'uency (inductive reactance,
I- J ?LM-) and therefore, the overall value of the resistor changes 3nductive reactance increases
with fre'uency !ut is 5ero at &) (5ero fre'uency) Then, wirewound resistors must not !e
designed into $) or amplifier type circuits where the fre'uency across the resistor changes
/owever, special non6inductive wirewound resistors are also availa!le
'irewoun! Resistor
(irewound resistor types are prefi4ed with a #(/# or #(# notation (eg (/1:7) and are
availa!le in the (/ aluminium cladded package (>1@, >?@, >B@ E >1:@ tolerance) or the (
vitreous enamelled package (>1@, >?@ E >B@ tolerance) with power ratings from 1( to C::(
or more
3n the ne4t tutorial a!out Resistors, we will look at the different ways of identifying the resistive
value of the different types of fi4ed resistors with the most common method of identification
!eing the use of Colour Codes and colour bands around the body of the resistor.
torial: ? of 9
Resistor Colour Co!e
(e saw in the previous tutorial that there are many different types of Resistors availa!le and that
they can !e used in !oth electrical and electronic circuits to control the flow of current or voltage
in many different ways Gut in order to do this the actual resistor needs to have some form of
#resistive# or #resistance# value Resistors are availa!le in a range of different resistance values
from fractions of an +hm ( 7 ) to millions of +hms +!viously, it would !e impractical to have
availa!le resistors of every possi!le value for e4ample, 17, ?7, C7, A7 etc, !ecause literally
hundreds of thousands, if not millions of different resistors would need to e4ist to cover all the
possi!le values 3nstead, resistors are manufactured in what are called #preferred values# with
their resistance value printed onto their !ody in coloured ink
A )oloured Gands
The resistance value, tolerance, and wattage rating are generally printed onto the !ody of the
resistor as num!ers or letters when the resistors !ody is !ig enough to read the print, such as
large power resistors Gut when the resistor is small such as a 1<A( car!on or film type, these
specifications must !e shown in some other manner as the print would !e too small to read 0o to
overcome this, small resistors use coloured painted !ands to indicate !oth their resistive value
and their tolerance with the physical si5e of the resistor indicating its wattage rating These
coloured painted !ands produce a system of identification generally known as a Resistors
Colour Co!e
$n international and universally accepted resistor colour coding scheme was developed many
years ago as a simple and 'uick way of identifying a resistors value no matter what its si5e or
condition 3t consists of a set of individual coloured rings or !ands in spectral order representing
each digit of the resistors value The resistors colour code is always read one !and at a time
starting from the left to the right, with the larger width tolerance !and oriented to the right side
indicating its tolerance Gy matching the colour of the first !and with its associated num!er in
the digit column of the colour chart !elow the first digit is identified and this represents the first
digit of the resistance value $gain, !y matching the colour of the second !and with its associated
num!er in the digit column of the colour chart we get the second digit of the resistance value and
so on as illustrated !elow:
The Stan!ar! Resistor Colour Co!e Chart(

The Resistor Colour Co!e Tale(
Colour Digit "ultiplier Tolerance
Glack : 1
Grown 1 1: > 1@
Red ? 1:: > ?@
+range C 1,:::
Nellow A 1:,:::
Freen B 1::,::: > :B@
Glue = 1,:::,::: > :?B@
1iolet O 1:,:::,::: > :1@
Frey P
(hite 9
Fold :1 > B@
0ilver ::1 > 1:@
None > ?:@
Calculating Resistor Values
The Resistor Colour Co!e system is all well and good !ut we need to understand how to apply
it in order to get the correct value of the resistor The #left6hand# or the most significant coloured
!and is the !and which is nearest to a connecting lead with the colour coded !ands !eing read
from left6to6right as follows2
&igit, &igit, *ultiplier J )olour, )olour 4 1:
colour
in +hm,s (7,s)
;or e4ample, a resistor has the following coloured markings2
Nellow 1iolet Red J A O ? J A O 4 1:
?
J AO::7 or AkO
The fourth and fifth !ands are used to determine the percentage tolerance of the resistor Resistor
tolerance is a measure of the resistors variation from the specified resistive value and is a
conse'uence of the manufacturing process and is e4pressed as a percentage of its #nominal# or
preferred value Typical resistor tolerances for film resistors range from 1@ to 1:@ while car!on
resistors have tolerances up to ?:@ Resistors with tolerances lower than ?@ are called precision
resistors with the or lower tolerance resistors !eing more e4pensive *ost five !and resistors are
precision resistors with tolerances of either 1@ or ?@ while most of the four !and resistors have
tolerances of B@, 1:@ and ?:@ The colour code used to denote the tolerance rating of a resistor
is given as2
Grown J 1@, Red J ?@, Fold J B@, 0ilver J 1: @
3f resistor has no fourth tolerance !and then the default tolerance would !e at ?:@
3t is sometimes easier to remem!er the resistor colour code !y using mnemonics or phrases that
have a separate word in the phrase to represent each of the Ten K Two colours in the code
/owever, these sayings are often very crude !ut never the less effective for remem!ering the
colours /ere are "ust a few of the more #cleaner# versions !ut many more e4ist:
)ad )oo5e Rots #ur *oung +uts )ut Vodka +oes 'ell

)ad )oys Ring #ur *oung +irls )ut Vicky +oes 'ithout

)ad )oys Ring #ur *oung +irls )ut Vicky +ives 'illingly 66 +et Some Now
(This one is only slightly !etter !ecause it includes the tolerance !ands of
+old, Silver, and None)
The )ritish Stan!ar! ,)S -./01 Co!e(
