MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
E 4101
ENGINEERING ENGLISH
SEMESTER VII
(ALL COURSES)
B. Tech. (Sec!" Ye#$)
CONTENTS
UNIT TITLE PAGE
1. Portable Generator 3
2. Environmental/Sanitary Engineering 12
3. Washing Machine 19
4. Corrosion 2
!. "a#n$Mo#er 33
%. &he 'orge 41
(. &he )*il+ing o, the '*t*re 4%
. &he Problem o, Meas*rements Electrical -nstr*ments !4
9. .e+*ce/ .e*se/ .ecycle %2
10. 1a2an3s 4n+ergro*n+ 'rontier (0
UNIT 1
2
PORTABLE GENERATOR
T%!&!'(&!
T#)* I
"ist the +i,,erent #ays in #hich electricity can be generate+.
Re#"&!' Re#"&!' "&#'$#+)
T#)* II
St*+y the +iagram belo# o, a 2ortable generator. 5ns#er these 6*estions
*sing the +iagram an+ yo*r o#n 7no#le+ge o, engineering.
1 What are its main 2arts8
2 What +oes the engine r*n on8
3 What are the ,o*r sto7es calle+8
4 What is the ,*nction o, the cran7sha,t8
! What +o both stator an+ rotor have8
% What is the +i,,erence bet#een stator an+ rotor8
T#)* III
3
.ea+ this te9t to chec7 as many o, the ans#ers as yo* can. :o* #ill
not ,in+ com2lete ans#ers to all o, the 6*estions.
P$,#-.e 'e!e$#,$
5ltho*gh most electricity comes ,rom 2o#er stations/ 2o#er can also be
generate+ by ,ar smaller means. ;o#a+ays/ electricity generators can be
small eno*gh to hol+ in the han+.
!
10
1!
20
2!
Portable generators are ma+e *2 o, t#o main 2arts< an engine/ #hich 2o#ers
the e6*i2ment/ an+ an alternator/ #hich converts motion into electricity.
&he engine sho#n ='ig.1> r*ns on 2etrol. -t is starte+ by 2*lling a cor+. &his
creates a s2ar7 insi+e #hich ignites the ,*el mi9t*re.
-n a ty2ical ,o*r$sto7e engine/ #hen the 2iston +escen+s/ the air inlet val*e
o2ens an+ a mi9t*re o, air an+ 2etrol is s*c7e+ in thro*gh a carb*rettor.
&he valve closes/ the 2iston rises on the com2ression stro7e an+ a s2ar7
#ithin the *22er chamber ignites the mi9t*re. &his mini$e92losion 2*shes
the 2iston bac7 +o#n/ an+ as it rises again the ,*mes ,orme+ by the ignition
are ,orce+ o*t thro*gh the e9ha*st valve.
&his cycle is re2eate+ many times 2er secon+. &he moving 2iston ma7es the
cran7sha,t rotate at great s2ee+.
&he cran7sha,t e9ten+s +irectly to an alternator/ #hich consists o, t#o main
sets o, #in+ings $ coils o, ins*late+ co22er #ire #o*n+ closely aro*n+ an
iron core. ?ne set/ calle+ stator #in+ings/ is in a ,i9e+ 2osition an+ sha2e+
li7e a broa+ ring. &he other set/ the armat*re #in+ings/ is #o*n+ on the rotor
#hich is ,i9e+ to the rotating cran7sha,t. &he rotor ma7es abo*t 3/000
revol*tions 2er min*te.
&he rotor is magneti@e+ an+ as it s2ins ro*n+/ electricity is generate+ in the
stator #in+ings thro*gh the 2rocess o, electromagnetic in+*ction. &he
electric c*rrent is ,e+ to the o*t2*t terminals or soc7ets.
&his ty2e o, generator can 2ro+*ce a (00 #att o*t2*t/ eno*gh to o2erate
lights/ television/ an+ some +omestic a22liances. "arger versions 2rovi+e
emergency 2o#er to hos2itals an+ ,actories.
4
T#)* IV
St*+y this te9t on the ,o*r$stro7e cycle. &hen label each stro7e correctly
'ig. 2 belo#.
-n the ,o*r$stro7e cycle/ the 2iston +escen+s on the inta7e sto7e/ +*ring #hich
the inlet valve is o2en. &he 2iston ascen+s on the com2ression stro7e #ith
both valves close+ an+ ignition ta7es 2lace at the to2 o, the sto7e. &he 2o#er
or e92ansion sto7e ,ollo#s. &he gas generate+ by the b*rning ,*el e92an+s
ra2i+ly/ +riving the 2iston +o#n/ both valves remaining close+. &he cycle is
com2lete+ by the e9ha*st sto7e/ as the 2iston ascen+s once more/ ,orcing the
2ro+*cts o, comb*stion o*t thro*gh the e9ha*st val*e. &he cycle then re2eats
itsel,.
L#!'%#'e ),%"/ C#%)e #!" E00ec,

!
St*+y these 2airs o, actions. What is the lin7 bet#een each 2air8
1 &he gas e92an+s.
2 &his +rives the 2iston +o#n.
3 &he 2iston ascen+s.
4 &his ,orces the 2ro+*cts o, comb*stion o*t.
&here are t#o lin7s bet#een the actions. &hey ha22en at the same time. We
can sho# this *sing As.
1A2 As the gas expands, it drives the piston down.
3A4 As the piston ascends, it forces the products of combustion out.
?ne is a ca*se an+ the other an e,,ect.
1 Ca*se< &he gas e92an+s.
2 E,,ect< &his +rives the 2iston +o#n.
3 Ca*se< &he 2iston ascen+s.
4 E,,ect< &his ,orces the 2ro+*cts o, comb*stion o*t.
We can sho# both the time lin7 an+ the ca*se an+ e,,ect lin7 li7e this<
1A2 The gas expands, driving the piston down.
3A4 The piston ascends/ forcing the products of combustion out.
T#)* V
"in7 these actions in the same #ay.
C#%)e E00ec,
1 &he 2iston moves so#n the cylin+er. &his creates a 2artial vac**m.
2 &he 2iston creates a vac**m. &his +ra#s in ,*el ,rom the
carb*rettor.
3 &he 2iston moves *2 the cylin+er. &his com2resses the mi9t*re.
4 &he gas e92an+s 6*ic7ly. &his 2*shes the 2iston +o#n.
! &he 2iston moves *2 the +o#n. &his rotates the cran7sha,t.
% &he cran7sha,t s2ins ro*n+. &his t*rns the rotor at 3/000 r2m.
( &he armat*re o, the alternator rotates. &his in+*ces a c*rrent in the
stator #in+ings.
%
&he alternator r*ns at a stea+y 3/000r2m. &his generates aro*n+ (00 #atts.



1$" ),%"/ Ve$-) 2&,h &3e4 (&)e
St*+y this statement<
The rotor is magnetized.
We can re#rite this statement as<
The rotor is made magnetic.
Berbs en+ing in Cize/-ise have a range o, meanings #ith the general sense o, make A
adjective.
T#)* VI
.e#rite these sentences re2lacing the 2hrases in italics #ith a22ro2riate
-ize/-ise verbs.
1 Some cars are ,itte+ #ith a sec*rity +evice #hich makes the engine
immobile.
2 -n areas #here the 2o#er s*22ly ,l*ct*ates ,or sensitive e6*i2ment a
+evice to make the voltage stable is re6*ire+.
3 Man*,act*rers see7 to keep costs to a minimum an+ 2ro,its to a
maximum.
4 Most com2anies have installed computers to control their 2ro+*ction
line.
! Com2anies may make their o2eration more rational by re+*cing the
variety o, 2ro+*cts they ma7e.

1$&,&!' De)c$&-&!' # 5$ce))6 )e7%e!ce #!" .c#,&!
(
T#)* VII
'ig. 3 belo# sho#s the +istrib*tion o, 2o#er ,rom 2o#er station to
cons*mer. &he statements #hich ,ollo# +escribe the +istrib*tion. P*t
the statements in the correct or+er #ith the hel2 o, the +iagram. &he ,irst one has
been +one ,or yo*.
a -t is ,e+ to s*bstations.
b -t is ste22e+ *2 by a trans,ormer to high voltages ,or
long$+istance +istrib*tion.
c -t is +istrib*te+ via the gri+ to s*22ly 2oints.
+ -t is +istrib*te+ to the +omestic cons*mer.
e Electricity is generate+ at the 2o#er station at 2! 7B. DDDD1DDDDD
, -t 2asses via the s#itching com2o*n+ to the gri+.
g -t is +istrib*te+ via overhea+ or *n+ergro*n+ cables
to interme+iate s*bstations.

T#)* VIII

Mar7 the se6*ence o, stages *sing a22ro2riate se6*ence #or+s #here yo* thin7 this is
hel2,*l. 5++ the ,ollo#ing in,ormation to yo*r statements an+ ma7e them into a te9t.
1. 5t the main gri+ s*22ly 2oints/ 2o#er is ste22e+ +o#n to 33 7B ,or
+istrib*tion to heavy in+*stry.
2. 5t interme+iate s*bstations/ 2o#er is re+*ce+ to 11 7B ,or light in+*stry.
3. 5t the +istrib*tion s*bstations/ 2o#er is ste22e+ +o#n to 41! B/ 3$2hase an+
240 B/ 1$2hase.
Tech!&c#. $e#"&!' 1#8e 52e$
T#)* I9
&he t#o te9ts #hich ,ollo# +escribe t#o 2lants ,or generating electricity
,rom #ave 2o#er. ;ote the similarities an+ +i,,erences bet#een the 2lants.
&his 2rototy2e #ave$2o#er 2lant on the Scottish islan+ o, -slay #as
constr*cte+ by b*il+ing a concrete #ater col*mn across a nat*ral
g*lly on the shoreline. Waves ,lo#ing in an+ o*t o, the g*lly ca*se
#ater in the col*mn to move *2 an+ +o#n. 5s the #ater moves *2 it
9
! com2resses the air above an+ ,orces it thro*gh a #i+e t*be at the bac7 o, the
#ater col*mn. 5s the #ater moves +o#n/ air is +ra#n into the #ater col*mn.
&he moving air 2asses thro*gh a t*rbine co*2le+ to a generator. )oth the
t*rbine an+ generator are *n*s*al. &he t*rbine is a Wells =name+ a,ter its
inventor> #hich 7ee2s t*rning in one +irection even tho*gh the air ,lo# is
10 constantly changing +irection. -t has t#o rotors/ each #ith ,o*r bla+es.
&he generator is a #o*n+ rotor in+*ction motor/ #hich acts as a generator
#hen it is t*rning at s2ee+s greater than 1/!00 r2m. )elo# that s2ee+ it
o2erates as a motor an+ ta7es 2o#er ,rom the gri+. &his motor/ generator is
*se+ beca*se the t*rbine ta7es some time to b*il+ *2 to a s2ee+ #here it can
1! generate electricity. When the t*rbine slo#s +o#n +*e to a l*ll in #ave
activity/ the generator becomes an electric motor an+ 7ee2s the t*rbine
r*nning at a minim*m s2ee+ so that it is rea+y to acce2t the 2o#er ,rom the
ne9t batch o, #aves.
&he 2lant is controlle+ by a com2*ter. -t incl*+es a P"C =2rogrammable logic
20 controller>/ #hich monitors the o2eration o, the motor/ generator an+ the
amo*nt o, electricity going to or being ta7en ,rom the gri+. &here is also
testing e6*i2ment to monitor ho# m*ch electricity the 2lant is 2ro+*cing an+
the e,,iciency o, the #ater col*mn/ t*rbine/ an+ generator. &his e92erimental
2lant generates 1!0 EW. Plans have been a22rove+ ,or the constr*ction o, a 1
2! MW scheme.
So*rce< 5+a2te+ ,rom -nsi+e o*t< Wave 2o#er. E+*cation G*ar+ian
10
&he #orl+Fs ,irst 2o#er station in the o2en sea is to be statione+ o,, Go*nreay
in Scotlan+. &he machine/ calle+ ?s2rey =?cean S#ell$2o#ere+ .ene#able
Energy> #ill stan+ in 1 metres o, #ater a 7ilometre o*t an+ not only harvest
the larger #aves/ #hich 2ro+*ce higher o*t2*ts/ b*t also gain 2o#er #ith
! #aves ,rom any +irection.
&he +evice is 7no#n as an oscillating #ater col*mn. 5s a #ave rises/ air is
2*she+ thro*gh an air t*rbine an+ s*c7e+ bac7 again as the #ave ,alls. &he
t*rbine has been +esigne+ by Pro,essor 5lan Wells/ o, H*eenFs 4niversity/
)el,ast. -t #ill generate 2 mega#atts.
10 &here is 2otential ,or 300 ?s2reys in Scottish #aters #hich co*l+ 2rovi+e 10
2ercent o, the co*ntryFs 2ea7 electricity +eman+.

