A Hindu goes to the temple, rings the bells and considers ringing as an act of faith.

He prays loudly while

the bells are ringing. Muslim observes complete silence at prayer time. At the time of offering prayers,
he resents if there is any sort of noise. A Christian goes to the church on every Sunday, participates in
singing hymns to god and hears the discourse of the priest. All these characteristic behavior of a Hindu,
Muslim and Christian are due to the influence to which they have exposed since their early life the
individual have adopted those behavior pattern which are considered desirable by their religious groups.
Besides this, the behavior pattern of individual s has also been affected by other primary and secondary
groups. The culture of the group in which the individual passes his life is usually very greatly responsible
in making him accept most of the customs and beliefs of the group.Thus,we can say that each group
consciously or unconsciously influences its members and the member observes observe only those goals
which appear necessary in the situation in which the group is palced.The individuals on account of such
influence begin to react in a characteristic way in relation of other group, other people, or particular
situations. These characteristic reactions of the people to situations, people or group are based on their
attitude.
Recently, Much work has been done on the measurement of attitude .But it is now considered of
utmost importance to social psychologist to know how the attitude are formed and how they can be
measured .In the present chapter, our aim is to deal with these aspects.
Definition of attitude
Gordon Allport defined attitude as a mental and neural set of readiness, organized through
experience, exerting a directing or dynamic influence upon the individuals response to all objects and
situation to which it is related.
Krech and Cruthfield considered attitude as.an enduring organization of motivational, emotional,
perceptual and cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of individuals work.
The concept of attitude originated in United States. Allport described it as probably the most distinctive
and indispensible concept in contemporary American Social psychology. The term attitude was
extensively used by Thomas and Znaniecki. In 1918, they published their monumental study of the Polish
peasants in America and in this study this term was made greatly use of. However,one thing is to be
made clear that the later writer used the word in some such ways which indicated that there is some
lack of agreement as to precisely how it should be employed. We may make our point clear by
describing the definition of attitude given by Bogardus and comparing it with the concept of it put
forward by Sherif.
Borgadus defined an attitude as a tendency to act towards or against environmental factor which
becomes thereby a positive or negative value. Muzafer Sherif has used this word to refer to the main
body of what is socialized in man.Sherif considers that the attitudes are the main constituents of the
ego.
There are certain people who consider that attitude and opinion are practically synonymous term. But
this view is not correct. No doubt opinion often reflects attitudes but it is not remembered that what a
person says does not always corresponds with what he does.
Fuson defines an attitude as the probability of occurrence of defined behavior in a defined situation.
Campbell suggests that a social attitude is evidenced by consistency in response to social situation.
According to Bert F.Green, all the above definitions of attitude show that the concept of attitude implies
a consistency or predictability of responses. He says that an attitude governs or mediates or predicts,
or is evidenced by a set of responses to some specified set of object or situation.
Campbell has given an operational definition of attitude in which he has neatly summarized the views
expressed above. According to him, An individuals social attitude is an (enduring) syndrome of
response consistency with regard t (a set of) social objects.
We may mention many other definition s of attitude by prominent psychologist. For example, according
to Cantrill ,an attitude is ..a more or less permanently enduring state of readiness of mental
organization which predisposes an individual to react in a characteristic way to any object or situation
with which it is related .
K. Young defines: an attitude is essentially a form of anticipatory response, a beginning of action which
is most necessarily completed. This readiness to react, moreover, implies some kind of stimulating either
specific or general.
We will now like to explain our meaning of an attitude more clearly .In human being, a given stimulus
does not always lead to the same response .This can only be explained on the basis of the internal
conditions of the organism .We know that the sight of food as a stimulus will evoke different reactions in
us when we are hungry and when our stomach is full. At complex levels our behavior depends on how
we experience the stimulus.Thus, our responses are largely dependent on our mental set or attitudes
towards the stimulus. In this way, we can say that the concept of attitudes postulates a hypo ethical
mental structure in order to explain what goes on between stimulus and respone, what causes the
stimulus to be experienced in the way it is. For example when a Congressite speak about Rashtriya
Swayam Sewak Sangh as an organization which is detrimental to the interest of the country he is doing
so because he has attitude of suspicion and insecurity towards this organizations .The Congress party
knows that this organization can throw a challenge to the Congress party and may adopt a militant
attitude at any time. On the other hand, those who believe in Hindu Rashtra consider this organization
as the savior of this nation.