Fenerally on larger power resistors, the resistance value, tolerance, and even the power (wattage)
rating are printed onto the actual !ody of the resistor instead of using the resistor colour code
system Gecause it is very easy to #misread# the position of a decimal point or comma especially
when the component is dirty, an easier system for writing and printing the resistance values of
the individual resistance was developed This system conforms to the Gritish 0tandard )S -./0
Stan!ar! and its replacement, )S &N 23320, coding method were the decimal point position is
replaced !y the suffi4 letters #Q# for thousands or kilohms, the letter #*# for millions or
megaohms !oth of which denotes the multiplier value with the letter #R# used where the
multiplier is e'ual to, or less than one, with any num!er coming after these letters meaning it,s
e'uivalent to a decimal point
The )S -./0 4etter Co!ing for Resistors(
G0 1PB? )odes for Resistor 1alues
:AO7 J RAO or :RAO
1:7 J 1R:
AO7 J ARO
AO7 J AOR
AO:7 J AO:R or :QAO
1:Q7 J 1Q:
AOQ7 J AQO
AOQ7 J AOQ
AO:Q7 J AO:Q or :*AO
1*7 J 1*:
0ometimes depending upon the manufacturer, after the written resistance value there is an
additional letter which represents the resistors tolerance value such as AkO R and these suffi4
letters are given as
Tolerance 4etter Co!ing for Resistors(
Tolerance )odes for Resistors (>)
G J :1@
) J :?B@
& J :B@
; J 1@
F J ?@
R J B@
Q J 1:@
* J ?:@
$lso, when reading these written codes !e careful not to confuse the resistance letter k for
kilohms with the tolerance letter Q for 1:@ tolerance or the resistance letter * for megaohms
with the tolerance letter * for ?:@ tolerance
Tolerances, &5series 6 Preferre! Values(
(e now know that resistors come in a variety of si5es and resistance values !ut to have a resistor
availa!le of every possi!le resistance value, literally hundreds of thousands, if not millions of
individual resistors would need to e4ist 3nstead, resistors are manufactured in what are
commonly known as Preferre! 7alues 3nstead of se'uential values of resistance from 17 and
upwards, certain values of resistors e4ist within certain tolerance limits The tolerance of a
resistor is the ma4imum difference !etween its actual value and the re'uired value and is
generally e4pressed as a plus or minus percentage value ;or e4ample, a 1k7 >?:@ tolerance
resistor may have a ma4imum and minimum value of
*a4imum Resistance 1alue
1k7 or 1:::7 K ?:@ J 1,?::7,s
*inimum Resistance 1alue
1k7 or 1:::7 6 ?:@ J P::7,s
Then a 1k7 >?:@ tolerance resistor may have a ma4imum value of 1?::7,s and a minimum
value of P::7,s resulting in a span of some A::7,sSS
3n most electrical or electronic circuits this large ?:@ tolerance of the resistor is generally not a
pro!lem, !ut when close tolerance resistors are specified for high accuracy circuits such as filters
or oscillators etc, then the correct tolerance resistor needs to !e used, as a ?:@ tolerance resistor
cannot generally !e used to replace ?@ or even a 1@ tolerance type
The five and si4 !and resistor colour code is more commonly associated with the high precision
1@ and ?@ film types while the common garden variety B@ and 1:@ general purpose types tend
to use the four !and resistor colour code Resistors come in a range of tolerances !ut the two
most common are the .1? and the .?A series The .1? series comes in twelve resistance values
per decade, ($ decade represents multiples of 1:, ie 1:, 1::, 1::: etc) The .?A series comes in
twenty four values per decade and the .9= series ninety si4 values per decade $ very high
precision .19? series is now availa!le with tolerances as low as > :1@ giving a massive 19?
separate resistor values per decade
Tolerance an! &5series Tale(
.= 0eries at ?:@ Tolerance 6 Resistors values in 7,s
1:, 1B, ??, CC, AO, =P
.1? 0eries at 1:@ Tolerance 6 Resistors values in 7,s
1:, 1?, 1B, 1P, ??, ?O, CC, C9, AO, B=, =P, P?
.?A 0eries at B@ Tolerance 6 Resistors values in 7,s
1:, 11, 1?, 1C, 1B, 1=, 1P, ?:, ??, ?A, ?O, C:, CC, C=, C9, AC, AO, B1, B=, =?,
=P, O?, P?, 91
.9= 0eries at 1@ Tolerance 6 Resistors values in 7,s
1::, 1:?, 1:B, 1:O, 11:, 11C, 11B, 11P, 1?1, 1?A, 1?O, 1C:, 1CC, 1CO, 1A:,
1AC, 1AO, 1B:, 1BA, 1BP, 1=?, 1=B, 1=9, 1OA, 1OP, 1P?, 1PO, 191, 19=, ?::,
?:B, ?1:, ?1B, ??1, ??=, ?C?, ?CO, ?AC, ?A9, ?BB, ?=1, ?OO, ?OA, ?P:, ?PO,
?9A, C:1, C:9, C1=, C?A, CC?, CA:, CAP, CBO, C=B, COA, CPC, C9?, A:?, A1?,
A??, AC?, AA?, ABC, A=A, AOB, APO, A99, B11, B?C, BC=, BA9, B=?, BO=, B9:,
=:A, =19, =CA, =A9, ==B, =P1, =9P, O1B, OC?, OB:, O=P, OPO, P:=, P?B, PAB,
P==, PPO, 9:9, 9C1, 9BC, 9O=
Then !y using the appropriate .6series value for the percentage tolerance re'uired for the
resistor, adding a multiplication factor to it, any ohmic value of resistance within that series can
!e found ;or e4ample, take an .61? series resistor, 1:@ tolerance with a preferred value of CC,
then the values of resistance for this range are:
1alue 4 *ultiplier J Resistance
CC 4 1 J CC7
CC 4 1: J CC7
CC 4 1:: J CC:7
CC 4 1,::: J CCk7
CC 4 1:,::: J CCk7
CC 4 1::,::: J CC:k7
CC 4 1,:::,::: J CC*7
The mathematical !asis !ehind these preferred values comes from the s'uare root value of the
actual series !eing used ;or e4ample, for the .= ?:@ series there are si4 individual resistors or
steps (1: to =P) and is given as the si4th root of ten ( =T1: ), so for the .1? 1:@ series there are
twelve individual resistors or steps (1: to P?) and is therefore given as the twelfth root of ten
( 1?T1: ) and so on for the remaining .6series values
The tolerance series of Preferre! Values shown a!ove are manufactured to conform to the
Gritish 0tandard G0 ?APP and are ranges of resistor values chosen so that at ma4imum or
minimum tolerance any one resistor overlaps with its neigh!ouring value ;or e4ample, take the
.?A range of resistors with a B@ tolerance 3t,s neigh!ouring resistor values are AO and B17,s