11
UNIT :
ENVIRONMENTAL 4 SANITARY ENGINEERING
!
10
1!
20
2!
nvironmental / !anitar" engineering is concerne+ #ith 2rovi+ing clean/
sa,e #ater s*22ly systems ,or to#ns/ cities/ an+ r*ral areas. I, is also
concerne+ #ith +is2osing o, e9cess #ater an+ #aste materials by means o,
se#er systems. Many as2ects o, environmental / sanitary engineering are
+irectly relate+ to hy+ra*lic engineering. 5,ter the connection bet#een
#ater s*22ly an+ certain +iseases s*ch as ty2hoi+ #as establishe+ in the
nineteenth cent*ry/ cities an+ to#ns all over the #orl+ b*ilt sa,e #ater
s*22ly systems.
-n a++ition to trans2orting #ater over long +istances/ mo+ern #ater s*22ly
systems also *se several techni6*es ,or 2*ri,ication. O!e o, them is
filtration. &he #ater is 2asse+ thro*gh a ,ilter that consists o, a be+ o, san+
or gravel/ 2h&ch removes a large 2ro2ortion o, the soli+s that might other$
#ise contaminate the s*22ly. 5nother 2rocess is aeration. S2rays o, #ater
are shot into the air/ 2he$e s*nlight an+ o9ygen hel2 7ill bacteria an+ also
remove gases #ith an *n2leasant o+or or tasteI or air is b*bble+ in or
thro*gh the #ater. 5 thir+ metho+ involves treatment #ith chemicals/
*s*ally chlorine/ to 7ill harm,*l bacteria. &he 2rocess is 7no#n as
chlorination.
Part o, 2rovi+ing a sa,e #ater s*22ly is +is2osing o, li6*i+ an+ soli+
#astes. Th&) 5$-.e+ has become ac*te in recent years not only beca*se
o, #orl+$#i+e 2o2*lation gro#th/ b*t also beca*se o, the vast amo*nt o,
#aste create+ by in+*strial 2rocesses an+ by the great mo*ntains o, trash
that are the by$2ro+*ct o, increase+ cons*m2tion.
5 large n*mber o, mo+ern +rainage systems *se the same se#ers to
+is2ose o, +omestic #astes an+ r*no,, #ater ,rom storms. Many o, these
systems #ere +esigne+ to em2ty into streams or other bo+ies o, #ater
2he$e nat*re itsel, 2*ri,ie+ the #ater over a 2erio+ o, time. ;o#/
12
30
3!
40
4!
!0
!!
ho#ever/ the amo*nt o, #aste has become so great that many streams an+
la7es an+ even the seas have become 2oll*te+. More an+ more treatment
2lants are being b*ilt to 2*ri,y #ater be,ore it is release+ bac7 into the
environment. &here,ore/ the mo+ern tren+ is to b*il+ se2arate +rainage
systems ,or storm r*no,, an+ ,or +omestic #astes so that the treatment
2lants +o not have to 2rocess the r*no,, #ater/ 2h&ch is relatively
*n2oll*te+.
&here are a n*mber o, +i,,erent metho+s by #hich soli+ #astes can be
remove+ or ren+ere+ harmless. Several o, them are or+inarily *se+ in
combination in treatment 2lants. ?ne o, the 2rocesses is ,iltration. 5nother
is sedimentation/ in 2h&ch #astes are allo#e+ to settle *ntil ,he/ become
soli+ or semisoli+ an+ can be remove+. &here are also techni6*es in #hich
#ater ca be treate+ by biological means/ by *sing some 7in+s o, bacteria to
7ill other 7in+s/ or by chemical means/ as in chlorination. ?ne o, the most
s*ccess,*l metho+s is calle+ the activated-sludge 2rocess. I, involves
*sing com2resse+ air to increase an+ control the rate o, biological reactions
that 2*ri,y the #astes. Present$+ay concern over environmental 2oll*tion
has increase+ the +eman+ that #aste #ater sho*l+ be treate+ to the ,*llest
+egree 2ossible be,ore &, is ret*rne+ to the environment.
Bast amo*nts o, trash have also 2ose+ 2roblems in +is2osal. M*ch o, it
has been *se+ as landfill by +*m2ing in s#am2y areas or in shallo# #ater
so that the area can be ma+e *se,*l. 5 great +eal o, &, has also been b*rne+
in incinerators, h*ge ,*rnaces that re+*ce the #astes to ash. -ncinerators/
ho#ever/ are o*t o, ,ashion to+ay beca*se they release harm,*l ,*mes into
the air. Many o, ,he+ are being re+esigne+ to control these emissions
more e,,ectively.
&he concern ,or a cleaner environment together #ith the nee+ to conserve
an+ re*se o*r reso*rces has create+ a challenge ,or #hich sanitary
engineers/ #or7ing #ith environmentalists/ #ill be calle+ *2on to ,in+ ne#
sol*tions over the ne9t ,e# years.
13
E;e$c&)e I
What +o the *n+erline+ #or+s in the 2assage re,er to8
1. -t in line 2
2. ?ne in line 10
3. #hich in line 12
4. #here in line 14
!. &his 2roblem in line 20
%. #here in line 2(
(. #hich in line 33
. #hich in line 3
9. they in line 3
10. -t in line 42
11. it in line 4%
12. it in line 49
13. them in line !2
E;e$c&)e II
'ill in each o, the blan7s in the ,ollo#ing sentences #ith the a22ro2riate #or+ or
e92ression.
1. JJJ..engineering systems 2rovi+e clean #ater s*22ly/ +rainage/ an+
#aste +is2osal services.
2. Some JJJ. are *se+ only ,or e9cess #ater r*no,,/ b*t others also carry
+omestic #astes.
3. Karm,*l s*bstances can be remove+ ,rom #aste materials in a JJJ2lant.
4. &he 2rocess o, 2assing #ater thro*gh san+ or gravel to remove soli+ is
7no#n asJJJJ..
!. -n aeration/ s2rays o, #ater are shot into the air #hereJJJ. 7ills many o,
the bacteria.
%. Water can be 2*ri,ie+ by JJJ. means/ by *sing chlorine that 7ills bacteria
an+ by JJJ.. means in #hich some 7in+s o, bacteria are *se+ to 7ill
other 7in+s.
14
(. -n JJJ./ #astes are allo#e+ to settle *ntil they become soli+ or semisoli+
an+ can be move+.
. &he JJJ.2rocess involves the *se o, com2resse+ air to increase an+
control the rate o, biological reactions that 2*ri,y #astes.
9. 5 great +eal o, trash is com2letely b*rne+ *2 inJJJJ
E;e$c&)e III
5ns#er the ,ollo#ing 6*estions.
1. What +oes environmental/ sanitary engineering +eal #ith8
2. &o #hat other branch o, engineering are many as2ects o, environmental
engineering +irectly relate+8
3. Why +i+ cities an+ to#ns all over the #orl+ begin b*il+ing sa,e #ater
s*22ly systems in the nineteenth cent*ry8
4. What are some o, the #ater 2*ri,ication techni6*es that are c*rrently *se+8
!. What is 2art o, 2rovi+ing a sa,e #ater s*22ly8 Why has this 2roblem
become ac*te8
%. What t#o 2*r2oses +o a large n*mber o, mo+ern +rainage systems serve8
(. Why #ere se#er systems +esigne+ to em2ty into streams or other bo+ies o,
#ater8
. What has ha22ene+ as a res*lt o, the large amo*nt o, #aste8
9. What ste2s are being ta7es to overcome the 2roblem o, #ater 2oll*tion ,rom
the release o, #astes8
10. What are some o, the +i,,erent metho+s by #hich soli+ #astes can be
remove+ or ren+ere+ harmless8
11. What +eman+ has 2resent$+ay concern over environmental 2oll*tion
increase+8
12. What 2oses another 2roblem in +is2osal8
13. What t#o metho+s have been em2loye+ to +is2ose o, trash8
14. Why are incinerators o*t o, ,ashion to+ay8 What is being +one abo*t this8
1!. What challenge has concern ,ro the environment create+8
1!
S,$%c,%$e Re)%., S 4 S%ch < Th#, 4 #) ,
E9am2le<
1. &he amo*nt o, #aste has become ) great ,h#, many streams an+ la7es
have become 2oll*te+.
2. &he amo*nt o, #aste is increasing ) greatly ,h#, many streams an+ la7es
have become 2oll*te+.
3. &he co*ntry has ) many nat*ral reso*rces ,h#, it can s*22ort itsel, easily.
4. &he co*ntry has ) m*ch ,*el ,h#, it can e92ort large 6*antities.
!. &he co*ntry has ) little #) to ma7e it necessary to im2ort large 6*antities.
%. &he increase in 2ro+*ction is ) ra2i+
(. &he 2o2*lation is increase ) ra2i+ly =as to ca*se a ,oo+
shortage.>
. &here is )%ch # ra2i+ increase in 2o2*lation
9. &here are )%ch ra2i+ increases in 2o2*lation
E;e$c&)e IV
Com2lete these statements #ith the a22ro2riate #or+s<
1. &he ,*el is JJJJ. volatile JJJJ it cannot be #eighte+ in an o2en
cr*cible #itho*t loss.
2. &he tem2erat*re o, the gas may rise toJJJ.. e9tentJJJJ the
hy+rocarbons +ecom2ose.
3. &he ,riction losses are JJJ..m*ch re+*ce+ JJJJ.become
negligible.
4. Steam is no# re6*ire+ in JJJJ..large 6*antities JJJJ.very large
ca2acity boilers have to be b*ilt.
!. JJJJJ..interest has been sho#n in the ne# mo+el JJJJlarge
scale 2ro+*ctions to start at once.
%. &he steel is in JJJJJbrittle con+ition JJJJit can only be
scra22e+.
(. &he engine 2rove+ JJJJ. More reliable than the earlier ones
JJJJ.it has gra+*ally re2lace+ them.
1%
. &here are JJJJJ,e# moving 2arts JJJJ.maintenance is re+*ce+
to a minim*m.
9. &*ngsten carbi+e is JJJJ..har+ material JJJJit can c*t metal at
very high s2ee+.
10. &he mi9t*re #o*l+ have JJJJ.large air / ,*el ratio JJJJ. ma7e it
+i,,ic*lt to ignite.
S,$%c,%$e Re)%., () ,h#, 4 The$e0$e)
E.g.
&he tem2erat*re o, the gas rises
&he aircra,t is limite+ in s2ee+/
&he tem2erat*re o, the gas rises.
&he air cra,t s2ee+ is limite+
so that
#ith the res*lt
that
&here,ore/
5s a res*lt/
Conse6*ently/
Kence/
it e92an+s in the cylin+er.
it #ill soon become
obsolete.
it e92an+s in the cylin+er
it #ill soon become
obsolete.
E;e$c&)e V
4se the 2atterns given above to lin7 these statements<
1. &he ,riction losses are greatly re+*ce+. &hey may be neglecte+.
2. 5 corrosive aci+ is liable to be 2ro+*ce+. S2ecial 2reca*tions have to be
ta7en.
3. &he #eather #as very ba+ ,or some #ee7s. Progress #ith the b*il+ing o,
the bri+ge #as not so goo+ as #as e92ecte+.
4. "abo*r$management relations are very goo+. &here are sel+om any serio*s
+is2*tes.
!. &he material is heate+ in air. -t o9i+i@es.
%. &he bearings are l*bricate+. &he ,riction is re+*ce+.
(. Water #as s2raye+ into the steam ca*sing con+ensation. 5 2artial vac**m
#as 2ro+*ce+.
1(
. &he crystal bo*n+aries o, the metals are bro7en +o#n. &he metals
+isintegrate.
9. &he valve closes some o, the lo# 2ress*re no@@les. &he s2ee+ +ro2s.
10. S*2er heating +ries the steam. )la+e erosion is consi+erably re+*ce+.
1
UNIT =
1ASHING MACHINE
T%!&!'(&!
T#)* I
Many items in the home contain control systems. &he #ashing machine is one o, the
most com2le9. "ist some o, the ,actors the control system o, a #ashing machine m*st
han+le. &his +iagram may hel2 yo*.
Re#"&!' Re#"&!' "&#'$#+)
-n engineering/ +iagrams carry a great +eal o, in,ormation. &hey can also hel2 yo* to
*n+erstan+ the accom2anying te9t. 'or this reason/ it is hel2,*l to try to *n+erstan+
any +iagram be,ore rea+ing the te9t.
19
T#)* II
St*+y the +iagram again. &ry to e92lain the ,*nction o, each o, these items.
1. P*m2
2. Motor
3. Shoc7 absorber
4. Solenoi+ valves
!. Keater
%. Press*re sensor
(. Goor loc7 an+ sensor
. &em2erat*re sensor
9. 'an
T#)* III
.ea+ this te9t to chec7 yo*r ans#ers to &as7 -.
C!,$. )/),e+) &! ,he h+e
Most +evices in the home have some sort o, control. 'or e9am2le/ yo* can control
the vol*me o, a &B by *sing a remote control. &he b*il+ing bloc7s o, a control
system are<

&he in2*t can be any movement or any change in the environment. 'or e9am2le/ a
+ro2 in tem2erat*re may ca*se a heating system to come on.
&he control may change the si@e o, the o*t2*t =,or e9am2le/ a+L*sting the so*n+ o, a
&B>. ?,ten this involves changing one 7in+ o, in2*t into a +i,,erent 7in+ o, o*t2*t.
'or e9am2le/ o2ening a #in+o# may set o,, a b*rglar alarm. ?*t2*ts can be o, many
7in+s. 5n alarm system may ring a bell/ ,lash lights/ an+ sen+ a tele2hone message to
the 2olice.
20
Press button Singnal is Volume
on remote control sent to TV is adjusted
Input Control Output
Most control systems are close+ loo2s. &hat means they incor2orate a #ay o,
chec7ing that the o*t2*t is correct. -n other #or+s/ they have ,ee+bac7. &he
thermostat in a central heating system ='ig.2> 2rovi+es constant ,ee+bac7 to the
control *nit.
'ig. 2
&he control system o, a mo+ern #ashing machine has to ta7e into acco*nt several
+i,,erent ,actors. &hese are +oor 2osition/ #ater level/ #ater tem2erat*re/ #ash an+
s2in times/ an+ +r*m s2ee+s. Most o, them are +eci+e+ #hen yo* select #hich
#ashing 2rogram to *se.
'ig. 3 sho#s a bloc7 +iagram o, a #ashing machine control system. :o* can see that
this is 6*ite com2le9 close+ loo2 system *sing ,ee+bac7 to 7ee2 a chec7 on #ater
level/ #ater tem2erat*re/ an+ +r*m s2ee+s.
'ig.3
21
Feedback
Temperature
sensor
Control
unit
Boiler
switch
Boiler/Pump
adiators
Clock
!ater le"el
sensor
#oor position
sensor
!ater temp
sensor
#rumspeed
sensor