BELIEF
According to Krech and Crtuchfield,A belief is an enduring organization of perception and cognition
about some aspect of the individual. A belief is considered as the totality of the individuals cognition
about the thing. Since apperception or cognition is considered in itself, an organization, a belief is taken
to be an organization of organizations. We may explain belief by taking an example. A man believes that
to obey his religious guru or preceptor is the best form of obedience. This belief of his, involves a
number of related cognitions. He has conceived that his guru is a man of great understanding. He
believes that if he will obey his guru his life after death will be blissful. He has faith that if he will act in
accordance with his gurus wishes, he will be throughout successful in life and will attain everlasting bliss
and happiness.Thus,the belief in guru is dependent on a number of cognitions relating to his guru. These
cognitions in themselves are organizations and they are further organized into beliefs. It is on account of
this factor that we call a belief as organization of organizations.
Krech and Crutchfield consider that the term belief is used in a generic sense. In this
sense it, includes knowledge, opinions and faith. In everyday speech when we say .we
believes. we mean,more explicitly that we have knowledge or that we are of opinion or that we
have faith.
ATTITUDE AND BELIEFS
The attitude and belief are closely related. We have earlier given definitions of both the
attitudes and beliefs. If these definitions are closely examined, the similarities and difference between
an attitude and a belief can be pointed out as follows:
(1) The beliefs can be considered as the cognitive embodiment of attitudes.
(2) The field of beliefs is bigger than the field of attitudes.All attitudes incorporate relevant beliefs
about the object of the attitude.But all the beliefs are not the part of attitude structure.
(3) The beliefs when they are formed are motivationally and emotionally neutral even though in
their formation motivational factors might have played quite an important part. On the other
hand; attitudes are subject to specific dynamic pressures. We can say, in short that attitudes
have particularly emotional factors attached to them. These factors give to them insistent
dynamic, stirred-up, driving character.
(4) Both the beliefs and the attitudes have goals. But attitudes are more dynamic in the pursuit of
the goals than the beliefs.
(5) The attitude is more related with the facts. The beliefs are more dependent on imagination. We
have beliefs in many such things like winged-horse,talikng stones etc which have no physical
existence .The attitude develop on account of the influence of the society, the parents, the
family ,etc.The beliefs develop on the basis of customs, traditions etc.Thus attitudes are more
real while the beliefs are unemotional, inactive and many a times away from the reality.
(6) The attitudes are more definite and precise while the beliefs are usually more vague.
(7) The attitudes can change more quickly than the beliefs. Once a belief is formed, it is very
difficult to bring a change in it.
(8) The beliefs often lead to superstitions, delusions etc.
ATTITUDES AND MOTIVES
The motives and the attitudes are very closely related .Both the motives, as well as the
attitudes, are dynamic and goal-centered .Both have emotional and cognitional aspects.
However, the motives and the attitudes are not just similar. The attitude is more stable than
the motives. The motives become active at one time and as soon as the goal is achieved, they
disappear. But the attitudes remain even after the attainment of the goal. For example we feel
hungry. The motive for hunger will disappear as soon as our hunger is satisfied. But the attitudes
towards food do not disappear with it. A person, who is interested in sweets and has developed
a favorable attitude towards sweets, will continue to have this attitude even after he has taken
a hearty meal.
The field of attitude is also wider than the field of motives. In the formation of an attitude,
many motives are involved. For example, in the formation of the favorable attitude towards
ones caste, there are involved many motives like security, self-asseration and respect to ones
own fellows.
Another difference which can be pointed out between motives and attitudes is that
motives are more dynamic and in them the cognitive aspect is more predominant, while in the
attitudes is more concerned with the outlook, opinions etc.The motives are active where there
is some disequilibrium or tension. The motives disappear as soon as the tension is resolved but
the attitudes are more stable and enduring.