respectively
AO7 K B@ J A9CB7,s, and B17 6 B@ J APAB7,s, an overlap of "ust :97,s
Surface "ount Resistors
AOk7 0*& Resistor
Surface "ount Resistors or 0*& Resistors, are very small rectangular shaped metal o4ide film
resistor They have a ceramic su!strate !ody onto which is deposited a thick layer of metal o4ide
resistance The resistive value of the resistor is controlled !y increasing the desired thickness,
length or type of deposited film !eing used and highly accurate low tolerance resistors, down to
:1@ can !e produced They also have metal terminals or caps at either end of the !ody which
allows them to !e soldered directly onto printed circuit !oards
0urface *ount Resistors are printed with either a C or A6digit numerical code which is similar to
that used on the more common a4ial type resistors to denote their resistive value 0tandard 0*&
resistors are marked with a three6digit code, in which the first two digits represent the first two
num!ers of the resistance value with the third digit !eing the multiplier, either 41, 41:, 41:: etc
;or e4ample:
#1:C# J 1: U 1,::: ohms J 1: kilo7Ds
#C9?# J C9 U 1:: ohms J C9 kilo7Ds
#B=C# J B= U 1,::: ohms J B= kilo7Ds
#1:B# J 1: U 1::,::: ohms J 1 *ega7
0urface mount resistors that have a value of less than 1::7,s are usually written as: #C9:#, #AO:#,
#B=:# with the final 5ero representing a 1: 4
o
multiplier, which is e'uivalent to 1 ;or e4ample:
#C9:# J C9 U 17 J C97Ds or C9R7
#AO:# J AO U 17 J AO7Ds or AOR7
Resistance values !elow ten have a letter #R# to denote the position of the decimal point as seen
previously in the G01PB? form, so that ARO J AO7
0urface mount resistors that have a #:::# or #::::# markings are 5ero6+hm (:7) resistors or in
other words shorting links, since these components have 5ero resistance
3n the ne4t tutorial a!out Resistors, we will look at connecting resistors together in a
series chain and prove that the total resistance is the sum of all the resistors added
together and that the current is common to a series circuit.
Tutorial: C of 9
Connecting Resistors Together
3ndividual resistors can !e connected together in either a series connection, a parallel connection
or com!inations of !oth series and parallel together, to produce more comple4 networks whose
e'uivalent resistance is a com!ination of the individual resistors Then complicated networks of
resistors or impedances can !e replaced !y a single e'uivalent resistor or impedance (hatever
the com!ination or comple4ity of the circuit, all resistors o!ey Ohm's Law and Kirchoff's Circuit
Laws.
Resistors in Series(
Resistors are said to !e connected in #Series#, when they are daisy chained together in a single
line 0ince all the current flowing through the first resistor has no other way to go it must also
pass through the second resistor and the third and so on Then, resistors in series have a
Common Current flowing through them as the current that flows through one resistor must also
flow through the others as it can only take one path Then the amount of current that flows
through a set of resistors in series is the same at all points in a series circuit ;or e4ample:
3n the following e4ample the resistors R1, R? and RC are all connected together in series !etween
points $ and G
Series Resistor Circuit
$s the resistors are connected together in series the same current passes through each resistor in
the chain and the total resistance, RT of the circuit must !e equal to the sum of all the individual
resistors added together That is
and !y taking the individual values of the resistors in our simple e4ample a!ove, the total
e'uivalent resistance, R.V is therefore given as:
R.V J R1 K R? K RC J 1k7 K ?k7 K =k7 J 9k7
0o we can replace all three individual resistors a!ove with "ust one single e'uivalent resistor
which will have a value of 9k7
(here four, five or even more resistors are all connected together in a series circuit, the total or
e'uivalent resistance of the circuit, RT would still !e the sum of all the individual resistors
connected together and the more resistors added to the series, the greater the e'uivalent
resistance (no matter what their value) This total resistance is generally known as the
&qui7alent Resistance and can !e defined as2 #a single value of resistance that can replace any
number of resistors in series without altering the values of the current or the voltage in the
circuit Then the e'uation given for calculating total resistance of the circuit when connecting
together resistors in series is given as:
Series Resistor &quation
Rtotal J R1 K R? K RC K Rn etc
Note then that the total or e'uivalent resistance, RT has the same effect on the circuit as the
original com!ination of resistors as it is the alge!raic sum of the individual resistances +ne
important point to remem!er a!out resistors in series circuits, the total resistance (RT) of any two
or more resistors connected together in series will always !e +R&8T&R than the value of the
largest resistor in the chain and in our e4ample a!ove RT J 9k7 were as the largest value resistor
is only =k7
Series Resistor Voltage
The voltage across each resistor connected in series follows different rules to that of the series
current (e know from the a!ove circuit that the total supply voltage across the resistors is e'ual
to the sum of the potential differences across R1 , R? and RC , 1$G J 1R1 K 1R? K 1RC J 91
Wsing Ohm's Law, the voltage across the individual resistors can !e calculated as:
1oltage across R1 J 3R1 J 1m$ 4 1k7 J 11
1oltage across R? J 3R? J 1m$ 4 ?k7 J ?1
1oltage across RC J 3RC J 1m$ 4 =k7 J =1
giving a total voltage 1$G of ( 11 K ?1 K =1 ) J 91 which is e'ual to the value of the supply
voltage Then the sum of the potential differences across the resistors is e'ual to the total
potential difference across the com!ination and in our e4ample this is 91