Control
unit
Pump
!ater "al"es
$eater
%otor
Program
selector
&he control *nit is the heart o, the system. -t receives an+ sen+s o*t signals #hich
control all the activities o, the machine. -t is also ca2able o, +iagnosing ,a*lts #hich
may occ*r/ sto22ing the 2rogram/ an+ in,orming the service engineer #hat is #rong.
-t is a small/ +e+icate+ com2*ter #hich/ li7e other com2*ters/ *ses the lang*age o,
logic.
T#)* IV
.ea+ the ,ollo#ing te9t to ,in+ the ans#ers to these 6*estions<
1. What +evice is *se+ to loc7 the +oor8
2. What 2rovi+es ,ee+bac7 to the control *nit abo*t the +oor 2osition8
Te;, 1
D$ 5)&,&!
&he machine #ill not start any 2rogram *nless the +oor is ,*lly close+ an+
loc7e+. When the +oor is close+/ it com2letes an electrical circ*it #hich
heats *2 a heat$ sensitive 2ellet. &his e92an+s as it gets hot/ 2*shing a
mechanical loc7 into 2lace an+ closing a s#itch. &he s#itch signals the
control *nit that the +oor is close+ an+ loc7e+. ?nly #hen it has receive+ this
signal #ill the control *nit start the #ash 2rogram.
;o# #or7 in 2airs/ A an+ B
S,%"e!, A6 .ea+ &e9ts 2 an+ 3.
S,%"e!, B6 .ea+ &e9ts 4 an+ !.
Com2lete yo*r section o, the table belo#. &hen e9change in,ormation #ith yo*r
2artner to com2lete the #hole table.
C!,$. 0#c,$ O5e$#,&!' "e8&ce Fee"-#c* -/
1. Goor 2osition Keat$sensitive 2ellet s#itch
2. Water level
3. Water tem2erat*re
4. Wash an+ s2in times
!. Gr*m s2ee+s
22
Te;, :
1#,e$ .e8e.
When a #ash 2rogram ,irst starts it has to o2en the valves #hich allo# the
#ater in. &here are *s*ally t#o o, these valves/ one ,or hot #ater an+ one ,or
col+. Each m*st be controlle+ se2arately +e2en+ing on the #ater tem2erat*re
nee+e+ ,or that 2rogram. &he valves are solenoi+ o2erate+/ i.e. they are o2ene+
an+ close+ electrically.
&he rising #ater level is chec7e+ by the #ater level sensor. &his is a 2ress*re
sensor. &he 2ress*re o, the air in the 2lastic t*be rises as it is com2resse+ by
the rising #ater. &he 2ress*re sensor 7ee2s the control *nit in,orme+ as to the
2ress*re reache+ an+ the control *nit *ses the in,ormation to +eci+e #hen to close the
#ater inlet valves.
Te;, =
1#,e$ ,e+5e$#,%$e
&he tem2erat*re sensor/ a ty2e o, the thermometer #hich ,its insi+e the #asher
+r*m/ meas*res the #ater tem2erat*re an+ signals it to the control *nit. &he control
*nit com2ares it #ith the tem2erat*re nee+e+ ,or the 2rogram being *se+. -, the #ater
tem2erat*re is too lo#/ the control *nit #ill s#itch on the heater. &he tem2erat*re
sensor contin*es to chec7 the tem2erat*re an+ 7ee2 the control *nit in,orme+. ?nce
the correct tem2erat*re is reache+/ the control *nit s#itches o,, the heater an+ moves
on to the ne9t stage o, the 2rogram.
Te;, 4
C.c*
&he control *nit incl*+es a memory #hich tells it ho# long each stage o, a
2rogram sho*l+ last. &he times may be +i,,erent ,or each 2rogram. &he electronic
cloc7 b*ilt into the control *nit 7ee2s the memory o, the control *nit in,orme+ so that
each stage o, each 2rogram is time+ correctly.
23
Te;, >
D$%+ )5ee"
G*ring the #ashing an+ s2inning cycles o, the 2rogram/ the +r*m has to s2in at
vario*s s2ee+s. Most machines *se three +i,,erent s2ee+s< !3 r2m ,or #ashing/ 3
r2m ,or +istrib*ting the loa+ be,ore s2inning/ 100 r2m ,or s2inning. &he control *nit
signals the motor to 2ro+*ce these s2ee+s. &he motor starts *2 slo#ly/ #hen
gra+*ally increases s2ee+. &he s2ee+ sensor/ a tachogenerator/ 7ee2s the control *nit
in,orme+ as to the s2ee+ that has been reache+. &he control *nit *ses the in,ormation
to control the 2o#er to the motor an+ so controls the s2ee+ o, the +r*m at all times.
L#!'%#'e ),%"/ I0 4 U!.e)) )e!,e!ce)
T#)* V
'ill in the blan7s in this table *sing the in,ormation in 'ig.3 an+ the te9ts in &as7 -B.
Se!)$ C!"&,&! C!,$. %!&, #c,&!
Water level lo# o2en inlet valves
level high eno*gh
Water tem2erat*re s#itch on heater
high eno*gh
Gr*m s2ee+
+ecrease motor s2ee+
&he con+itions #hich the sensors re2ort +etermine the action o, the control *nit. We
can lin7 each con+ition an+ action li7e this<
If the water level is low the inlet valves are opened.
24
T#)* VI
Write similar sentences ,or the other ,ive con+itions given.
;o# st*+y this e9am2le<
Se!)$ C!"&,&! C!,$. %!&, #c,&!
Goor Goor o2en Machine cannot start
Goor close+ Machine can start
We can lin7 these con+itions an+ actions as ,ollo#s<
1. If the door is open, the machine cannot start.
2. If the door is closed, the machine can start.
3. Unless the door is closed, the machine cannot start.
We *se unless #hen an action cannot or #ill not ha22en i, a 2rior con+ition is not
tr*e. -n e9am2le 3/ #nless means $f % not. We can re#rite 3 as<
If the door is not closed, the machine cannot start.
T#)* VII
Com2lete these sentences *sing #nless an+ yo*r 7no#le+ge o, engineering.
1. 4nless the ignition is s#itche+ on/ a car cannot .
2. 4nless the 2ilot light is on/ gas central heating #ill not .
3. 4nless the +iverter valve is s#itche+ on to central heating/ the ra+iators #ill not
.
4. 4nless there is c*rrent ,lo#ing in the 2rimary coil o, a trans,ormer/ there #ill be
no c*rrent in the coil.
!. 4nless there is in the cylin+ers/ a 2etrol engine #ill not start.
%. 4nless the +oors are / a li,t #ill not o2erate.
(. 4nless mil+ steel is 2ainte+/ it #ill .
. 4nless electrical e6*i2ment is earthe+/ it may be .
2!
1$&,&!' E;5.#&!&!' # "&#'$#+
T#)* VIII
St*+y this +iagram o, a 2ress*re sensor. E92lain ho# it #or7s by lin7ing each 2air o,
actions #ith a22ro2riate time #or+s.
1. 5 #ash 2rogramme ,irst starts.
-t o2ens the valves to allo# the #ater in.
2. &he #ater level in the +r*m rises.
&he air in the 2lastic t*be is com2resse+.
3. &he 2ress*re rises.
&he +ia2hragm moves *2#ar+s.
4. &his contin*es.
&he s#itch contacts are se2arate+.
!. &his ha22ens.
&he ,ill valves are close+.
T#)* I9
1oin the ,ollo#ing gro*2s o, statements to ma7e longer sentences. 4se the #or+s
2rinte+ in italics above each gro*2. :o* may omit #or+s an+ ma7e #hatever changes
yo* thin7 are necessary in the #or+ or+er an+ 2*nct*ation o, the sentences. 1oin the
sentences to ma7e a 2aragra2h.
1. which
&he tem2erat*re sensor meas*res the #ater tem2erat*re.
&he tem2erat*re sensor is a ty2e o, thermometer.
2%
2. and
&he tem2erat*re sensor ,its insi+e the #asher +r*m.
&he tem2erat*re sensor signals the #ater tem2erat*re to the control *nit.
3. which
&he control *nit com2ares the #ater tem2erat*re #ith the tem2erat*re.
&he tem2erat*re is nee+e+ ,or the 2rogramme being *se+.
4. $f
&he #ater tem2erat*re is too lo#.
&he control *nit #ill s#itch on the heater.
!. and
&he tem2erat*re sensor contin*es to chec7 the tem2erat*re.
&he tem2erat*re sensor 7ee2s the control *nit in,orme+.
%. when JJ. and
&he correct tem2erat*re is reache+.
&he control *nit s#itches o,, the heater.
&he control *nit moves on to the ne9t stage o, the 2rogramme.
2(
UNIT 4
CORROSION
5 maLor consi+eration in engineering +esign is maintenance. ?ne o,
the commonest ca*ses o, ,ail*re in the long term is corrosion. &his is any
+eterioration in the com2onentFs a22earance or 2hysical 2ro2erties.
Corrosion covers a n*mber o, 2rocesses #hereby a metal changes
! state as a res*lt o, some ,orm o, interaction #ith its environment. -t o,ten
occ*rs #here #ater/ either as a li6*i+ o, va2o*r in air o, high h*mi+ity/ is
2resent.
-n general/ corrosion becomes #orse #hen im2*rities are 2resent in
+am2 con+itions. -t never starts insi+e a material/ an+ there #ill al#ays be
10 s*r,ace evi+ence that in+icates corrosion e9ists/ altho*gh close e9amination
may be nee+e+.
5 common e9am2le o, corrosion is the r*sting o, steel #here a
conversion o, metallic iron to a mi9t*re o, o9i+es an+ other com2o*n+s
occ*rs. &his not only changes the a22earance o, the metal b*t also res*lts in a
1! +ecrease in its cross$section.
-t is im2erative that a +esign ta7es into acco*nt #hether a material #ill
be a,,ecte+ in a 2artic*lar environment an+/ i, corrosion is li7ely/ at #hat rate.
Many ,actors can intervene in a #ay to restrain its 2rogress. 5n
e9am2le is al*mini*m an+ its alloys #hich 2er,orm satis,actorily in many
20 engineering an+ +omestic a22lications #hen e92ose+ to air an+ #ater. &his is
+*e to the ra2i+ 2ro+*ction o, a to*gh a+herent ,ilm o, o9i+e #hich 2rotects
the metal ,rom ,*rther attac7 so that corrosion halts.
2
E;e$c&)e I
S7im the given 2assage to i+enti,y the 2aragra2hs #hich contain<
a Con+itions in #hich corrosion occ*rs
b ;ee+ to consi+er corrosion in +esign
c 5 +e,inition o, corrosion
+ 'actors #hich limit corrosion
e E,,ects o, r*st
E;e$c&)e II
5ns#er these 6*estions in com2lete sentences.
1. -n corrosion/ #hy +o metals change state8
2. ;ame t#o ,actors #hich enco*rage corrosion.
3. Where can signs o, corrosion al#ays be ,o*n+8
4. What is r*st8
!. Why may r*st be +angero*s to a str*ct*re8
%. What m*st +esigners consi+er regar+ing corrosion8
(. Why +oes al*mini*m 2er,orm #ell #hen e92ose+ to air an+ #ater8
E;e$c&)e III
N#,%$e #!" #55e#$#!ce 0 c$$)&! 5$"%c,) (A&$c$#0, E!'&!ee$&!')
A../) T/5e 0 #,,#c* , 2h&ch #../ &) A55e#$#!ce 0
)%)ce5,&-.e C$$)&! 5$"%c,)
5l*mini*m S*r,ace 2itting/ intergran*lar an+ White or grey 2o#+er
alloys e9,oliation
&itani*m alloys Kighly corrosion resistant. E9ten+e+ ;o visible corrosion
or re2eate+ contact #ith chlorinate+ 2ro+*cts
solvents may res*lt in +egra+ation o,
the metalsF str*ct*ral 2ro2erties
Magnesi*m Kighly s*sce2tible to 2itting White 2o#+ery sno#$
29
alloys li7e mo*n+s/ an+ #hite
s2ots on s*r,ace
"o# alloy steels S*r,ace o9i+ation an+ 2itting/ .e++ish$bro#n o9i+e
=4000$000 series> s*r,ace an+ intergran*lar =r*st>
Corrosion resistant -ntergran*lar corrosion =+*e to Corrosion evi+ence+ by
steel =C.ES>=300$ im2ro2er heat treatment>.Some ro*gh s*r,aceI
400 series> ten+ency to 2itting in marine sometimes by re+ /
environment =300 series more bro#n/ or blac7 stain
corrosion resistant than 400
series>.Stress corrosion crac7ing
;ic7el$base alloys Generally has goo+ corrosion$ Green 2o#+ery +e2osit
=-nconel> resistant 6*alities. Sometimes
s*sce2tible to 2itting
Co22er$base alloy/ S*r,ace an+ intergran*lar )l*e or bl*e$green
brass/ bron@e corrosion 2o#+er +e2osit
Chromi*m=*se+ as S*bLect to 2itting in chlori+e Chromi*m/being
a #ear$resistant environments catho+ic to steel/ +oes
2lating ,or steels> not corro+e itsel,/ b*t
2romotes r*sting o,
steel #here 2its occ*r
in the coating
Scan the table to ,in+ the ans#ers to these 6*estions.
1. What colo*r is the corrosion 2ro+*ct on nic7el$base alloys8
2. Which alloys are most s*sce2tible to 2itting8
3. What +oes C.ES re,er to8
4. When is chromi*m s*sce2tible to 2itting8
30
!. What is -nconel8
%. Which alloys have the highest resistance to corrosion8
(. What is the +i,,erence in a22earance bet#een corrosion on al*mini*m alloys an+
corrosion on co22er$base alloy8
. Which C.ES is more corrosion resistant8
9. What visible signs are there o, corrosion in titani*m alloys8
10. ;ame t#o alloys s*bLect to intergran*lar corrosion.
L#!'%#'e ),%"/ C#%)e #!" e00ec,
What connection can yo* see bet#een the ,ollo#ing8
corrosion
loss o, strength
+am2ness
re+*ction in cross$section
P*t them in the correct or+er to sho# this connection.
Ca*se an+ e,,ect lin7s li7e these are common in engineering e92lanations. :o* can
lin7 a ca*se an+ e,,ect #hen both are no*ns or no*n 2hrases/ li7e this<
1 -, yo* #ant to 2*t the ca*se ,irst.
C#%)e E00ec,
Gam2ness causes corrosion
results in
gives rise to
brings about
leads to
2 -, yo* #ant to 2*t the e,,ect ,irst.
31
E00ec, C#%)e
Corrosion is caused b" +am2ness
results from
is the result of
is the effect of
is brought about b"
is due to
E;e$c&)e I
St*+y these lists/ A an+ B. -tems in list 5 are ca*ses o, those in list B b*t the items are
mi9e+ *2. "in7 the relate+ items. 'or e9am2le<
.e+*ction in cross$section loss o, strength
A B
1 re+*ction in cross$section # corrosion
: ins*lation brea7 +o#n - bearing ,ail*re
= overtightening c e9cessive heat
4 overloa+ing a circ*it " shearing in metal
> carelessness e loss o, strength
? im2*rities 0 shearing in bolts
@ lac7 o, l*brication ' blo#n ,*ses
A ,riction h short circ*its
B re2eate+ ben+ing I acci+ents
10 overr*nning an electric C #ear an+ tear in machinery
motor
;o# #rite sentences to sho# the lin7.
'or e9am2le<
"oss o, strength results from re+*ction in cross$section.
32
UNIT >
LA1N(MO1ER
T%!&!'(&!
T#)* I
St*+y this +iagram o, a la#n$mo#er. &hen ans#er the 6*estions abo*t the +iagram.
33
1 Ko# is the grass c*t8
: Ko# is the height o, the c*t a+L*ste+8
= What is the 2*r2ose o, the ,an8
4 Ko# +o the c*ttings enter the grass bo98
> Ko# is 2o#er 2rovi+e+8
? Ko# is the motor 2rotecte+ ,rom grass inta7e8
@ What is the ,*nction o, the hoo+8
T#)* II
5nalyse the ,*nctions o, a la#n$mo#er by com2leting this FWhy an+ Ko#F +iagram
*sing the labels 2rovi+e+ belo#.
Why Ko#
&ig. ' &unction Anal"sis !"stem Techni(ue )&A!T* diagram
# rotate bla+e
- trans2ort c*ttings
34
3
2rovi+e
hori@ontal
velocity
to bla+e
1
.otate
im2eller
!
2rovi+e
+*c7 to
grass
2rovi+e
grass
bo9