ATTITUDES AND JUDGEMENT
Judgment is closely related to beliefs and attitudes.Krech and Crutchfield define
judgment as a process of characterizing objects in terms of certain categories.When we judge
this man is good, that line is short, or,that path is right one, we characterize the objects in
terms of certain categories.
Any judgment is not only determined by immediate is not only determined by immediate
stimuli which are being judged. But the whole range of stimuli that affect as frame of
reference-determines any given judgement.We can equate the frames of reference with
cognitive structures. Since the beliefs and attitudes play a major role in determining an
individuals judgements, we may say that they are intimately related. This means that whatever
an individual believes about a particular thing or has a particular attitude with respect to that
thing that will affect the judgments which he will make about that. For example, if an individual
has an attitude of hatred towards his employer whatever behavior the employer may show, he
will judge it as an action which is meant to harm him.
The intimate relationship of a belief, an attitude and a judgment is significant for the
measurement of the attitude and beliefs. We may ask an individual to make momentary
judgment and from these judgment get an insight into his beliefs and attitudes. We will further
deal with this aspect when we will throw light on the measurement of the attitudes.
ATTITUDES AND OPINIONS
Usually there is made a distinction between attitudes and opinions. An opinion is a belief
which a person has about any object in his environment. It is different from attitude because in
comparison to attitude it lacks emotions. It is free from feeling which is central to attitude. In
opinion cognitive element is predominant. This element may take the form of statement in
relation to the environment. For example, a person may believe those women drivers are less
efficient than male drivers .This may considered his opinion. This statement lacks the element of
feeling which presently in the attitude.
ATTITUDE AND VALUE SYSTEM
Attitudes can also be differentiated from values. Attitudes are thought of in relation to
an object. The object may be concrete or abstract. The value system is orientation towards the
whole class of objects. The individuals attitude is organized in a value system. For example, a
person who has humanism as a central value in his value system will have positive attitudes
towards democratic government, social service, equitable distribution of wealth, equalization of
educational opportunities etc.
In a broad way a persons total personality structure may be considered to be organized
around a central value system which is formed through the mixing of many related attitudes.
For example, an Authoritarian personality is organized around the values of power, status,
authority and morality.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDES
There are many characteristics of attitudes.Young; Sherif, Cantrill, etc. have listed them
from their own point of view. We will throw a light on the characteristics thus listed.
(1) Attitudes are learnt by the individual through his own experiences. They are innate or
inborn. They may be dependent on our biogenic motives but they themselves are not
biogenic. For example, hunger is a biogenic motive. But eating of vegetarian or non-
vegetarian food is dependent on our learnt attitudes. It is on account of the influence of our
family or society that we take meat in or food.
(2) Attitudes are more or less stable .They is lasting. But they are also subject to change
provided there is proper atmosphere.
(3) The beliefs and attitudes of the individuals are related to the objects, thoughts and images.
They are also as varied in kind as there are different objects, thoughts and images to which
they are related. In fact, in a man, they are viewed as the objects of his psychological world.
The individual has attitudes and beliefs relating to physical objects. He has quite a long array
of beliefs and attitudes pertaining to the social world. He has a number of beliefs and
attitudes regarding art, philosophy, God etc. He also has many beliefs and attitudes about
himself.
It is to be remembered here that the beliefs and attitudes of the individuals are not
infinite. They are limited to the psychological field with which the individual is conversant.
(4) The attitudes have no existence without a background. This means that without the images
or ideas the attitudes cannot be formed. When an individual has a reverent attitude
towards the gods like Indra, Ganesh etc., he has images of these gods as the bestowed of
gifts and the givers of favours.The attitudes are not just internal. They have a close
relationship with the external factors. They are always formed in a relation to certain
person, groups or objects etc.
(5) The attitudes can be framed regarding individuals and groups. A person can form an
attitude of hatred or hostility or affection towards another individual. He can also form
similar attitudes towards the groups as a whole. For example, a Hindu may begin to hate a
particular Muslim gentlemen or he may develop the attitude of hatred towards all the
Muslims in general. In the formation of attitudes, the process of generalization plays an
important role. It is on account of this process that the member of an in-group has attitude
of hostility towards the members of an out-group.