The e'uation given for calculating the total voltage in a series circuit which is the sum of all the
individual voltages added together is given as:
Then series resistor networks can also !e thought of as #voltage dividers# and a series resistor
circuit having ! resistive components will have N6different voltages across it while maintaining
a common current
Gy using Ohm's Law, either the voltage, current or resistance of any series connected circuit can
easily !e found and resistor of a series circuit can !e interchanged without affecting the total
resistance, current, or power to each resistor
&$ample No-
)alculate the e'uivalent resistance, series current, voltage drop and power for each resistor of the
following resistors in series circuit
$ll the data can !e found !y using Ohm's Law, and to make life a little easier we can present this
data in ta!ular form
Resistance Current Voltage Power
R1 J 1:7 31 J ?::m$ 11 J ?1 %1 J :A(
R? J ?:7 3? J ?::m$ 1? J A1 %? J :P(
RC J C:7 3C J ?::m$ 1C J =1 %C J 1?(
RT J =:7 3T J ?::m$ 10 J 1?1 %T J ?A(

The Potential Di7i!er Circuit
)onnecting resistors in series like this across a single &) supply voltage has one ma"or
advantage, different voltages appear across each resistor with the amount of voltage !eing
determined !y the resistors value only !ecause as we now know, the current through a series
circuit is common This a!ility to generate different voltages produces a circuit called a Potential
or Voltage Di7i!er Networ%
The series circuit shown a!ove is a simple potential divider where three voltages 11, ?1 and =1
are produced from a single 91 supply Kirchoff's voltage laws states that #the supply voltage in a
closed circuit is e"ual to the sum of all the voltage drops #$%& around the circuit# and this can !e
used to good effect as this allows us to determine the voltage levels of a circuit without first
finding the current
The !asic circuit for a potential divider network (also known as a voltage divider) for resistors in
series is shown !elow
Potential Di7i!er Networ%
3n this circuit the two resistors are connected in series across 1in, which is the power supply
voltage connected to the resistor, R1, where the output voltage 1out is the voltage across the
resistor R? which is given !y the formula 3f more resistors are connected in series to the circuit
then different voltages will appear across each resistor with regards to their individual resistance
R (+hms law 34R) providing different voltage points from a single supply /owever, care must
!e taken when using this type of network as the impedance of any load connected to it can affect
the output voltage ;or e4ample,
0uppose you only have a 1?1 &) supply and your circuit which has an impedance of B:7
re'uires a =1 supply )onnecting two e'ual value resistors, of say B:7 each, together as a
potential divider network across the 1?1 will do this very nicely until you connect your load
circuit to the network The loading effect of two resistancies connected together in parallel
changes the ratio of the two resistancies altering the voltage drop and this is demonstrated !elow
&$ample No0
Calculate the 7oltage across 9 an! *(
a) (ithout R- connected
!) (ith R- connected
$s you can see from a!ove, the output voltage 1out without the load resistor connected gives us
the re'uired output voltage of =1 !ut the same output voltage at 1out when the load is connected
drops to only A1, (%esistors in 'arallel) Then the output voltage 1out is determined !y the ratio
of 11 to 1? with the effect of reducing the signal or voltage level !eing known as 8ttenuation so
care must !e taken when using a potential divider networks The higher the load impedance the
less is the loading effect on the output
$ varia!le resistor, potentiometer or pot as it is more commonly called, is a good e4ample of a
multi6resistor potential divider within a single package as it can !e thought of as thousands of
mini6resistors in series /ere a fi4ed voltage is applied across the two outer fi4ed connections
and the varia!le output voltage is taken from the wiper terminal *ulti6turn pots allow for a more
accurate output voltage control
Resistors in Series 8pplications
(e have seen that resistors in series can !e used to produce different voltages across themselves
and this type of resistor network is very useful for producing a voltage divider network 3f we
replace one of the resistors in the voltage divider circuit a!ove with a (ensor such as a
thermistor, light dependant resistor (-&R) or even a switch, we can convert an analogue 'uantity
!eing sensed into a suita!le electrical signal which is capa!le of !eing measured
;or e4ample, the following thermistor circuit has a resistance of 1:Q7 at ?BX) and a resistance
of 1::7 at 1::X) )alculate the output voltage (1out) for !oth temperatures
Thermistor Circuit
$t ?BX)
$t 1::X)
Gy changing the fi4ed 1Q7 resistor, R? in our simple circuit a!ove to a varia!le resistor or
potentiometer, a particular output voltage set point can !e o!tained over a wider temperature
range
Resistors in Series Summary
Then to summarise (hen two or more resistors are connected together end6to6end in a single
!ranch they are said to !e connected together in series Resistors in Series carry the same
current, !ut the potential differences across them are not the same 3n a series circuit the
individual resistors add together to give the e'uivalent resistance, ( RT ) of the series
com!ination The resistors in a series circuit can !e interchanged without affecting the total
resistance, current, or power to each resistor or the circuit
In the next tutorial about Resistors, we will look at connecting resistors together in
parallel and show that the total resistance is the reciprocal sum of all the resistors
added together and that the voltage is common to a parallel circuit.