(
%
-m2act
grass
#ith
shar2
e+ge
Collect
c*ttings
&rim
la#n
C*t
grass
2 4
c store c*ttings
" *se s2acers
e bring grass *2right
0 achieve air$,lo#
' 2rovi+e motor
h 2osition bla+e height
Re#"&!' 1 P$e"&c,&!'
T#)* III
:o* are going to rea+ a te9t abo*t engineering +esign. &he title is<
FASTD # 8e$)#,&.e "e)&'! ,.
)e,ore yo* rea+ the te9t/ thin7 abo*t the ans#ers to these 6*estions<
1 Why +o 2ro+*cts have a ,inite li,e8
: Ko# can too little 6*ality r*in a 2ro+*cer8
= What +oes a c*stomer re6*ire o, any 2ro+*ct8
;o# rea+ the te9t to chec7 yo*r ans#ers an+ to ,in+ o*t the ans#ers to these
6*estions.
4 What is a F#in+o# o, o22ort*nityF8
> What is '5S&8
? What +oes it allo# the +esigner to +o8
@ Ko# can a +esign team *se '5S& to 2*t val*e into a +esign8
FASTD # 8e$)#,&.e "e)&'! ,.
&he tas7 o, the engineer is to 2ro+*ce the correct 2ro+*ct at the correct cost at
the correct time. -, a 2ro+*ct misses its #in+o# o, o22ort*nity/ the
man*,act*rer can lose *2 to 33M o, the li,e cycle 2ro,its. "ost sales are never
ma+e *2 as changes in the mar7et 2lace an+ in com2etitorsF e6*i2ment mean
! that any 2ro+*ct has a ,inite li,e.
&he correct 2ro+*ct is one #hich #ill satis,y the c*stomerFs re6*irementsI
,*nctionality/ 6*ality/ a,,or+ability/ an+ availability. -t m*st also satis,y the
2ro+*cerFs re6*irements< lo# man*,act*ring costs/ sim2le 6*ality control/ an+
an i+enti,ie+ mar7eting o22ort*nity. H*ality is im2ortant to both c*stomer an+
3!
10 man*,act*rer. &oo m*ch #ill r*in the 2ro+*cer/ too little #ill alienate the
c*stomer an+ may also r*in the 2ro+*cer i, ,a*lty goo+s have to be recalle+.
&he +esignerFs goal is to get it right ,irst time. &o +o this a +esign 2rocess m*st
be *se+ #hich is e,,ective at 2ro+*cing a goo+ +esign. 5n im2ortant tool in the
+esign 2rocess is the '*nctional 5nalysis System &echni6*e ='5S&>
1! +iagram. &his enables the +esigner to *n+erstan+ the ,*nctional relationshi2s
o, the system being +esigne+. &he e9am2le ill*strate+ ='ig.2> sho#s the
techni6*e a22lie+ to the +esign o, a la#n$mo#er.
&he c*stomerFs re6*irement F&rim la#nF a22ears in the bo9 to the right o, the
+iagram. .ea+ing ,rom the le,t/ one can as7 the 6*estion FWhyF o, any o, the
20 statements containe+ in the other bo9es/ an+ the ans#ers #ill all lea+ to the
c*stomerFs re6*irement. Starting ,rom the right an+ as7ing the 6*estion FKo#N
establishes the reason ,or the ,*nction +escribe+.
'5S& has many *ses $ ,or e9am2le/ to analyse a com2etitorFs e6*i2ment. &his
tool also enables a +esign team to 2*t val*e into a +esign. &he 2rocess *s*ally
2! involves combining a n*mber o, ,*nctions into single 2arts/ th*s re+*cing the
n*mber o, 2arts an+ saving cost in both materials an+ labo*r.
Re#"&!' : G$#++#$ .&!*)
St*+y this 2aragra2h ,rom the te9t/ some 2hrases have been 2rinte+ in -.".
5ns#er the 6*estion in italics #hich ,ollo# them.
&he +esignerFs goal is to get it right ,irst time. &o " ,h&) OTo do what+P a
+esign 2rocess m*st be *se+ #hich is e,,ective at 2ro+*cing a goo+ +esign. 5n
im2ortant tool in the +esign 2rocess is the ,*nctional 5nalysis System &echni6*e
='5S&> +iagram. Th&) O,hat+P enables the +esigner to *n+erstan+ the ,*nctional
relationshi2 o, the system being +esigne+. &he e9am2le sho#s ,he ,ech!&7%e O,hich
techni(ue+P a22lie+ to the +esign o, a la#n mo#er.
T#)* IV
3%
&his te9t has more e9am2les o, the lin7s st*+ie+ here. 5ns#er the 6*estions in the
te9t.
?n most mo#ers/ a motor #ith 2o#er o, aro*n+ 1 EW is *se+ to +rive the
c*tter an+ ,an at over %/000 revol*tions 2er min*te =abo*t the same O!ame
what+P as a ,ast$revving car>. &he motor is *s*ally electric b*t some ty2es O-f
what+P *se 2etrol engines. &he ,an s*c7s air in thro*gh t#o inta7es/ one in
,ront o, the mo#er an+ one behin+ in the grass bo9. &hese c*rrents O-f what+P
,lo# 2ast the motor/ hel2ing to 7ee2 it O,hat+P cool/ be,ore being ,orce+ *n+er
the machine. &his O,hat+P s*22orts its O,hat.s+P #eight.
L#!'%#'e S,%"/ De)c$&-&!' 0%!c,&!)
&o analyse the ,*nctions o, a machine/ #e nee+ to be able to ans#er FKo#F an+ FWhyF
6*estion. We have st*+ie+ most o, these metho+s in 2revio*s *nits. We #ill revise
them here an+ intro+*ce some ne# metho+s.
1. /ow (uestions
5ns#er this 6*estion abo*t the la#n$mo#er sho#n in &as7 1.
/ow are the clippings stored+
We can ans#er FKo#F 6*estions li7e this<
1. With b" 0 -ing. 'or e9am2le<
The clippings are stored by providing a grass box.
2. With used 0 to verb or used 0 for -ing #hen the instr*ment is given ,or
e9am2le<
A grass box is used to store the clippings.
A grass box is used for storing the clippings
.
: ,h" (uestions
5ns#er this 6*estion abo*t the la#n$mo#er.
,h" is the impeller rotated+
We can ans#er FWhyF 6*estions li7e this<
1 With to 0 verb
3(
The impeller is rotated to achieve air-flow.
2 With so that 0 cla*se
The impeller is rotated so that air-flow can be achieved.
T#)* V
E92lain these ,*nctions o, the la#n$mo#er.
1 Ko# are the c*ttings trans2orte+8
: Ko# is air$,lo# achieve+8
= Ko# is the bla+e height 2ositione+8
4 Ko# is hori@ontal velocity 2rovi+e+ to the bla+e8
> Ko# is the grass im2acte+ #ith a shar2 e+ge8
? Why is a grass bo9 2rovi+e+8
@ Why is the grass bro*ght *2right8
A Why are s2acers *se+8
B Why is air$,lo# achieve+8
10 Why is a motor 2rovi+e+8
1$" S,%"/ N%! E !%!6 0%!c,&!
Some no*n A no*n com2o*n+s in engineering contain a no*n ,orme+ ,rom a verb.
?,ten these com2o*n+s e92lain the ,*nction o, the obLect.
'or e9am2le<
5 heat e9changer is *se+ to e9change heat.
5 heat e9changer is *se+ ,or e9changing heat.
T#)* VI
E92lain these ,*nctions o, these obLects<
1 shoc7 absorber
: signal generator
= s2ee+ governor
4 battery charger
> 2ress*re reg*lator
? circ*it brea7er
@ har+ness tester
A ,*se hol+er
3
B engine immobili@er
10 tem2erat*re sensor
T#)* VII
What are the names o, these obLects8 Chec7 the s2elling in yo*r +ictionary/ a +evice
*se+ to<
1 re+*ce the s2ee+ =or a motor>
: in+icate the level o, oil =in a gear bo9>
= grin+ the s*r,ace =or a metal 2late>
4 inLect ,*el =into 2etrol or +iesel engines>
> ,ilter oil =,or an engine>
? c*t #ires
@ sense moist*re =in an environment>
A co*nt binary =n*mbers>
B com2ress air
10 convert +igital =signals> to analog*e =signals>
1$&,&!' De)c$&5,&! #!" e;5.#!#,&!
:o* are going to #rite a +escri2tion o, a hovermo#er an+ an e92lanation o, ho# it
#or7s.
T#)* VIII
Se2arate these sentences into those #hich +escribe an+ those #hich e92lain.
1 5 hovermo#er is ,or c*tting grass.
: When the motor is t*rne+ on/ air is s*c7e+ in by the im2eller ,an.
= &hese are ,o*r main com2onents< an electric motor/ a ,an/ a c*tting bla+e/ an+ a
grass bo9.
4 Press*re *n+er the hoo+ rises/ #hich ca*ses the mo#er to li,t on a c*shion o,
air.
> Some air esca2es aro*n+ the hoo+/ #hich stabili@es the air 2ress*re.
? &he ,an is attache+ to the motor.
@ &he c*tting bla+e is ,i9e+ belo# the ,an.
A 5,ter the bla+es c*t the grass/ the c*ttings are s*c7e+ into the grass bo9 by the
,lo# o, air to the im2eller ,an.
B &he #hole assembly is covere+ by a hoo+.
39
10 &he grass bo9 is sit*ate+ behin+ the motor.
T#)* I9
'orm the +escri2tive sentences into one 2aragra2h an+ the e92lanatory sentences into
a secon+ 2aragra2h. Give yo*r te9t a title.
UNIT ?
THE FORGE
!
10
'orging is a 2rocess #hich ta7es 2lace in a smithy. I, consists o, heating
metal an+ 2ressing or hammering &, into sha2e. )oth ,erro*s an+ non$
,erro*s metals may be ,orge+ b*t it is *s*ally the ,ormer that are ,orge+ by
han+ 2rocesses. &he most s*itable metal ,or ,h&) 5%$5)e is #ro*ght iron.
Mo+ern ,orges/ or ,orging hearths/ are ma+e o, 2lates o, cast iron or steel.
Th)e #hich are ma+e o, cast iron are bolte+ together #hereas those #hich
are ma+e o, steel are rivete+ or #el+e+ together. &he ,ire$2lace #hich is in
the mi++le o, the hearth/ is line+ #ith ,irebric7s. 5bove the ,ire2lace is a
,l*e/ #hich is in the sha2e o, a hoo+ an+ ,itte+ #ith a chimney. I,)
5%$5)e is to carry a#ay the ,*mes ,rom the ,ire. )ehin+ the hearth is a
blo#er #hich is +riven by electric 2o#er. &he blo#er is connecte+ to the
t*yere thro*gh 2h&ch a +ra*ght o, a air is blo#n into the ,ire. &he t*yere
thro*gh 2h&ch a +ra*ght o, air is blo#n into the ,ire. &he t*yere has to be
coole+ to 2revent &, ,orm getting hot. I, 2asses thro*gh a tan7 o, #ater
40
1!
20
2!
30
#hich is 7no#n as the bosh. &his #ater tan7 is ,itte+ to be bac7 o, the
,orge. &he tem2erat*re o, the ,ire can be a+L*ste+ by varying the amo*nt
o, air #hich enters the t*yere.
&he anvil is the blac7smith3s basic 2iece o, e6*i2ment. I, is ma+e o, mil+
steel/ an+ has a cost iron stan+. &he anvil s*22orts the #or7 #hich is to be
sha2e+ on s*r,ace #hich is ma+e o, har+ene+ steel. &his s*r,ace is 7no#n
as the #or7ing ,ace/ or table. &he anvil has a long an+ 2ointe+ bea7 #hich
is *se+ ,or ben+ing metal bars. .o*gh #or7/ s*ch as c*tting thro*gh
metal #ith a chisel/ is +one on a ste2/ or le+ge/ #hich is locate+ bet#een
the bea7 an+ the table. &he hammering o, re+ hot metals is +one on the
har+ene+ table.
&here are t#o holes in the #or7ing ,ace. &he s6*are hole/ #hich is calle+
the har+ie hole/ is *se+ ,or 2*tting the s6*are shan7s o, bottom tools/ s*ch
as the har+ie an+ ,*ller/ in 2osition. &he small ro*n+ hole calle+ the 2*nch
hole/ or 2ritchel is *se+ ,or t#o 2*r2oses. -t can s*22ort ro*n+ bars +*ring
,orging o2erations s*ch as *2setting/ an+ it 2rovi+es clearance ,or 2*nches
#hen ma7ing holes in hot metal.
E;e$c&)e I
What +o the *n+erline+ #or+s in the 2assage re,er to8
E;e$c&)e II
"abelling o, +iagrams
,orging hearth
,ire C2lace
,ire$ bric7s
hoo+
chimney
2o#er$+riven blo#er
t*yere
41
bosh
anvilQ
cast C iron stan+ Q
#or7ing ,ace
bea7
ste2 or le+ge
har+ie hole
2*nch hole or 2ritchel
E;e$c&)e III
State #hether the ,ollo#ing statements are tr*e or ,alse.
1. 'orging is a 2rocess in #hich metal is heate+ an+ 2resse+ or hammere+ into sha2e.
2. 5ll ,erro*s an+ non$,erro*s metals may be ,orge+.
3. ?nly ,erro*s metals are ,orge+ by han+ 2rocesses.
4. Wro*ght iron is the best ,erro*s metal ,or han+$,orging.
!. 5 mo+ern ,orging hearth is ma+e o, either cast iron or steel 2lates.
%. &here is a ,l*e above the ,ire$2lace to carry a#ay the ,*mes.
(. 5 2o#er$+riven blo#er blo#s a +ra*ght o, air thro*gh the t*yere into the ,ire.
. &he #or7ing ,ace is ma+e o, har+ene+ steel.
9. Chiselling #or7 is +one either on a ste2 or on a le+ge.
10. .e+ hot metal is hammere+ into sha2e on the #or7ing ,ace.
11. &he 2ritchel is #here ro*n+ bars can be s*22orte+ #hile they are being *2set.
E;e$c&)e IV
A!)2e$ ,he 0..2&!' 7%e),&!) &! c+5.e,e )e!,e!ce).
1. What 2rocesses are involve+ in ,orging8
2. What 7in+ o, metals are ,orge+ by han+ 2rocess8
42
3. What are +one to ,orges ma+e o, steel an+ those o, cast iron8
4. What is the ,*nction o, the ,l*e8
!. What +oes the blo#er +o8
%. Ko# +oes the t*yere 2revente+ ,rom getting hot8
(. What nee+s to be +one in or+er to a+L*st the tem2erat*re o, the ,ire8
. What is *se+ ,or hammering the heate+ metal into sha2e8
9. Ko# +oes the anvil act as in ,orging 2rocess8
10. What +o blac7smiths +o on the #or7ing ,ace/ or table8
11. What +o blac7smiths *se ,or ben+ing metal bars8
12. Give an+ e9am2le o, ro*gh #or7. Where is ro*gh #or7 +one8
13. What +o blac7smiths +o #ith the har+ene+ table8
14. What +oes the s6*are hole in the #or7ing ,ace enable them to +o8
1!. What +oes the small ro*n+ hole act as8
C+5.e; N%! Ph$#)e)
5 non 2hrase =han+ ,orging/ han+ tools/ etc.> can be ma+e even more com2le9 by the
a++ition o, more no*ns/ a+Lectives an+ 2artici2les.
e.g. a. 5 hac7sa# bla+e #hich is ,le9ible.
5 ,le9ible hac7sa# bla+e.
b. Steel 2lates #hich are rivete+ together.
.ivete+ steel 2lates.
c. 5sbestos sheets #hich are 2roo, against ,ire.
,ire $ 2roo, asbestos sheets.
;otice that each mo+i,ier #e a++ s*b$classi,ies the obLect that #e are naming. &h*s
in technical English #e can be very 5$ec&)e #!" c!c&)e abo*t an obLect =e.g. a 2art o,
a machine> by labeling it accor+ing to
1. its s2eci,ic 2ro2erties or 6*alities = R a S above >
2. ho# it is ma+e or constr*cte+= R bS above >
3. its ,*nction or *se/ #hich may +e2en+ on its 2ro2erties = R c S above >
43
E;e$c&)e V
.e#rite the ,ollo#ing sentences by moving in,ormation ,rom the relative to ma7e the
no*n 2hrase *n+erline+ more com2le9.
e.g. A h#c*)#2 #hich is +riven by 2o#er is *se+ ,or the ro*gh c*tting o, metal bars
an+ stri2s.
A 52e$("$&8e! h#c*)#2 is *se+ ,or the ro*gh c*tting o, metal bars an+ stri2s.
=;ote that com2o*n+ no*ns li7e 52e$("$&8e! are o,ten 2rinte+ #ith a hy2hen<
2o#er$+riven>
1. P2e$ ,.) #hich are hel+ in the han+ m*st be 2ro2erly earthe+.
2. C%,,&!' ,.) #hich are ma+e o, high s2ee+ steel have great strength.
3. The e.ec,$"e #hich is coate+ #ith a ,l*9/ itsel, 2rovi+es the ,iller metal.
4. C/.&!"e$ -.c*) #hich are *se+ ,or motor vehicles are ma+e o, al*mini*m.
!. 1e."&!' #hich is +one by an electric are is e9tremely e,,icient as the tem2erat*re
o, the s2ar7 bet#een the t#o terminals o, the electric circ*it is a22ro9imately
3/300
T
C.
%. A -e!"&!' +#ch&!e #hich is o, the roller ty2e may be *se+ ,or ,orming ,lat
sheets into cylin+rical sha2es.
(. The 2$*&!' 0#ce o, an anvil/ #hich is ma+e o, cast steel an+ has been har+ene+/
is #here re+ hot metals is hammere+ into sha2e by the blac7smith.
. G%&..,&!e) #hich are o2erate+ by 2o#er can c*t sheet steel to the correct length
an+ #i+th.
44
UNIT @
THE BUILDING OF THE FUTURE
!
&he architectFs instr*ctions ,rom the )an7 #ere sim2le. &he )an7
#ante+ a b*il+ing that #o*l+ stan+ as the best in the #orl+/ an+
serve their changing nee+s #ell into the t#enty$,irst cent*ry. -t
#o*l+ have to be a+a2table an+ im2ressive/ ,*nctional an+ e,,icient.
;orman 'osterFs +esign ,*l,ils all these criteria an+ more.
10
1!
4s*ally/ s7yscra2ers are encase+ in a concrete FcaseF ,or ,ire
2rotection. &he ne# )an7 b*il+ingFs steel ,rame has been +esigne+
to be seen/ an+ is the most *n*s*al ,eat*re o, the e9ternal ,rame. &he
steel in the ne# ban7 is s2ecially treate+ ,or ,ire resistance. &he
,loors o, the b*il+ing #ill be s*s2en+e+ ,rom #i+e/ bri+ge$li7e
s2ans at ,ive 2oints *2 the b*il+ing. &his has been +one be,ore/ b*t
never on s*ch a large an+ com2le9 scale. &he high$s2ee+ li,ts an+
escalators reaching thro*gho*t the b*il+ing are *ni6*e. Even the
+esign ,or the ,loors has +ra#n heavily on high technology.
Gevelo2e+ #ith re,erence to the aeros2ace in+*stry/ the ,loors can
be com2are+ to those o, a )oeing (4(.
20
)*t 2erha2s the most
interesting ,eat*re abo*t
this 2roLect is that most o,
the b*il+ing is 2re$contr*cte+
2!
o,,$site an+ #ill be
trans2orte+ at a later +ate to
the act*al b*il+ing site ,or
assembly. ?ne e9am2le o,
this is the service mo+*les.
4nli7e a more conventional b*il+ing/ #here the services #o*l+ be
4!
30
locate+ in a central core/ the main services in the ne# b*il+ing are
Fo*tboar+F/ i.e. on t#o si+es o, the b*il+ing. &he 2re$assemble+
mo+*les arrive on site ,*lly ,itte+ o*t/ rea+y to be slotte+ in 2lace
an+ hoo7e+ onto 2re$constr*cte+ risers.
3!
40
&he mo+*les/ #hich are
,ire2roo,e+ steel ,rame+
bo9es #ith light#eight steel
concrete +ec7 ,loors/ ,orm an
integral 2art o, the b*il+ing.
5ltho*gh similar mo+*les
have been *se+ in other
constr*ction 2roLects/ they
have never be,ore been
installe+ on a large scale in
s*ch a tall b*il+ing.
5 riser ,rame/ com2lete #ith 2re,abricate+
services/ ,rom 1a2an is abo*t to be hoiste+
an+ ,i9e+ into 2osition.
4!
!0
&he 139 mo+*les/ #hich are ma+e in 1a2an/ come in t#o lengths o,
30 ,eet an+ 40 ,eet. &he 30 ,oot mo+*les are ,itte+ on the east si+e
o, the b*il+ing an+ generally contain toilets at the ,ront en+ an+
a*9iliary 2lan s*ch as heat e9changers/ e9tract ,ans an+ hot an+
col+ #ater storage at the bac7. &he toilets arrive on site com2letely
,itte+ o*t +o#n to the light ,ittings/ ash trays an+ toilet$roll hol+ers.
&he longer mo+*les are installe+ on the #est #i+e o, the b*il+ing.
&hey also contain toilets at the ,ront/ b*t at the bac7 they contain
2lant rooms #ith combinations o, air$con+itioning 2lant. ?ne o, the
main a+vantages o, the mo+*les is the s2ee+ #ith #hich they can
4%
!!
%0
be erecte+ C 3% can be ,itte+ in L*st ,o*r #ee7s.
&he overall e,,iciency o, the +esign allo#s great ,le9ibility. 5t any
time in the ,*t*re/ the internal 2lanning can be rearrange+ #itho*t
e92ensive constr*ction. )*ilt into the +esign is the ca2ability to
increase the e9isting ,loor s2ace by *2 to 30 2er cent. &his co*l+ be
+one by ,illing in the vacant areas #itho*t altering the str*ct*re o,
the b*il+ing. )eca*se interior *tilities =electrical/ 2l*mbing/ air$
con+itioning/ etc> #ill be rea+ily accessible *n+er a raise+ ,loor/ as
is o,ten ,o*n+ in com2*ter installations/ altering the ,ittings #ill be