(6) Attitudes hav e emotional factors attached to them in a sufficient quantity. This we can very
well see at the time of discussion which takes place among the individuals who have lost
different political parties. A Congressite while discussing some issues with a BJP person may
express severe emotions. During their discussion, hot words may be exchanged and
sometimes they may come to blows. Thus an important characteristic odf attitude has been
put by Sherif as the motivational-affective properties.
(7) The attitude gives direction to our behavior .They indicates the directions under which
particular situations our behavior will take. They lead to the judgments and hence we if we
know the attitudes of an individual, we can predict the direction of his behavior and also the
judgments to which he will arrive at under particular situations. For example, if Mohan
hates to play table-tennis but loves to play cricket, he will read news related to cricket in the
newspaper and will skip over the news related to table-tennis. Thus, under particular
situation, a definite direction is given to Mohans behavior depending upon his attitude.
(8) The social attitudes have certain distinguishing features. They are
(i)The social attitudes are formed in relation to social situations.
(ii)The social attitude is shared by the member of the group. The social attitude is more or
less common among all the member of the group expects in few cases. Those few members
who do not share the common attitude can be called as deviants. Since a large majority of
the member share the same attitudes there is depicted similar social behavior by group as a
whole. The norms and the values of the group are internalized.
TYPES OF ATTITUDE
According t F.H Allport, attitudes are classified into three categories. These are:
(i) Social Attitudes
(ii) Attitudes towards specific person
(iii) Towards specific group
Among the social attitudes are included the attitude of rivalry, co-operation,
conformity and also general attitudes. The more general attitude which can call as
the attitude of socialized dignity is considered as fundamental attitude. By the
attitude of socialized.digniity, we mean that an individual behaves with dignity and
restraints in his speech, emotional expression, sex and other impulses.
The two other type of attitude are specific in nature. Attitudes towards specific
person means that our behavior towards either with our parents, brother,other
realtives,friends and business partners is different.Similarly,our attitudes towards
different groups like religious groups ,racial groups, linguistic group etc.are
different.
COMPONENT OF ATTITUDES
The psychologist describes three components of attitudes. These are:
(1) Cognitive component
(2) Affective component
(3) Co native or Behavioral Component
The Cognitive component of attitudes includes belief, perception and
information about the object of attitude. Beliefs like that-women are more
emotional than men; there are more conflicts in democracy rural people are
more honest than urbanites etc.-specify the cognitive aspect of
attitudes.Sterotypes which generalize wrong or partially wrong beliefs are also
part of cognitive aspect of attitude .This component is fact oriented but it will
be wrong not to evaluate it regarding its appropriateness .For example, most of
the beliefs and stereotypes which are formed about minorities are not wholly
based on fact or objective observations. Hence we cannot repose full
confidence in them thinking that they are fact-oriented.
The affective component in contrast to cognitive component gives the
indication of emotional feeling or expresses the liking or disliking of attitudinal
object. The positive feeling include respect, sympathy, liking etc.The negative
feeling include fear, disrespect, dislike etc.
The conative or behavioral component indicates the policy formation
towards the attitudinal object or clarifies that which type of behavior in the
context of specific social situation be adopted towards the individual or
attitudinal object. This component concentrates on the type of answers which
will be given by respondents. For example, it deliberates on the answers to the
question.Do the respondents give their votes in favor of legalizing abortion.
THE DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGES OF BELEFS AND ATTITUDES
The knowledge of the development of attitudes and beliefs can help
us greatly in predicting the behavior of the people over extended periods of
time. Through this knowledge, we can predict how the people will behave if
they are confronted with a particular situation. For example, we can very easily
predict how a person who has a religious attitudes and a belief in his religion
will react when an appeal to this religious sentiments will be made. The
Muslims can be united together with one voice-Islam and danger. By knowing
how this attitude has been developed in the Muslims, we can safely predict the
behavior of a Muslim when a cry Islam in danger is raised.
There are many educators, politicians and group leaders who are always
interested developing certain desirable type of attitudes among the individuals
or wish to bring about important changes in those attitudes which have already
been developed .In the following paragraphs, we wish to deal with those forces
that determine the development of beliefs and attitudes and exercise control
over their change.