Tutorial: A of 9
Resistors in Parallel
Resistors are said to !e connected together in #Parallel# when !oth of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other resistor or resistors Wnlike the previous
series circuit, in parallel circuits the current can take more than one path and !ecause there are
multiple paths the current is not the same at all points in a parallel circuit /owever, the voltage
drop across all of the resistors in a parallel circuit is the same Then, Resistors in Parallel have a
Common Voltage across them and is true for all parallel elements
0o we can define a parallel circuit as one were the resistors are connected to the same two points
(or nodes) and is identified !y the fact that it has more than one current path connected to a
common voltage source 3n our e4ample !elow the voltage across resistor R1 e'uals the voltage
across resistor R? which e'uals the voltage across RC and all e'ual the supply voltage and is
therefore given as:
3n the following resistors in parallel circuit the resistors R1, R? and RC are all connected together
in parallel !etween the two points $ and G as shown
Parallel Resistor Circuit
3n the previous series resistor circuit we saw that the total resistance, RT of the circuit was e'ual
to the sum of all the individual resistors added together ;or resistors in parallel the e'uivalent
circuit resistance RT is calculated differently
/ere, the reciprocal ( 1<R ) value of the individual resistances are all added together instead of
the resistances themselves with the inverse of the alge!raic sum giving the e'uivalent resistance
as shown
Parallel Resistor &quation
Then the inverse of the e'uivalent resistance of two or more resistors connected in parallel is the
alge!raic sum of the inverses of the individual resistances The e'uivalent resistance is always
less than the smallest resistor in the parallel network so the total resistance, RT will always
decrease as additional parallel resistors are added
%arallel resistance gives us a value known as Con!uctance, sym!ol + with the units of
conductance !eing the Siemens, sym!ol S )onductance is the reciprocal or the inverse of
resistance, ( F J 1<R ) To convert conductance !ack into a resistance value we need to take the
reciprocal of the conductance giving us then the total resistance, RT of the resistors in parallel
(e now know that resistors that are connected !etween the same two points are said to !e in
parallel !ut a parallel circuit can take many forms other than the one a!ove and here are a few
e4amples
Various Parallel Resistor Circuits
$ll the a!ove are parallel resistor circuits
&$ample No-
;ind the total resistance, RT of the following resistors in parallel network
The total resistance RT across the two terminals $ and G is calculated as:
This method of calculation can !e used for calculating any num!er of individual resistances
connected together within a single parallel network 3f however, there are only two individual
resistors in parallel then a much simpler and 'uicker formula can !e used to find the total
resistance value, and this is given as:
&$ample No0
)onsider the following circuit with only two resistors in a parallel com!ination
Wsing our two resistor formula a!ove we can calculate the total circuit resistance, RT as:
+ne important point to remem!er a!out resistors in parallel, is that the total circuit resistance
(RT) of any two resistors connected together in parallel will always !e 4&SS than the value of
the smallest resistor and in our e4ample a!ove RT J 1A9k7 were as the value of the smallest
resistor is only ??k7 3n other words, the e'uivalent resistance of a parallel network is always
less than the smallest individual resistor in the com!ination
$lso, in the case of R1 !eing e'ual to the value of R?, that is R1 J R?, the total resistance of the
network will !e e4actly half the value of one of the resistors, R<? -ikewise, if three or more
resistors each with the same value are connected in parallel, then the e'uivalent resistance will !e
e'ual to R<n where R is the value of the resistor and n is the num!er of individual resistances in
the com!ination
;or e4ample, si4 1::7 resistors are connected together in a parallel com!ination The e'uivalent
resistance will therefore !e: RT J R<n J 1::<= J 1=O7
Currents in a Parallel Resistor Circuit
The total current, 3T in a parallel resistor circuit is the sum of the individual currents flowing in
all the parallel !ranches The amount of current flowing in each parallel !ranch is not necessarily
the same as the value of the resistance in each !ranch determines the current within that !ranch
;or e4ample, although the parallel com!ination has the same voltage across it, the resistances
could !e different therefore the current flowing through each resistor would definitely !e
different as determined !y +hms -aw
)onsider the two resistors in parallel a!ove The current that flows through each of the resistors
( 3R1 and 3R? ) connected together in parallel is not necessarily the same value as it depends upon
the resistive value of the resistor /owever, we do know that the current that enters the circuit at
point $ must also e4it the circuit at point G Kirchoff's Current Laws. states that #the total
current leaving a circuit is e"ual to that entering the circuit ) no current is lost# Thus, the total
current flowing in the circuit is given as:
3T J 3R1 K 3R?
Then !y using Ohm's Law, the current flowing through each resistor can !e calculated as:
)urrent flowing in R1 J 1<R1 J 1?1 Y ??k7 J :BABm$
)urrent flowing in R? J 1<R? J 1?1 Y AOk7 J :?BBm$
giving us a total current 3T flowing around the circuit as:
3T J :BABm$ K :?BBm$ J :Pm$ or P::u$
The e'uation given for calculating the total current flowing in a parallel resistor circuit which is
the sum of all the individual currents added together is given as:
3total J 31 K 3? K 3C K 3n
Then parallel resistor networks can also !e thought of as a #current divider# !ecause the current
splits or divides !etween the various !ranches and a parallel resistor circuit having ! resistive
networks will have N6different current paths while maintaining a common voltage %arallel
resistors can also !e interchanged without changing the total resistance or the total circuit
current
&$ample No:
)alculate the individual !ranch currents for the following resistors in parallel circuit
$s the supply voltage is common to all the resistors in a parallel circuit, we can use +hms -aw
to calculate the individual !ranch current as follows
Then the total circuit current, 3T flowing into the parallel resistor com!ination will !e:
This total circuit current value of B amperes can also !e found and verified !y finding the
e'uivalent circuit resistance and dividing it into the supply voltage ( 1<RT )
Resistors in Parallel Summary
Then to summarise (hen two or more resistors are connected so that !oth of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other resistor or resistors, they are said to !e
connected together in parallel The potential differences across each resistor in the parallel
com!ination is the same !ut the currents flowing through them are not the same
The e'uivalent or total resistance, RT of a parallel com!ination is found through reciprocal
addition and the total resistance value will always !e less than the smallest individual resistor in
the com!ination %arallel resistors can !e interchanged within the same com!ination without
changing the total resistance or total circuit current Resistors connected together in a parallel
circuit will continue to operate even though one resistor may !e open6circuited
Thus far we have seen resistor circuits connected in either a series or a parallel
combination. In the next tutorial about Resistors, we will look at connecting resistors
together in both a series and parallel combination at the same time producing a
mixed or combinational resistor circuit.