relatively sim2le/ as each in+ivi+*al item slots into a series o,
service +*cts. ;e# o*tlets can be a++e+ at any 2lace/ or ol+ ones
remove+ or re$2ositione+.
%!
(0
?2erations an+ maintenance #ill
li7e#ise be more e,,icient/ an+ so
less e92ensive than in a
conventional b*il+ing. 5 com2*ter
system #ill monitor the b*il+ing
constantly to ens*re that each
in+ivi+*al com2onent is ,*nctioning
e,,iciently/ that energy is not being
#aste+/ an+ that nothing is abo*t to
,ail. "o# intensity energy lighting
(!
an+ e9terior
cla++ing #ill
7ee2 the heat
lo#/ re+*cing
o2erating costs
o, the b*il+ing.
&he raise+ ,loor sho#ing the 2anels an+ s*22ort 2e+estals an+
s*b$,loor services #hich #ill be easily accessible by raising the
4!lb/ 1200 mm s6*are 2anel.
E;e$c&)e II
What +o these #or+s re,er to8
4(
1. their in line 3
2. -t in line 3
3. these criteria in line !
4. &his in line 11
!. those in line 1%
%. this in line 2!
(. #here in line 2%
. they in line 49
9. #hich in line !1
10. this in line !%
11. ones in line %2
E;e$c&)e III A
&here are so many com2o*n+ no*ns in the te9t. 'in+ ! instances o, com2o*n+ no*ns.
e.g. ,ire 2rotection
E;e$c&)e III B
'in+ instances o, 2resent 2artici2le an+ 2ast 2artici2le #hich are *se+ as a+Lectives in
the te9t.
e.g 5$e(c!),$%c,e" risers/ #&$(c!"&,&!&!' 5.#!,
E;e$c&)e III C
Choose the a22ro2riate #or+ in these sentences.
1. Kis e92lanation ma+e me very =con,*se>.
2. - am very m*ch =am*se> by her 2er,ormance.
3. &he lesson #as =interest> eno*gh/ #asnFt it8
4. &hey #ere =s*r2rise> to ,in+ that he ha+ alrea+y le,t.
!. -t is not =s*r2rise> that they lost the games.
E;e$c&)e IV
5ns#er the ,ollo#ing 6*estions.
4
1. What 7in+ o, b*il+ing +oes the ban7 re6*ire to have8 / What #ere the )an7Fs
re6*irements8
2. Ko# are s7yscra2ers *s*ally 2rotecte+ ,rom ,ire8
3. What are ,loors o, the b*il+ing similar to8
4. Where are the services locate+8
!. Kave similar services mo+*le been *se+ in other b*il+ings8
%. Where are the t#o 7in+s o, mo+*les installe+8
(. What a+vantage +o s*ch mo+*les have8
. -n #hat #ays is the b*il+ing ,le9ible8
9. Ko# +o maintenance costs com2are #ith those o, a conventional b*il+ing8
10. What is the ,*nction o, the com2*ter system8
E;e$c&)e V 1$" F$+)
'ill in the blan7s #ith a22ro2riate #or+ ,orms.
Berb ;o*n 5+Lective 5+verb
e,,icient
,le9ibility
a+a2table
im2ressive
,*nctional
ca2ability
maintain
accessible
*tility
install
49
E;e$c&)e VI
Com2lete the ,ollo#ing #ith a s*itable ,orm o, the #or+ given in brac7ets.
1. Ges2ite the 2*blic o*tcry/ the =install> o, a n*clear 2o#er station #as com2lete+.
2. When travelling in other co*ntries/ it is #ise to carry a *niversal =a+a2t> in yo*r
l*ggage.
3. &he hotel room as =,*nction> rather than l*9*rio*s.
4. &he com2any +evelo2e+ a ne# microchi2 that is =ca2ability> o, a m*ch #i+er
range o, a22lication.
!. Concrete #as ,irst =*tility> as b*il+ing material by the .omans.
%. We nee+ a 2ass#or+ to get =access> to the com2*ter system.
(. &his machine has greater =e,,icient> then the other one.
. Com2*ters o,,er a m*ch grater +egree o, =,le9ible> in the #ay the #or7 is
organi@e+.
9. We intervie#e+ a n*mber o, can+i+ates b*t none o, them =im2ress> *s.
10. Who is res2onsible ,or the =maintain> o, the b*il+ings8
S,$%c,%$e De0&!&!' Re.#,&8e C.#%)e)
Cla*ses beginning #ith relative 2rono*ns =#ho/ #hich/ #here/ that> are o,ten *se+ to
mo+i,y no*ns/2rono*ns to i+enti,y 2eo2le or things.
e.g.1.St*+ents sho*l+ register no later than. 30th Gecember. &hey havenFt yet
registere+.
St*+ents =2h havenFt yet registere+> sho*l+ +o so no later than 30th
Gecember.
2. Kere is an article. -t might interest yo*.
Kere is an article =2h&ch might interest yo*>.
!0
3. Go yo* ,in+ a sho28 We can ,in+ san+als there.
Go yo* ,in+ a sho2 =2he$e #e can ,in+ san+als>8
4. - sa# a girl. Ker hair came +o#n to her #aist.
- sa# a girl =2h)e hair came +o#n to here #aist>.
"eaving o*t obLect 2rono*ns =?mitting the .elative Prono*ns>
eg. 1. -s this the boo7 =that> yo* are loo7ing ,or8
2. Paris is a city =#here> -Fve al#ays #ante+ to visit.
3. 5ny one to*ching =#ho to*ches> that #ine #ill get a shoc7.
4. Kal, o, the 2eo2le invite+ =#ho #ere invite+> to the 2arty +i+nFt t*rn *2.
E;e$c&)e VII
St*+y the ,ollo#ing sentences in the 2assage. 'in+ the +e,ining relative cla*ses.
1. &he ban7 #ante+ a b*il+ing that #o*l+ stan+ as the best in the #orl+.
2. &he high$s2ee+ li,ts an+ escalators reaching thro*gho*t the b*il+ing are *ni6*e.
3. &he ,loors #hich are +evelo2e+ #ith re,erence to the aeros2ace in+*stry can be
com2are+ to those o, a )oeing (4(.
4. ?ne o, the main a+vantages o, the mo+*les is the s2ee+ #ith #hich they can be
erecte+.
S,$%c,%$e N!("e0&!&!' Re.#,&8e C.#%)e
&hese cla*ses are *se+ to give more in,ormation abo*t a 2erson/thing that is
alrea+y i+enti,ie+.
e.g. 1. - gave him an envelo2e/ #hich he 2*t in his 2oc7et at once. =;on$+e,ining>
c.,. - gave him an envelo2e #hich - bo*ght ,rom the 2ost o,,ice. =Ge,ining>
2. &his is Mr. Moore/ #ho is Loining the ,irm ne9t #ee7. =;on$+e,ining>
c.,. Ke is the man #ho is Loining the ,irm ne9t #ee7. =Ge,ining>
3. Gorothy/ #ho +oes my hair has move+ to another to#n. =;on$Ge,ining>
!1
c.,. &he #oman #ho +oes my hair has move+ to another to#n. =Ge,ining>
E;e$c&)e VIII
St*+y the ,ollo#ing sentences in the 2assage. -+enti,y the non$,inite cla*ses.
1. 4nli7e a more conventional b*il+ing/ #here the services #o*l+ be locate+ in a
central core/ the main services in the ne# b*il+ing are No*tboar+N.
2. &he mo+*les/ #hich are ,ire$2roo,e+ steel ,rame+ bo9es #ith light#eight steel
concrete +ec7 ,loors/ ,orm an integral 2art o, the b*il+ing.
3. &he 13 mo+*les/ #hich are ma+e in 1a2an/ come in 2 lengths o, 30 ,eet an+
40 ,eet.
4. Gevelo2e+ #ith re,erence to the aeros2ace in+*stry/ the ,loors can be com2are+
to those o, a )oeing (4(.
!2
UNIT A
THE PROBLEM OF MEASUREMENTS
ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS
Most branches o, science an+ technology rely on electrical meas*rements ,or
the control o, 2rocesses an+ machines as #ell as ,or in,ormation/ an+ the role 2laye+
by electrical meas*ring instr*ments is vital to all mo+ern research laboratories an+
,actories. &he 2roblem o, electrical meas*rement is there,ore vast an+ has many
+i,,erent as2ects. &o sim2li,y this vast ,iel+ #e may begin by consi+ering the +egrees
o, 2recision re6*ire+.
Bario*s ,actors govern the 2recision o, an electrical meas*rement. &he
2rinci2al ones are the correctness o, the 2rinci2le an+ metho+ *se+/ the acc*racy o,
the stan+ar+s/ an+ the n*mber an+ magnit*+e o, 2ossible errors. Consi+ering the
+egree o, 2recision/ it is 2ossible to +ivi+e electrical meas*rements into three gro*2s.
1. P$ec&)&! +e#)%$e+e!,)
&hese are *se+ to establish an+ maintain stan+ar+s/ an+ the greatest care m*st
be ta7en in the +esign an+ constr*ction o, the necessary instr*ments as #ell as in their
*se/ in or+er to reach the highest +egree o, acc*racy/ #ith cost only a secon+ary
consi+eration. &his ty2e o, meas*rement is carrie+ o*t solely in national laboratories
#hich have the legal res2onsibility o, establishing an+ maintaining stan+ar+s.
:. C++e$c&#. .#-$#,$/ +e#)%$e+e!,)
Kere the obLect is to obtain an acc*racy an+ a reliability to the +egree L*sti,ie+
by commercial an+ engineering 2ractice. 4s*ally an acc*racy o, one or t#o 2arts 2er
tho*san+ is a+e6*ate.
=. C++e$c&#. +e#)%$e+e!,)
&hese meas*rements are em2loye+ in the 2ro+*ction an+ +istrib*tion o,
electricity an+ electrically$2o#ere+ 2ro+*cts. Precisions ranging ,rom one 2art in a
!3
tho*san+ to ten 2arts in a tho*san+ are a+e6*ate altho*gh there is a ten+ency to#ar+s
greater 2recision #ith the increasing com2le9ity o, commercial re6*irements.
E.ec,$&c#. &!),$%+e!,)
We shall begin o*r e9amination o, electrical meas*ring instr*ments by
consi+ering the 2rinci2les governing their o2eration/ be,ore 2assage to an acco*nt o,
some o, the most re2resentative ty2es.
-n most instr*ments/ meas*ring c*rrent/ voltage or 2o#er/ some 2ro2erty o,
electricity is *se+ #hich gives rise to a mechanical ,orce 2ro2ortional to the electrical
6*antity. &he ,ollo#ing are e9am2les o, the e,,ects ,re6*ently *se+ to 2ro+*ce a
mechanical ,orce<
the reaction bet#een a magnetic ,iel+ an+ a con+*ctor carrying a
c*rrentI
the attraction or re2*lsion o, charge+ bo+iesI
the 2hotoelectric e,,ect *sing 2hotoelectric an+ 2hotovoltaic cells as
sensing elementsI
the heating e,,ect o, a c*rrent in a con+*ctor #hich serves to raise the
tem2erat*re o, a thermoco*2le/ thereby generating an e.m.,. an+
2ro+*cing a c*rrent in an a*9iliary circ*it.
-n instr*ments #hich in+icate the c*rrent or voltage in a circ*it/ the val*e is
given by the *n7no#n 6*antity 2ro+*cing a mechanical ,orce ten+ing to rotate a
2ivote+ or s*s2en+e+ member #ith an attache+ in+icator. 5 s2ring o, the in+icator
+e2en+s on the magnit*+e o, the 6*antity being meas*re+ #hose val*e can be rea+
,rom the a22ro2riate ,i9e+ scale. When the in+icator member t*rns in bearings/
a++itional ,rictional ,orces o22osing motion are 2resent. 4nless this bearing ,riction
is minimi@e+/ it a,,ects the val*e o, the small +e,lecting tor6*e. &he *s*al metho+
em2loye+ to overcome this 2roblem is to constr*ct the moving element #ith har+ene+
steel 2ivots t*rning in Le#el c*2s #ith the smallest 2ossible bearing contact.
Most c*rrent an+ voltage meas*ring instr*ments have many ,eat*res in
common. -n ,act it is easy to a+a2t one ,orm o, instr*ment to the other ,*nction. &his
,ollo#s ,rom ?hm3s la#/ #hich tells *s that the voltage a22earing across a resistor
!4
carrying a c*rrent is the 2ro+*ct o, the resistance an+ the c*rrent. &h*s/ i, a resister o,
7no#n val*e is connecte+ in series #ith a c*rrent sensitive +evice/ the res2onse o, the
instr*ment is 2ro2ortional to the voltage across the combinationI an+ i, a resistor o,
7no#n val*e carrying a c*rrent is connecte+ in 2arallel #ith a voltage sensitive
+evice/ the instr*ment res2onse is 2ro2ortional to the c*rrent in the resistor.
E;e$c&)e I
State #hether the ,ollo#ing statements are &r*e or 'alse.
1. 'or commercial meas*rements an acc*racy o, one 2art in a tho*san+ is
2er,ectly a+e6*ate.
2. &he attraction or re2*lsion o, charge+ bo+ies is one o, the e,,ects *se+ to
2ro+*ce a mechanical ,orce 2ro2ortional to an electrical 6*antity an+ there,ore
is a 2rinci2le em2loye+ in meas*ring instr*ment.
3. C*rrent an+ voltage meas*ring instr*ments have no common ,eat*res.
4. -, a resistor o, 7no#n val*e is connecte+ in 2arallel #ith a c*rrent$sensitive
+evice the res2onse o, the instr*ment is 2ro2ortional to the voltage across the
combination.
!. ?hm3s la# sho#s *s that c*rrent an+ voltage meas*ring instr*ments #ill have
many common ,eat*res an+ that by the *se o, a resistor o, 7no#n val*e
connecte+ in series or in 2arallel #ith the instr*ment/ it #ill be 2ossible to
convert one ty2e o, instr*ment to the other *se.
E;e$c&)e II
5ns#er the ,ollo#ing 6*estions.
1. What +o most branches o, science an+ technology rely on8
2. Ko# are electrical meas*rements +ivi+e+ into three gro*2s8
3. What are the three gro*2s o, electrical meas*rements8
4. State some ,actors #hich govern the 2recision o, an electrical meas*rement.
!. What are 2recision meas*rements *se+ ,or8
%. Why m*st care be ta7en in the +esign an+ constr*ction o, the instr*ments8
!!
(. What is the 2*r2ose o, commercial laboratory 2ractice meas*rements8
. What is the *s*al metho+ em2loye+ to overcome bearing ,riction8
9. What is the ?hm3s la#8
10. What ha22en i, a resistor o, 7no#n val*e is connecte+ in series #ith a
c*rrent sensitive +evice an+ in 2arallel #ith a voltage sensitive +evice8
1$" S,%"/ N%! 0$+#,&!
&echnical no*ns are o,ten ,orme+ by a++ing s*,,i9es to verbs an+ a+Lectives.
&he commonest no*ns s*,,i9es #ith verbs are<
=i> $ance/$ence ,orming no*ns o, 6*ality or action.
=ii> $er/$or ,orming no*ns 2er,orming the action o, the verb.
=iii> $action/$tion/$sion ,orming no*ns giving the res*lt o, the
action o, the verb.
=iv> $ment ,orming no*ns giving res*lt or means o, action.
E;e$c&)e I
'orm no*ns by a++ing s*,,i9es to the ,ollo#ing.
1. acce2t $$$$$$$$
2. a+mit $$$$$$$$
3. ca2acitate $$$$$$$$
4. maintain $$$$$$$$
!. con,er $$$$$$$$
%. inter,ere $$$$$$$$
(. oscillate $$$$$$$$
. react $$$$$$$$
9. in+icate $$$$$$$$
10. 2ro+*ce $$$$$$$$
11. combine $$$$$$$$
12. a++ $$$$$$$$
13. constr*ct $$$$$$$$
14. attract $$$$$$$$
1!. am2li,y $$$$$$$$
1%. recti,y $$$$$$$$
!%
1(. trans,orm
1. s2eci,y $$$$$$$$
19. vary $$$$$$$$
20. generate $$$$$$$$
21. ins*late $$$$$$$$
22. resist $$$$$$$$
23. re6*ire $$$$$$$$
24. +evelo2 $$$$$$$$
2!. meas*re $$$$$$$$
2%. arrange $$$$$$$$
2(. re2lace $$$$$$$$
2. re2*lse $$$$$$$$
29. rotate $$$$$$$$
30. s*s2en+ $$$$$$$$
31. attach $$$$$$$$
32. 2recise $$$$$$$$
33. e9amine $$$$$$$$
34. +istrib*te $$$$$$$$
3!. in,orm $$$$$$$$
3%. o2erate $$$$$$$$
3(. o22ose $$$$$$$$
3. +e,lect $$$$$$$$
39. +e2en+ $$$$$$$$
40. generate $$$$$$$$
E;e$c&)e II
Com2lete these sentences #ith a22ro2riate no*ns ,orme+ ,rom the verbs given in
brac7ets.
e.g. Some ste2s m*st be ta7en to eliminate the =vibrate> o, the t*rbine.
5ns#er< vibration
1. &here is all the =e6*i2> necessary in the laboratory to meas*re the e,,iciency o,
the =am2li,y>.
2. ?ne o, the reasons ,*el cells are o,ten em2loye+ in +i,,ic*lt environments is that
they re6*ire little =maintain>.
3. My colleag*es an+ - ho2 to be 2resent at the =con,er> that #ill be hel+ in "on+on
in May.
4. My com2laint abo*t the 6*ality o, the com2onents sho*l+ be ma+e +irectly to
the =man*,act*re>.
!(
!. &his g*arantee is not vali+ i, there has been any =inter,ere> #ith the =ins*late>.
%. 5 =trans,orm> is *se+ to ste2 *2 or +o#n the voltage o, an alternating c*rrent/
#hereas a =recti,y> is *se+ to convert an alternating c*rrent into a +irect c*rrent.
(. We sho*l+ be gla+ to receive the =s2eci,y> ,or the ne# =oscillate> as soon as
2ossible.
. ?*r technical +irector cannot acce2t the =vary> yo* 2ro2ose in the =arrange> ,or
?*r 1*ly meeting.
9. 5mong the most common com2onents in electronic circ*its are =trans,orm>/
=ca2acitate> an+ =resist>.
10. 5 =re2lace> ,or any 2art o, the =generate> can be s*22lie+ #ithin 4 ho*rs.
E;e$c&)e III
4sing no*n$,orming s*,,i9es/ ,ill in the blan7s #ith the correct ,orm o, the #or+s
given in brac7ets.
1. &he best $$$$$$$ o, #hat ta7es 2lace is the $$$$$$$ o, goo+ e9am2les. =e92lain/
2rovi+e>
2. 5 goo+ $$$$$ o, 5rchime+es3 2rinci2le o, the $$$$$$ o, #ater by soli+ bo+ies is the
$$$$ in #ater o, a c*be o, lea+ an+ a c*be o, #oo+ o, e6*al si@e. =ill*strate/
+is2lace/ immerse>
3. 5 la7e #hich is *se+ ,or #ater $$$$ is sometimes high eno*gh ,or the $$$$$ o, $$$$
by gravity o, trans2ort an+ #ater along the 2i2es to the ho*ses belo#. =store/
e9ert/ 2ress>
4. &he $$$$$$$$ o, #ater thro*gh several ,ilter$be+s an+ the $$$$$$$$$$ o, traces o,
chlorine ma7e the #ater sa,e to *se ,or +rin7ing 2*r2oses. =2ass/ a++>
!. -n science/ the centigra+e thermometer is *se+ ,or the $$$$$ o, tem2erat*re.
=meas*re>
%. &he 100 e6*al $$$$$$$$ are ma+e a,ter the $$$$$$$ by $$$$$$ o, the boiling 2oint o,
#ater an+ the melting 2oint o, ice. =+ivi+e/ +etermine/ observe>
(. &he $$$$$$$$ o, rain +e2en+s on the $$$$$$$ an+ the $$$$$$$ tiny +ro2lets o, #ater
!
va2o*r in the clo*+. =,orm/ con+ense/ combine>
. When the +ro2lets are heavy eno*gh to ,all/ $$$$$$$$ can ta7e 2lace. =2reci2itate>
9. &he $$$$ an+ $$$$$$ o, #ater can be observe+ in every+ay li,e. =eva2orate/
con+ense>
10. &he $$$$$$$$ o, ice to #ater an+ #ater to #ater va2o*r by heating is a goo+ $$$$$$$
o, the change o, state o, matter. =convert/ ill*strate>
11. Shortly a,ter the $$$$$$$$ o, the root/ the $$$$$$$$ o, the shoot an+ the gra+*al $$$$o,
the see+$leaves can be observe+. =emerge/a22ear/ +isa22ear>
12. &he $$$$$$ o, a green 2lant ,rom the light to the +ar7 #ill event*ally lea+ to the
+eath o, the 2lant. =remove>
13. When s*nlight reaches the leaves/ starch is ,orme+ #ith the $$$$$ o, chloro2hyll.
=assist>
14. Many see+s ,all in 2laces #here the necessities ,or their normal $$$$$$$$ are not
available. =+evelo2>
1!. &he see+s m*st obtain ,rom their environment all the $$$$$$#hich they nee+ ,or$$.
=re6*ire/s*rvive>
1%. 5 2lant m*st obtain ,rom its environment the $$$$$$$$ o, li,e. =re6*ire>
1(. S*itable soil/ tem2erat*re an+ s*,,icient light an+ #are are re6*ire+ by a 2lant
,or its $$$$$$$$ an+ $$$$$$$$. =+evelo2/s*rvive>
1. &here are t#o main reasons #hy $$$$$$$$ over a #i+e area is im2ortant ,or the $$$
o, see+s. =+is2erse/s*rvive>
19. 5gric*lt*ral $$$$$$$$ m*st o,ten +e2en+ on the $$$$$$$$ o, in+*stry. =im2rove/
gro#>
20. Kis $$$$$$$$ o, games increases #ith his $$$$$$$$. =,on+/ 2ro,icient>