CULTURAL DETERMINANTS
The cultural factors are greatly responsible for the development of various
types of attitudes among the individual. Many studies have been made to find
out the extent to which the presence of certain beliefs and attitudes is
dependent upon the schooling of the individual, his socio-economic status, and
the attitude and beliefs of his family, members and friends. Once such study
was made by Carison in 1943,who discovered that the religious background of
the university students was to a great extent responsible of the university
students was to a great extent responsible for their beliefs about many of the
social problems.Similarily,studies by Harris,Remmers and Elison in 1932 about
conservatism among those who have no religious affiliation and those with
church preferences, by Stangners in 1936 about Fascist attitudes among those
students who attended expensive colleges Vs those attended middle class
colleges, by Newcomb and Svelha in 1938 about internationalism among the
children and the parents belief, by Morgan and Remmers in 1935 about the
same attitude and beliefs between students and teachers, by Winslow in 1937
between friends and friend, found usually a positive correlation between the
cultural factors and the development of the specific attitudes and beliefs. The
above studies, no doubts, throw light on the effectiveness of the cultural
determinant of beliefs and attitudes but they do not inform us much about the
basic processes which are involved in the formation of beliefs and attitudes.
The effect of culture on the formation of the attitudes can be shown through
the following examples. We know that in a Hindu family the young touch the
feet of elders to show their reverence. Thus, a child born in a family where this
mode of showing reverence is adopted will quickly learn it and whenever will
meet someone to whom he wants to show reverence he will touch the feet of
that individual. This attitude is on account of the family influences.Similarily an
individual who lives with a gang of dacoits will form an attitude of cruelty. He
can without hesitation kill people, plunder and loot them. This attitude of his
develops on account of the influence of the social group in which he finds
himself.
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS
On the beliefs and the attitudes of the children the psychological factors also
put great determining influence. By psychological factors we mean the internal
needs tensions, wishes, desires etc.which front a mental world of the individual.
These internal factors are very greatly responsible in developing the attitudes
among individuals. For example many a sponsors of Indo-China friendship are
today having a bitter attitude towards China. When China attacked India, they
were shocked, humiliated and severe emotions of anger and hatred developed
in them. The psychological factors affected the development of the bitter
attitude in them.
3. FUNCTIONAL DETEMINANT
The beliefs and the attitudes of the individuals are also influenced by the
functional determinants. By functional determinants, we mean such factors as
the needs, demands, and emotions of the individuals. The tendencies of self
assertion and self-submissiveness may also form the basis of many of the
attitudes of the individual. It has also been observed by many psychologists that
such personality trait as introversion extraversion affect the development of
beliefs and attitudes.
CHANGES IN BELIEFS AND ATTITUDES
How to bring about a change in beliefs and attitudes of the individual is though
problem with the social psychologist are confronted. In backward countries, the
process of change is of utmost importance to the government and the political
parties of the country. In the last fifteen years, many backward countries have
attained independence. Though politically, they have become independent yet
they are socially and economically backward. To bring the social and the
economic changes in these countries, so that the people may proper,it is of
utmost importance that a change in the attitudes of the people is brought
about. For example, the people of the most backward countries look to
mechanization with awe and disgust ,yet is beyond doubt that today no country
in the world can prosper and progress can be brought about unless and until
the country builds and puts to effective use all types of machinery in various
industries etc.Thus ,a change in the attitudes of the people towards
mechanization is very much desirable.
The changes in attitudes of the people have been brought about by the great
leaders of the countries. For example in 1930s in US A. Roosevelt could bring in
the change in the attitude of people towards workers and farmers because he
took effective measures to counterattack disastrous economic consequences of
the depression. In our country, Mahatma Gandhi was responsible for bringing
about change in the attitude of our people. The people of India have different
attitude towards Harijan and towards women and slavery. All this is due to the
effective work which has been taken under the leadership of great man like
Gandhiji.A change in the attitude is also visible among the people of countries
like Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon, Indonesia and other countries in the Far east and
the African countries. The glaring example is Egypt where under the leadership
of president Nasser ,people have developed more and more progressive
attitude.