Tutorial: B of 9
Resistor Cominations
3n the previous two tutorials we have learnt how to connect resistors together to form either a
(eries Circuit or a 'arallel Circuit and used +hms -aw to find the circuit currents and voltages
Gut what if we want to connect resistors together in #G+T/# parallel and series com!inations
within the same circuit to produce more comple4 circuits that use resistor com!inations, how do
we calculate the com!ined circuit resistance, currents and voltages for this
Resistor circuits that com!ine series and parallel resistors circuits together are generally known
as Resistor Comination or mi4ed circuits and the method of calculating their e'uivalent
resistance is the same as that for any individual series or parallel circuit and hopefully we now
know that resistors in series carry e4actly the same current and that resistors in parallel have
e4actly the same voltage across them
;or e4ample, )alculate the total current ( 3 ) taken from the 1?v supply
$t first glance this may seem a difficult task, !ut if we look a little closer we can see that the two
resistors, R? and RC are !oth connected together in a #0.R3.0# com!ination so we can add them
together The resultant resistance for this com!ination would therefore !e,
R? K RC J P 7 K A 7 J 1? 7
0o now we can replace !oth the resistors R? and RC with a single resistor of resistance value 1?
7
Now we have single resistor R$ in #%$R$--.-# with the resistor RA, (resistors in parallel) and
again we can reduce this com!ination to a single resistor value of R(com!ination) using the formula
for two parallel connected resistors as follows
The resultant circuit now looks something like this:
The two remaining resistances, R1 and R(com!) are connected together in a #0.R3.0# com!ination
and again they can !e added together so the total circuit resistance !etween points $ and G is
therefore given as:
R( $ 6 G ) J Rcom! K R1 J = 7 K = 7 J 1? 7
and a single resistance of "ust 1? 7 can !e used to replace the original A resistor com!inations
circuit a!ove
Now !y using Ohm*s Law, the value of the circuit current ( 3 ) is simply calculated as:
0o any complicated circuit consisting of several resistors can !e reduced to a simple circuit with
only one e'uivalent resistor !y replacing the resistors in series or in parallel using the steps
a!ove 3t is sometimes easier with comple4 resistor com!inations to sketch or redraw the new
circuit after these changes have !een made as a visual aid to the maths Then continue to replace
any series or parallel com!inations until one e'uivalent resistance is found -ets try another more
comple4 resistor com!ination circuit
&$ample No0
;ind the e'uivalent resistance, R.V for the following resistor com!ination circuit
$gain, at first glance this resistor ladder circuit may seem complicated !ut as !efore it is a
com!ination of series and parallel resistors connected together 0tarting from the right hand side
and using the simplified e'uation for two parallel resistors, we can find the e'uivalent resistance
of the RP to R1: com!ination and call it R$
R$ is in series with RO therefore the total resistance will !e R$ K RO J A K P J 1?7 as shown
This resistive value of 1?7 is now in parallel with R= and can !e calculated as RG
RG is in series with RB therefore the total resistance will !e RG K RB J A K A J P7 as shown
This resistive value of P7 is now in parallel with RA and can !e calculated as R) as shown
R) is in series with RC therefore the total resistance will !e R) K RC J P7 as shown
This resistive value of P7 is now in parallel with R? from which we can calculated R& as
R& is in series with R1 therefore the total resistance will !e R& K R1 J A K = J 1:7 as shown
Then the comple4 com!ination resistive network a!ove can !e replaced with one single
resistance of value 1:7
3n any 0eries6%arallel Resistor )om!ination circuit !y firstly identifying simple series or parallel
connected resistors and replacing them with individual resistors of the e'uivalent value, it is
easily possi!le to reduce any comple4 circuit to that of a single e'uivalent resistance /owever,
calculations of comple4 Gridge and T networks which cannot !e reduced to a simple parallel or
series circuit using e'uivalent resistances need to !e solved using Kirchoff's Current Law, and
Kirchoff's +oltage Law which will !e dealt with in another tutorial
In the next tutorial about Resistors, we will look at the electrical potential diference
(voltage across two points including a resistor.
Potential Difference
The voltage difference !etween any two points in a circuit is known as the Potential Difference,
p! or Voltage Drop and it is the difference !etween these two points that makes the current flow
Wnlike current which flows around a circuit in the form of electrical charge, potential difference
does not move it is applied The unit of potential difference is the 7olt and is defined as the
potential difference across a resistance of one ohm carrying a current of one ampere 3n other
words, 1 J 3R
Ohm's Law states that for a linear circuit the current flowing through it is proportional to the
potential difference across it so the greater the potential difference across any two points the
!igger will !e the current flowing through it ;or e4ample, if the voltage at one side of a 1:7
resistor measures P1 and at the other side of the resistor it measures B1, then the potential
difference across the resistor would !e C1 ( P 6 B ) causing a current of :C$ to flow 3f however,
the voltage on one side was increased from P1 to say A:1, the potential difference across the
resistor would now !e A:1 6 B1 J CB1 causing a current of CB$ to flow The voltage at any
point in a circuit is always measured with respect to a common point, generally :1
;or electrical circuits, the earth or ground potential is usually taken to !e at 5ero volts (:1) and
everything is referenced to that common point in a circuit This is similar in theory to measuring
height (e measure the height of hills in a similar way !y saying that the sea level is at 5ero feet
and then compare other points of the hill or mountain to that level 3n the same way we call the
common point in a circuit 5ero volts and give it the name of ground, 5ero volts or earth, then all
other voltage points in the circuit are compared or referenced to that ground point The use of a
common ground or reference point in electrical schematic drawings allows the circuit to !e
drawn more simply as it is understood that all connections to this point have the same potential