!9
UNIT B
REDUCED REUSED RECYCLE
Re#"&!' S,$#,e'/ L*&!' F$ O$'#!&3#,&!
)e,ore yo* rea+ this article/ loo7 at the title an+ notice the organi@ation o, the to2ics.
;otice 2artic*larly #or+s that mar7 the organi@ation< first, second, an+ in the end. )y
*n+erstan+ing the organi@ation o, a rea+ing/ yo* can rea+ ,aster an+ better.
Re"%ceD Re%)eD Rec/c.e
1 -n the #orl+ to+ay/ 2artic*larly in the t#o most in+*striali@e+ areas/ ;orth
5merica an+ E*ro2e/ recycling is big ne#s. Peo2le are tal7ing abo*t it/ 2racticing
it/ an+ +iscovering ne# #ays to be sensitive to the environment. &hey very #or+
tells the story< re$means R=to +o something> again/S an+ c"cle means Ra ,*ll circle o,
events/ a ret*rn to beginning.S &h*s/ to recycle means to +o the same 2rocess again
or to recover an+ re*se s2ent =*se+$*2> 2ro+*cts. -n other #or+s/ recycling means
,in+ing #ays to *se 2ro+*cts a secon+ time. &he motto o, the recycling movement
is R.e+*ce/ .e*se/ .ecycle/S an+ the term RrecyclingS covers the #hole 2rogram.
2 &he ,irst ste2 is to reduce garbage. -n stores/ a sho22er has to b*y 2ro+*cts in
blister 2ac7s/ bo9es/ an+ e92ensive 2lastic #ra22ings. 5 hamb*rger ,rom a ,ast$
,oo+ resta*rant comes in lots o, 2ac7aging< *s*ally 2a2er/ a bo9/ an+ a bag. 5ll that
2ac7aging is #aste+ reso*rces. Every +ay/ millions o, 2lastic c*2s are *se+ ,or
co,,ee an+ tea. Each time someone b*ys a hamb*rger or *ses one o, those c*2s/
energy an+ reso*rces are #aste+. Peo2le sho*l+ try to b*y things that are #ra22e+
sim2ly/ an+ to re*se c*2s an+ *tensils. 5nother #ay to re+*ce #aste is to b*y high$
6*ality 2ro+*cts. When lo#$6*ality a22liances brea7/ many c*stomers thro# them
a#ay an+ b*y ne# ones $ a loss o, more reso*rces an+ more energy. C*stomers can
vote #ith their #allets. 'or e9am2le/ i, a c*stomer receives an im2ortant message.
-n the same #ay/ i, a c*stomer chooses a 2ro+*ct #ith less 2ac7aging/ that c*stomer
sen+s an im2ortant message to the man*,act*rers. &o re+*ce garbage/ the
throwawa" tren+ m*st sto2.
%0
3 &he secon+ ste2 in the general recycling 2rogram is to reuse. -t is a better to b*y
L*ices an+ so,t +rin7s =li7e so+as> in ret*rnable bottles. 5,ter c*stomers em2ty the
bottles/ #ash them/ an+ them to the store. &he man*,act*rers o, the +rin7s collect
the bottles/ #ash them/ an+ then ,ill them again. &he energy that is necessary to
ma7e ne# bottles is save+. -n some 2arts o, the #orl+/ ret*rning bottles ,or money
is a common 2ractice. -n those 2laces/ the garbage +*m2s have relatively little glass
an+ 2lastic ,rom thro#a#ay bottles.
4
!
%
(
&he thir+ ste2 in being environmentally sensitive is to rec"cle. S2ent motor oil
can be cleane+ an+ *se+ again. 5l*min*m cans are e92ensive to ma7e. -t ta7es the
same amo*nt o, energy to ma7e one al*min*m can as it +oes to r*n a color
television set ,or three ho*rs. When 2eo2le collect an+ recycle+ al*min*m =,or ne#
cans>/ they hel2 save one o, the #orl+3s 2recio*s reso*rces. 5t 2resent in the 4.S.
abo*t %! 2ercent o, all al*min*m cans are recycle. &he 2ercentages are lo#er ,or
glass = 20 2ercent > an+ 2a2er = 2! 2ercent >/ b*t all 2ercentages are increasing.
&he 2roblem o, garbage has other as2ects. Peo2le can3t thro# things a#ay
beca*se there is no more Ra#ayS$ ,e#er an+ ,e#er 2laces are available. Garbage
also a,,ects #ater 6*ality. See2age o, li6*i+s ,rom garbage contaminates gro*n+
#ater. 5n+ ,inally/ the #orl+ is r*nning o*t o, nat*ral reso*rces. Will 2eo2le have
to mine the garbage +*m2s an+ lan+,ills to ,in+ necessary materials in the ,*t*re8
Some 2eo2le are creative an+ intelligent recyclers. ?ne reso*rce,*l 2erson in
?7lahoma has generate+ 2etrole*m ,rom *se+ synthetic$r*bber a*tomobile tires.
5 com2any calle+ GeLa Shoe *se only recycle+ 2ro+*cts in ma7ing ne# shoes.
Some o*t+oor chairs are ma+e ,rom +iscar+e+ sno# s7isI some cities are 2aving
their streets #ith a mi9t*re o, recycle glass bottles/ shre++e+ a*tomobile tires/ an+
tra+itional as2halt. 5 so,t/ ,ine yarn ,or s#eaters o, a ,ine$6*ality car2et can be
ma+e ,rom 2lastic mil7 bottles. .ecycling ma7es economic sense.
.ecycling is a challenge beca*se it re6*ires a basic change in every+ay li,e.
'or recycling to be s*ccess,*l/ or+inary 2eo2le =everyone> m*st be a#are o, #hat
they b*y. &hey m*st also sort their trash an+ garbage into categories< organic
garbage/ ne#s2a2ers/ steel cans/ glass containers =sometimes sorte+ by color>/ an+
2lastic. &he #aste +is2osal tr*c7s have se2arate com2artments ,or each category.
%1