;or e4ample:
Potential Difference
$s the units of measure for Potential Difference are volts, potential difference is mainly called
7oltage 3ndividual voltages connected in series can !e added together to give us a #total voltage#
sum of the circuit as seen in the resistors in series tutorial 1oltages across components that are
connected in parallel will always !e of the same value as seen in the resistors in parallel tutorial,
for e4ample
for series connected voltages,
for parallel connected voltages,
&$ample No-
Gy using Ohm's Law, the current flowing through a resistor can !e calculated ;or e4ample,
)alculate the current flowing through a 1::7 resistor that has one of its terminals connected to
B: volts and the other terminal connected to C: volts
1oltage at terminal $ is e'ual to B:v and the voltage at terminal G is e'ual to C:v Therefore, the
voltage across the resistor is given as:
1$ J B:v, 1G J C:v, therefore, 1$ 6 1G J B: 6 C: J ?:v
The voltage across the resistor is ?:v, then the current flowing through the resistor is given as:
3 J 1$G Y R J ?:1 Y 1::7 J ?::m$
Voltage Di7i!er
(e know from the previous tutorials that !y connecting together resistors in series across a
potential difference we can produce a voltage divider circuit giving ratios of voltages with
respect to the supply voltage across the series com!ination This then produces a Voltage
Di7i!er network that only applies to resistors in series as parallel resistors produce a current
divider networ, )onsider the circuit !elow
Voltage Di7ision
The circuit shows the principal of a voltage divider circuit where the output voltage drops across
each resistor, R1, R?, RC and RA are referenced to a common point ;or any num!er of resistors
connected together in series the total resistance, RT of the circuit divided !y the supply voltage
1s will give the circuit current as 3 J 1s<RT, +hm,s -aw Then the individual voltage drops
across each resistor can !e simply calculated as: 1 J 34R
The voltage at each point, %1, %?, %C etc increases according to the sum of the voltages at each
point up to the supply voltage, 1s and we can also calculate the individual voltage drops at any
point without firstly calculating the circuit current !y using the following formula
Voltage Di7i!er &quation
(here, 1(4) is the voltage to !e found, R(4) is the resistance producing the voltage, RT is the total
series resistance and 10 is the supply voltage
Then !y using this e'uation we can say that the voltage dropped across any resistor in a series
circuit is proportional to the magnitude of the resistor and the total voltage dropped across all the
resistors must e'ual the voltage source as defined !y Kirchoff's +oltage Law 0o !y using the
Voltage Di7i!er &quation, for any num!er of series resistors the voltage drop across any
individual resistor can !e found
Thus far we have seen that voltage is applied to a resistor or circuit and that current flows
through and around a circuit Gut there is a third varia!le we can apply to resistors %ower is a
product of voltage and current and the !asic unit of measurement of power is the watt 3n the
ne4t tutorial a!out Resistors, we will e4amine the power dissipated (consumed) !y resistance in
the form of heat and that the total power dissipated !y a resistive circuit, whether it is series,
parallel, or a com!ination of the two, we simply add the powers dissipated !y each resistor
esistor Power Rating
(hen an electrical current passes through a resistor, electrical energy is lost !y the resistor in the
form of heat and the greater this current flow the hotter the resistor will get This is known as the
Resistor Power Rating Resistors are rated !y the value of their resistance and the power in
watts that they can safely dissipate !ased mainly upon their si5e .very resistor has a ma4imum
power rating which is determined !y its physical si5e as generally, the greater its surface area the
more power it can dissipate safely into the am!ient air or into a heatsink
$ resistor can !e used at any com!ination of voltage (within reason) and current so long as its
#&issipating %ower Rating# is not e4ceeded with the resistor power rating indicating how much
power the resistor can convert into heat or a!sor! without any damage to itself The Resistor
Power Rating is sometimes called the %esistors -attage %ating and is defined as the amount of
heat that a resistive element can dissipate for an indefinite period of time without degrading its
performance. The power rating of resistors varies a lot from less than one tenth of a watt to many
hundreds of watts depending upon its si5e, construction and am!ient operating temperature *ost
resistors have their ma4imum resistive power rating given for an am!ient temperature of KO:
o
)
or !elow
.lectrical power is the rate in time at which energy is used or consumed (converted into heat)
The standard unit of electrical power is the 'att, sym!ol ' and a resistors power rating is also
given in (atts $s with other electrical 'uantities, prefi4es are attached to the word #(att# when
e4pressing very large or very small amounts of resistor power 0ome of the more common of
these are:
Wnit 0ym!ol 1alue $!!reviation
milliwatt m( 1<1,:::th watt 1:
6C
(
kilowatt k( 1,::: watts 1:
C
(
megawatt *( 1,:::,::: watts 1:
=
(
Resistor Power ,P1
(e know from Ohm's Law that when a voltage is dropped across a resistor, a current will !e
passed through the resistor producing a product of power 3n other words, if a resistor is
su!"ected to a voltage, or if it conducts a current, then it will always consume power and we can
superimpose these three 'uantities of power, voltage and current into a triangle called a Power
Triangle with the power dissipated as heat in a resistor at the top and the current and the voltage
at the !ottom as shown
The Resistor Power Triangle

The a!ove power triangle is great for calculating the power dissipated in a resistor if we know
the values of the voltage across it and the current flowing through it Gut we can also calculate
the power dissipated !y a resistance !y using Ohm's Law +hms law allows us to calculate the
power dissipation given the resistance value of the resistor Gy using +hms -aw it is possi!le to
o!tain two alternative variations of the a!ove e4pression for the resistor power if we know the
values of only two, the voltage, the current or the resistance as follows:
Z % J 1 4 3 [ %ower J 1olts 4 $mps
Z % J 3
?
4 R [ %ower J )urrent
?
4 +hms
Z % J 1
?
Y R [ %ower J 1olts
?