9
Waste materials o, the same 7in+ are com2acte+ =cr*she+ into bloc7s>. 5
man*,act*rer b*ys the sorte+/ com2acte+ bloc7s o, material to ma7e into
something ne#. ?nce a c*stomer b*ys an+ *ses the 2ro+*ct/ the same materials
,ollo# the same cycle$being sorte+/ collecte+/ an+ *se+ again. Kence the #or+
rec"cle.
-n the en+/ the real meaning o, recycling is 2rotecting 2lanet Earth/ 7ee2ing it
sa,e an+ clean ,or ,*t*re generations. -t is one #ay ,or everyone to contrib*te to a
better #orl+.
Re#"&!' F..2(%5
E;e$c&)e I
Geci+e #hich 2aragra2h the s2eci,ic in,ormation belo# comes ,rom.
1aragraph !pecific $nformation
! 5. See2age o, li6*i+s ,rom garbage contaminates gro*n+ #ater.
). 5 so,t ,ine yarn ,or s#eaters o, a ,ine 6*ality car2et can be ma+e
,rom 2lastic mil7 bottles.
C. -n some 2arts o, the #orl+/ ret*rning bottles ,or money is a common
2ractice.
G. &o re+*ce garbage/ the thro# a#ay tren+ m*st sto2.
E. S2ent motor oil$can can be cleane+ an+ *se+ again.
E;e$c&)e II
)elo# are to2ic sentences ,rom .e+*ce/ .e*se/ .ecycle. 4n+erline the controlling
i+eas.
5.
1. &he ,irst ste2 is to re+*ce garbage.
2. &he secon+ ste2 in the general recycling 2rogram is to re*se.
3. &he 2roblem o, garbage has other as2ects.
4. Some 2eo2le are creative an+ intelligent.
!. .ecycling is challenge beca*se it re6*ires a basic change in every+ay li,e.
). Write +o#n the controlling i+ea #hich s*22ort the to2ic sentence.
%2
1. &he ,irst ste2 is to re+*ce garbage.
Controlling i+ea
S2eci,ic ,acts
a. Peo2le sho*l+ b*y
b. Peo2le sho*l+ re*se
c. to b*y
Concl*+ing sentence
2. &he secon+ ste2 in the general recycling 2rogram is to re*se.
Controlling i+ea
S2eci,ic ,acts
a. -t is better to b*y
b. &he man*,act*rers
Concl*+ing sentence
3. &he 2roblem o, garbage has other as2ects.
Controlling i+ea
S2eci,ic ,acts
a.
b.
c.
Concl*+ing sentence
4. Some 2eo2le are creative an+ intelligent.
Controlling i+ea
S2eci,ic ,acts
a.
b.
c.
+.
e.
Concl*+ing sentence
!. .ecycling is a challenge beca*se it re6*ires a basic change in every+ay li,e.
%3
Controlling i+es
S2eci,ic ,acts
a. &hey m*st
b. &he #aste +is2osal tr*c7
c. Waste materials
+. 5 man*,act*rer
e. ?nce a c*stomer
Concl*+ing sentence
S,$%c,%$e
1. Me#!) (-/ E noun $ &!')
We note+ that -/ A an agent sometimes ,ollo#s the verb in a 2assive statement.
2arge (uantities of steam are re(uired b" modern industr".
5 secon+ an+ more im2ortant *se o, -/ is to in+icate the means or metho+ o, +oing
something o, achieving some res*lt.
-t can occ*r in both active an+ 2assive statements.
-t o,ten occ*rs #ith the 2hrase -/ +e#!) 0.
Sometimes it is 2ossible to *se 2&,h instea+ by be,ore a no*n.
With really means 2&,h ,he he.5 o,/ an+ there is a slight +i,,erence in meaningI it is
not a+visable to *se #ith *nless the meaning is tr*ly instr*mental.
The road was cleared -/ =+e#!) 0> a bulldozer.
The road was cleared 2&,h =,he he.5 0> a bulldozer.
Keat losses can be re+*ce+
We can re+*ce heat losses b"
,irebric7s.
the *se o, ,irebric7s
lining the ,*rnace #ith ,irebric7s.
&his can be
+one
e,,ecte+ b" means of ,irebric7s.
%4
achieve+
accom2lishe+
)y lining the ,*rnace #ith ,irebric7s heat losses can be re+*ce+.
;.) :o* #ill notice in the last e9am2le that a cla*se or 2artici2ial 2hrase may come
before the main 2art o, the statement.
&he #or+ ,he$e-/ means -/ +e#!) 0 ,h&).
B/ +e#!) 0 cannot be *se+ be,ore a 2artici2leI only -/ is 2ossible in s*ch a
case.
E;e$c&)e IA
Com2lete these statements in the same #ay/ *sing the verb in brac7ets.
1. We re+*ce the ore to 2ig$iron JJJ.. it in a blast ,*rnace. =smelt>
2. Pro+*ction #ill be greatly increase+ JJJ.. the ne# machinery. =intro+*ce>
3. 5 hot steel bar can be har+ene+ JJJ it in #ater. =6*ench>
4. )ars o, steel can be ma+e JJ.. them thro*gh rollers. =2ass>
!. &he heat$resistant 2ro2erties o, steel are im2rove+ JJJJ. more chromi*m an+
nic7el. =a++>
%. JJJJJ. roller bearings/ the ,riction is re+*ce+ still ,*rther. =*se>
(. JJJJJ. the bearing in an oil$bath/ a+e6*ate l*brication is ens*re+. =+i2>
. JJJJJ. a ,l*9 to the metal/ #e can 2revent o9i+ation. =a22ly>
9. JJJJJ ,orce+ circ*lation in the boiler/ better res*lts are obtaine+. =em2loy>
10. JJJJ J a gas ra2i+ly in a cylin+er/ #e raise its tem2erat*re. =com2ress>
11. JJJJJ steam over the hot co7e/ 2ro+*cer gas is ,orme+. =blo#>
12. 5 casting is 2ro+*ce+ JJ. .. molten metal into a mo*l+. =2o*r>
13. -m2rove+ heat$trans,er rates #ere achieve+ JJJJ.. ,ins to the o*tsi+e o, the
cylin+er. =,it>
E;e$c&)e IB
Com2lete these statements #ith b", b" means of or with, #hichever yo* thin7 most
s*itable.
%!
1. Pro+*ction can be greatly increase+ JJJJ.. the intro+*ction o, ne# machinery.
2. We can 2revent o9i+ation o, the metal JJJ.. a ,l*9.
3. .a2i+ heating in the boiler is achieve+ JJ.. ,orce+ circ*lation.
4. &he #or7 is ,irmly hel+ in the lathe JJJ.. the centers.
!. )etter comb*stion is obtaine+ JJa hemis2herical comb*stion chamber.
%. &he heat$resistant 2ro2ertie+ o, the steel can be im2rove+ JJJ. the a++ition o,
chromi*m an+ nic7el.
(. 're6*ent meas*rements o, the bar #ere ma+e JJJJ a micrometer.
. "*bricant is ,orce+ into bearing JJJ. 2ress*re o, the grease g*n against the
ni22le.
9. 5 sol+ere+ Loint may be ma+e JJJ.. a sol+ering iron ma+e o, co22er.
10. &he tem2erat*re o, the li6*i+ is raise+ JJJ the a22lication o, heat.
11. Greater s2ee+s can no# be attaine+ by mo+ern aircra,t JJ the ne# metals #hich
are no# being +evelo2e+.
12. More ra2i+ b*rning is ma+e 2ossible JJJJ the *se o, 2*lverise+ ,*els.
:. P%$5)e (C.#%)e))
Kere is a ,*rther str*ct*re #hich is *se+ to in+icate 2*r2ose.
is
&he steam is s*2erheate+ so that may be ,airly +ry.
$n order that it can be
sho*l+ be
E;e$c&)e II
Com2lete these statements in the same #ay.
1. Phos2hor*s is a++e+ to the metal JJJ.. better castings JJJ 2ro+*ce+.
%%
2. JJJ the iron JJ.. +emagneti@e+/ it is necessary to a22ly a negative megnetis$
ing ,orce.
3. JJ.. the metal JJJ 2ro2erly sol+ere+/ the metal an+ the sol+er sho*l+ both
be ma+e clean.
4. &he steam velocity across the t*bes is 7e2t high JJJ.. any stationary airJJJ
s#e2t a#ay.
!. &he storage tan7 is elevate+/ JJJ.its contents JJJ. #ith+ra#n by gravity.
%. &he con+enser #ater is coole+ JJ. it JJJ.. re$*se+ in the con+enser.
(. &he coal gas is sometimes com2resse+ JJJ con+ensation in the gas mains JJ
JJJ.. avoi+e+.
. 5 by$2ass roa+ is being constr*cte+ JJJ the tra,,ic JJJ =not> nee+ to go
thro*gh the city center.
9. JJ.. +e2osits JJJ not ,orm on the t*bes/ only 2*re ,ee+ #ater sho*l+ be *se+.
10. Water is s2raye+ into the cylin+er JJJ. imme+iate con+ensation o, the steam
JJJJ occ*r.
11. JJJJ.. the amo*nt o, e92ansion JJJ calc*late+/ the coe,,icient o, e92an$
sion o, the metal m*st be 7no#n.
12. &he +iameter o, the bar sho*l+ be meas*re+ ,re6*ently JJJ too m*ch metal J
JJJ.. =not> ta7en o,,.
%(
UNIT 10
FAPANGS UNDERGROUND FRONTIER
Pro2ose+ s*bterranean cities co*l+ hel2 ease a s2ace cr*nch



!
10
1!
20

U!"e$'$%!"
&he #or+ brings many *nsavory a+Lectives to min+< +ar7/ +an7/
clan+estine/ illegal. )*t in 1a2an the F*n+ergro*n+F is becoming the
ne# ,rontier an+ the best ho2e ,or solving one o, the co*ntryFs most
intractable 2roblems. With a 2o2*lation nearly hal, the si@e o, the
4.S.Fs s6*ee@e+ into an area no bigger than Montana/ 1a2an has
virt*ally no room le,t in its teeming cities.
Gevelo2ers have b*ilt to#ering s7yscra2ers an+ even arti,icial
islan+s in the sea/ b*t the s2ace cr*nch 7ee2s getting #orse. ;o# some
o, 1a2anFs largest constr*ction com2anies thin7 they have the ans#er<
h*ge +evelo2ments beneath the earthFs s*r,ace #here millions o,
2eo2le co*l+ #or7/ sho2 an+/ 2erha2s event*ally/ ma7e their homes.
F5n *n+ergro*n+ city is no longer a +ream. We e92ect it to
act*ally materiali@e in the early 2art o, the ne9t cent*ryF/ says &ets*ya
Kanam*ra/ the chie, o, &aisei Cor2.Fs 2ro2ose+ +evelo2ment.
&aisei calls its 2roLect 5lice City a,ter "e#is CarrollFs heroine #ho
#ent *n+ergro*n+ by #ay o, a rabbit hole. &he com2any/ #hich has
+ra#n *2 elaborate 2lans/ envisions t#o h*ge concrete Fin,rastr*ct*reF
cylin+ers/ each 19( ,t. tall an+ #ith a +iameter o, 2%2 ,t./ that #o*l+ be
b*ilt as m*ch as !00 ,t. belo# gro*n+.
&hey #o*l+ ho*se ,acilities ,or 2o#er generation/ air con+itioning
an+ #aste 2rocessing .Each cylin+er #o*l+ be connecte+ by 2assages
to a series o, s2heres/ #hich #o*l+ accommo+ate stores/ theaters/
s2orts ,acilities/ o,,ices an+ hotels. &aiseiFs initial U 4.2 billion +esign
co*l+ s*22ort 100/000 2eo2le.
%
Te;, ( -#)e" E;e$c&)e)
E;e$c&)e IA
Combine the sentences belo# into single com2lete sentences. Ma7e any
necessary changes an+ *se the hel2 given. &hen chec7 against the te9t.
1. 1a2an has an+ 2o2*lation nearly hal, the si@e o, the 4.S.Fs .&he 2o2*lation
is s6*ee@e+ into an area no bigger than Montana. 1a2an has virt*ally no
room le,t in its teeming cities =lines 4$%>
With a 2o2*lation/ ...................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
2. &he com2any has +ra#n *2 elaborate 2lans. -t envisions t#o h*ge
concrete in,rastr*ct*re cylin+ers/ each 19( ,t. tall an+ #ith a +iameter o,
2%2 ,t. &he cylin+ers #o*l+ be b*ilt as m*ch as !00 ,t. belo# gro*n+.
=lines 1($20>
&he com2any/ #hich ..................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
E;e$c&)e IB
.e2lace the #or+s in italics/ then re,er to the te9t.
1 )*t in 1a2an the F*n+ergro*n+F is becoming the ne# ,rontier an+
the best ho2e to solve one o, the co*ntryFs most intractable
2roblems. =lines 2$4 > .............
2 Gevelo2ers have b*ilt to#ering s7yscra2ers an+ even arti,icial
islan+s in the sea/ b*t the s2ace cr*nch continues to get #orse.
= lines.($ > ..............
3 ;o# some o, 1a2anFs largest constr*ction com2anies thin7
they have the ans#er< h*ge +evelo2ments beneath the earthFs
s*r,ace in which millions o, 2eo2le co*l+ #or7. ..............
=lines.$11>
%9
4 FWe e92ect that it will actuall" materialize in the early 2art
o, the ne9t cent*ry.F says &ets*ya Kanam*ra/ the chie, o, &aisei
Cor2.Fs 2ro2ose+ +evelo2ment. =lines 13$1!> ...............
! &hey #o*l+ ho*se ,acilities to generate power
an+ to process waste. =lines 20$21> ................
E;e$c&)e II
5ns#er the ,ollo#ing 6*estions.
1. What are some *nsavory a+Lectives the #or+ F *n+ergro*n+F bring8
2. What is the F *n+ergro*n+F becoming in 1a2an8
3. What is the res*lt o, the increasing 2o2*lation in 1a2an8
4. What have +evelo2ers b*ilt8
!. What is the ne# i+ea o, some o, 1a2anFs langest constr*ction com2anies8
%. What +oes &ets*ya Kanam*ra say abo*t an *n+ergro*n+ city8
(. What is the 2o2*lation o, 1a2an in com2arison #ith the 4.S8
. What is the i+ea o, the com2any #hich has +ra#n *2 elaborate 2lans8
9. What 7in+s o, ,acilities #ill be installe+ in that b*il+ing8
10. What #o*l+ the *n+ergro*n+ b*il+ing accommo+ate8
S,$%c,%$e #!" G$#++#$ P&!,)
I. 5$e5)&,&!)
E;e$c&)e I
S*22ly the missing 2re2ositions/ then re,er to the te9t. ="ines1$10>
4n+ergro*n+. &he #or+ brings many *nsavory a+Lectives to min+< +ar7/ +an7/
clan+estine/ illegal. )*t
1
.......... 1a2an the F *n+ergro*n+F is becoming the ne# ,rontier
an+ the best ho2e
2
......... solving one
3
........ the co*ntryFs most intractable 2roblems.
4
......... a 2o2*lation nearly hal, the si@e
!
.......... the 4.S.Fs s6*ee@e+
%
......... an area no
bigger than Montana / 1a2an has virt*ally no room le,t
(
........ its teeming cities.
(0
Gevelo2ers have b*ilt to#ering s7yscra2ers an+ even arti,icial islan+s

.......... the sea/

b*t the s2ace cr*nch 7ee2s getting #orse. ;o# some
9
.......... 1a2anFs largest
constr*ction com2anies thin7 they have the ans#er< h*ge +evelo2ments
10
.......... the
earthFs s*r,ace.
II. GM%ch GD G +#!/ G #!" G # ., 0G
Which o, the t#o =# or -> +oesnFt so*n+ 6*ite right8 Why8
# #nderground. The word brings man" unsavor" adjectives to mind.
- 3" teacher sa"s l use man" adjectives when $ write stories.
E92lanation< - +oesnFt so*n+ 6*ite right.
# is right beca*se brings man" unsavor" adjectives to mind stan+s ,or
an abstract i+ea.
See belo#.
We normally *se much =A *nco*ntable> an+ man" =Aco*ntable> in negative
statements/ 6*estions<
$ baven't much time/ many clothes.
Is there much milk in the carton+
Are there many eggs in the fridge+
-n every+ay s2eech #e *s*ally avoi+ *sing much an+ man" in a,,irmative
statements an+ 2re,er a lot of.
,e.ve got a lot of time to kill before the pla" starts. =;ot Q
much time Q>
We avoi+ *sing much an+ man" in the a,,irmative #ith concrete no*ns in
every+ay s2eech<
Q /e has much mone" Q
Q We have man" lettersQ.
3uch an+ man" occ*r in the a,,irmative in ,ormal style<
Much money must be invested in developing countries.
Much teachers dislike marking piles of exercise books.
We can also *se not a lot of in 2lace o, the ne*tral not much/ not man" ,or
s2ecial em2hasis<
(1
$ haven't got a lot of patience with h"pochondriacs4 =V -
havenFt got m*ch>
-, in +o*bt/ al#ays stic7 to the basic r*le o, *sing much an+ man" in the
negative an+ in 6*estions an+ *sing a lot of in the a,,irmative. 5,,irmative *ses o,
much an+ man" o,ten so*n+ #rong in #ays #hich are har+ to +e,ine.
E;e$c&)e II
S*22ly m*ch/ many or a lot =o,>. ;ote #here alternatives are 2ossible.
1. .3an"/A lot of mo+ern 2lays/ li7e ,ho.s Afraid of 5irginia ,oolf+
+eal #ith relationshi2s.
2. We all tho*ght 'ran7 #as rich/ b*t #e later +iscovere+ he o#e+
everyone ............... money.
3. ............. has been #ritten abo*t the high 2rice o, lan+ in 1a2an.
4. With high interest rates/ ................... com2anies are c*tting bac7 on
investment.
!. -Fm im2resse+ by yo*r library. :o* really have ................boo7s.
%. &here arenFt .................o22ort*nities ,or 2eo2le #ho havenFt got
goo+ 6*ali,ications.
(. We tho*ght there #asnFt ............... oil in this ,iel+ be,ore #e *se+
ne# +rilling techni6*es.
. -s there ............... +eman+ ,or secon+ $ han+ cars in the 2resent
mar7et8
III. The %)e 0 G ... .e0, G #!" G .... 8e$G #0,e$ 7%#!,&0&e$)6 G #!/ .e0, G D G )+e
8e$ G
What +o left an+ over mean in these sentences8
# 6apan has virtuall" no room left in its teeming cities . =lines !$%>
- ,e ordered some tiles for our roof and we have lot 8e$.
E92lanation< # not used up - more than we needed
=7one> left means F not cons*me+ or remainingFI
(2
=a lot > over means F more than is/ are #ante+F.
Ge2en+ing on o*r vie#2oint #e can sometimes *se left an+ over
interchangeably/ es2ecially #hen tal7ing abo*t ,oo+.
E;e$c&)e III
.es2on+ *sing combinations #ith left or over. Sometimes yo* can *se
either.
1. -F+ love to have another one o, those 2ies.

$.m afraid there aren.t
an" left.
2. We 2re2are+ hea2s o, ,oo+ ,or the 2arty. ......................................
3. WeFre loo7ing ,or lan+ in the city centre. .....................................
4. &here are t#elve o, *s an+ -Fve got thirteen
tic7ets. .....................................
!. WeFve sol+ nearly all o*r stoc7 #inter coats. ......................................
%. 5ll the boo7s ,it on to the shel, e9ce2t this
one. .......................................
(. WeFve com2letely r*n o*t o, coo7ing oil. .......................................
. WeFve got a lot o, *nsol+ lottery tic7ets. ........................................
IV. Ve$- E G ( &!' GH G Iee5 ,$/&!'G
What is the e,,ect o, keeps in this sentence8
8evelopers have built towering sk"scrapers, but the space crunch keeps
getting worse. =lines ($>
E92lanation<
9eep 0 ing s*ggests contin*ity/ #e sometimes *se on a,ter keep ,or
greater em2hasis. When #e #ant to *se another verb imme+iately a,ter keep/
the secon+ verb can only be an $ ing ,orm/ not a to$in,initive. 5 ,e# other
(3
verbs li7e this are< admit/ ovoid, consider, den", dislike/ enjo", excuse, finish,
imagine, keep, postpone, report, suggest, understand.
E;e$c&)e IV
.es2on+ a22ro2riately *sing the verbs in brac7ets.
1. What +o yo* thin78 Sho*l+ - try to 2ass my +riving test again8 = 7ee2>
:es/ yo* sho*l+ 7ee2 trying
2. What shall - +o8 Shall - #ait any longer be,ore #riting to them again8
=s*ggest>
..............................................................................................................
3. What +oes 1ohn say8 Gi+ he ta7e the le+ger ,rom my +es7 +ra#er8
= +eny>
................................................................................................................
4. What sho*l+ #e +o8 Sho*l+ #e travel in this ba+ #eather8 = 2ost2one>
................................................................................................................
(4
Re0e$e!ce)
5le9an+er/ ".G. 1993. L!'+#! A"8#!ce" G$#++#$6 Re0e$e!ce #!" P$#c,&ce
"ongman Ko*se/ )*rnt Mill/ Karlo#.
Glen+inning/ K. Eric an+ Glen+inning ;orman 199%. E.ec,$&c#. #!" Mechanical
Engineering ?9,or+ 4niversity Press
Kall/ 1/ Engene 19((. The L#!'%#'e 0 C&8&. E!'&!ee$&!' &! E!'.&)h .egents
P*blishing Com2any/ -nc.
Mc5llister/ 1. an+ Ma+ama/ G. 19(%. E!'.&)h 0$ E.ec,$&c#. E!'&!ee$) "ongman
Gro*2 "t+.
Mo*nt,or+/ 5lan 19(!. E!'.&)h &! 1$*)h5 P$#c,&ce ?9,or+ 4niversity Press
:ates/ C S& 1 an+ 'it@2atric7 5. 199%. Tech!&c#. E!'.&)h F$ I!"%),$/ "ongman
Gro*2 4E "t+.
(!