Y +hms
The electrical power dissipation of any resistor in a &) circuit can !e calculated using one of the
following three standard formulas:

(here:
1 is the voltage across the resistor in 1olts
3 is in current flowing through the resistor in $mperes
R is the resistance of the resistor in +hm,s (7)
$s the dissipated resistor power rating is linked to their physical si5e, a 1<A (:?B:)( resistor is
physically smaller than a 1( resistor, and resistors that are of the same ohmic value are also
availa!le in different power or wattage ratings )ar!on resistors, for e4ample, are commonly
made in wattage ratings of 1<P (:1?B)(, 1<A (:?B:)(, 1<? (:B)(, 1(, and ? (atts Fenerally
speaking the larger their physical si5e the higher its wattage rating /owever, it is always !etter
to select a particular si5e resistor that is capa!le of dissipating two or more times the calculated
power (hen resistors with higher wattage ratings are re'uired, wirewound resistors are
generally used to dissipate the e4cessive heat
Type Power Rating Staility
*etal ;ilm 1ery low at less than C( /igh 1@
)ar!on -ow at less than B( -ow ?:@
(irewound /igh up to B::( /igh 1@
Power Resistors
(irewound power resistors come in a variety of designs and types, from the standard smaller
heatsink mounted aluminium !ody ?B( types as we have seen previously, to the larger tu!ular
1:::( ceramic or porcelain power resistors used for heating elements The resistance value of
wirewound resistors is very low (low ohmic values) compared to the car!on or metal film types
The resistive range of a power resistor ranges from less than 17 (R::B) up to only 1::k7,s as
larger resistance values would re'uire fine gauge wire that would easily fail
Typical %ower Resistor
-ow ohmic, low power value resistors are generally used for current sensing applications were,
using ohm,s law the current flowing through the resistance gives rise to a voltage drop across it
This voltage can !e measured to determine the value of the current flowing in the circuit This
type of resistor is used in test measuring e'uipment and controlled power supplies
The larger wirewound power resistors are made of corrosion resistant wire wound onto a
porcelain or ceramic core type former and are generally used to dissipate high inrush currents
such as those generated in motor control, electromagnet or elevator<crane control and motor
!raking circuits These types of resistors have standard power ratings up to B::( and are
connected together to form resistance !anks
$nother useful feature of wirewound power resistors is in the use of heating elements like the
ones used for electric fires, toaster, irons etc 3n this type of application the wattage value of the
resistance is used to produce heat and the type of alloy resistance wire used is generally made of
Nickel6)hrome (Nichrome) allowing temperatures up to 1?::
o
)
$ll resistors whether car!on, metal film or wirewound o!ey +hmDs -aw when calculating their
ma4imum power (wattage) value 3t is also worth noting that when two resistors are connected in
parallel then their overall power rating is increased 3f !oth resistors are of the same value and of
the same power rating, then the total power rating is dou!led
&$ample No-
(hat is the ma4imum power rating in (atts of a resistor which has a voltage of 1?1 across it
and a current of B:m$ flowing through it
Fiven that we know the voltage and current, we can su!stitute the values into % J 1 4 3
&$ample No0
)alculate the ma4imum safe current that can pass through a 1PQ7 resistor rated at :B(
Fiven that we know the resistor power rating and resistance, we can su!stitute the values into %
J 3
?
R
$ll resistors have a "a$imum Dissipate! Power Rating, which is the ma4imum amount of
power it can safely dissipate without damage to itself Resistors which e4ceed their ma4imum
power rating tend to go up in smoke, usually 'uite 'uickly, and damage the circuit they are
connected to 3f a resistor is to !e used near to its ma4imum power rating then some form of
heatsink or cooling is re'uired
Resistor power rating is an important parameter to consider when choosing a resistor for a
particular application The "o! of a resistor is to resist current flow through a circuit and it does
this !y dissipating the unwanted power as heat 0electing a small wattage value resistor when
high power dissipation is e4pected will cause the resistor to over heat, destroying !oth the
resistor and the circuit
Thus far we have considered resistors connected to a steady &) supply, !ut in the ne4t tutorial
a!out Resistors, we will look at the !ehaviour of resistors that are connected to a sinusoidal $)
supply, and show that the voltage, current and therefore the power consumed !y a resistor used
in an !" circuit are all in#phase with each other.
Tutorial: 9 of 9
Resistors Tutorial an! Summary
The "o! of a Resistor is to limit the current flowing through an electrical circuit
Resistance is measured in #hm;s and is given the sym!ol 7
)ar!on, ;ilm and (irewound are all types of resistors
Resistor colour codes are used to identify the resistance and tolerance rating of small
resistors
The G01PB? 0tandard uses letters and is used to identify large si5e resistors
Tolerance is the percentage measure of the accuracy of a resistor from its preferred value
with the .= (?:@), .1? (1:@), .?A (B@) and .9= (1@) series of tolerance values
availa!le
Series Resistor Tutorial
Resistors that are daisy chained together in a single line are said to !e connected in
S&R<&S
0eries connected resistors have a common Current flowing through them
3total J 31 J 3? J 3C etc
The total circuit resistance of series resistors is e'ual to
Rtotal J R1 K R? K RC K Rn etc

Total circuit voltage is e'ual to the sum of all the individual voltage drops
1total J 11 K 1? K 1C etc

The total resistance of a series connected circuit will always !e greater than the highest
value resistor
Parallel Resistor Tutorial
Resistors that have !oth of their respective terminals connected to each terminal of
another resistor or resistors are said to !e connected in P8R844&4
%arallel resistors have a common Voltage across them
10 J 11 J 1? J 1C etc

Total resistance of a parallel circuit is e'ual to

Total circuit current flow is e'ual to the sum of all the individual !ranch currents added
together
3total J 31 K 3? K 3C etc

The total resistance of a parallel circuit will always !e less than the value of the smallest
resistor
Resistor Power Rating
The larger the power rating, the greater the physical si5e of the resistor
$ll resistors have a ma4imum power rating and if e4ceeded will result in the resistor
overheating and !ecoming damaged
0tandard resistor power rating si5es are 1<P (, 1<A (, 1<? (, 1 (, and ? (
-ow ohmic value power resistors are generally used for current sensing or power supply
applications
The power rating of resistors can !e calculated using the formula

3n $) )ircuits the voltage and current flowing in a pure resistor are always #in)phase#
producing :
o
phase shift
(hen used in $) )ircuits the $) impedance of a resistor is e'ual to its &) Resistance
The $) circuit impedance for resistors is given the sym!ol H