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AXLR8R FORMULA RACING

IIT Delhi



Akshay Sharma
E-mail - akshayrcrsharma@gmail.com
Mobile. No. - 7503744381
Rahul Gaur
E-mail - rahul.gaur104@gmail.com
Mobile. No. - 8587870908


Preface
I. Powertrain
A. Motor
B. Battery
C. Transmission
D. Cooling
II. Dynamics
A. Suspension
B. Aerodynamics
C. Brakes
D. Chassis
III. Electronics
A. Drive Control
B. DAQ
IV. Materials and Manufacturing
References

Preface


This document will give you a basic idea of what we do and how
we do things at AFR. It will introduce you to basic concepts of
every department which team member must know irrespective
of the sub-division he belongs. Since you are new to this you
might not know anything about automobile engineering,
designing, and manufacturing but if you are willing to work and
contribute to team, if you believe in being a part of something
bigger than yourself, this club is the place for you.
It doesnt matter which department you belong to, all that
matters is your passion and commitment to the cause. In our
club we have had people from almost every department of IIT D
at some point of time. So brace yourself and go through this
document and prepare yourself for the upcoming written test.
We hope to see you soon.
Although due care was taken while preparing this document,
some errors might have crept in. We encourage you to point
them out. We would also encourage you to explore other
resources and search for any topic online in case you want to
dive deep.

Axlr8r Formula Racing, IIT Delhi

POWERTRAIN
Motor
An electric motor produces the torque required for accelerating the car. Different types of
motors can be used in F.S. cars on the basis of their characteristics.
The main points required for motor selection are:
1. Motor characteristics
2. Heat dissipation
3. Weight of Motor
Before telling you more about motors click here to learn about the basic components of a
motor.
The classification of motors can be done as follows:

Now that weve learned terms like stator and rotor in the above video, we will differentiate b/w
the types of the motors.


MOTORS
DC control
Wound
stator
Permanent
Magnet
Stator
AC control
Permanent
Magnet
Rotor
Serial Iron
Rortor
Squirrek
Cage Rotor

Permanent Rotor Motors are basically of two types which is Brushless DC motor and
Synchronous Motor. The former uses trapezoid type current waveform and the latter, a
sinusoidal. Its functioning can be learnt here .

Wound stator:
Uses copper windings on the stator
to generate magnetic field.
Can operate on both ac and dc
current.
Permanent magnet stator:
Uses permanent magnet to
generate magnetic field.
Can operate only on dc current.

AC control
These types of motors require a circuit to
control various parameters so that the
motor characteristics can be controlled.
DC Control
These types of motor are only controlled
by the current /voltage input to them
and nothing else i.e. fixed power at a
given current.
Characteristics of a typical DC
control motor
Characteristics of a
typical Brushless DC
motor.

Serial iron rotor or variable reluctance motor is a category of motors which works in the
principle of minimum reluctance. The rotor is neither magnetized nor wounded but aligns itself
with the stator for minimum reluctance i.e. maximum magnetic flux. This requires a complex
circuit design. You can learn its working here.
Squirrel cage rotor or asynchronous Motor is a class of motors in which the rotor or armature
is covered by aluminium, copper strips at a slightly tilted angle such that it seems to be caged.
The working can be learnt here and here. What is the use of squirrel cage? (This Question will
come in quiz.)





Characteristics of
an asynchronous
machine.

Battery and Battery Management
System



The main energy systems of electric vehicles are the electrochemical batteries, the ultra-
capacitors and the fuel cells. The Electrochemical batteries are still the most used technology to
store energy.
Ultra capacitors are used to quickly store and release energy as that is generated from
regenerative braking system during brakes.

Batteries are technically known as accumulator.

Performance criteria of accumulator (for competition)
Two SAE competitions were singled out for analysis: acceleration event and endurance event.
The acceleration event is effectively a drag race, where the objective is to accelerate down a 75

meter stretch of road as quickly as possible. The endurance event is test of longevity, where the
vehicle must navigate 22km track at moderate velocities (average: 35-40 km/hr), with an
expected completion time of 30 minutes. The acceleration event will require maximum power
output from batteries, within the 85kw limit set by 2014 SAE rules. By focusing on these two
events, the battery system will be capable of covering the other events that fall in between
peak load and operation time.
A typical data of a Formula Student Electric accumulator generated by MATLAB model can be
seen as that at 300 volts, the batteries will need to discharge 77kw of power to accelerate up to
100 kmph over 5 five seconds, which comes within 10% of maximum allowable power
discharge. This value was chosen as the target max discharge rate in order to leave at least 5%
buffer between it and the maximum allowed rate. For a 35 mph continuous discharge rate, the
required discharge rate at 300V is 1.872kW via a 6 amp of current approx. The actual storage
capacity need to be greater in order to account for non-ideal factors.

Battery Selection
Out of 3 energy storage systems discussed above, Lithium polymer cells are usually chosen
because they offer the most pertinent performance characteristics for this project: good energy
density and power density in a relatively lightweight and compact package. Lithium polymer
(LiPo) cells are so named because the lithium electrolyte is not stored in liquid solution, but in
semi-solid polymer composite. The semi-solid nature of electrolyte allows manufacturers to

design more space efficient packages, such as rectangular cells that are easily stackable. The
semi-solid electrolyte also eliminates the need for a rigid containment vessel, increasing the
weight savings even more.
One disadvantage of LiPo cells is that these cant be deeply discharged and cant be charged
using high current.

Battery Management System (BMS)
The battery management system of an accumulator is an electronic controller for controlling
real time data from the battery such as voltage, temperature, current drawn and State of
charge (SoC). In the event that any cell experiences large deviation in voltage, temperature and
SoC then BMS disconnect that cell from the battery network in order to prevent fire or cell
damage.
The BMS also provides charge levelling during charging so that all the cells have equal SoC to
improve longevity.
There are various companies from which BMS can be purchased with as many as 250 cell
modules and there are FS teams which uses their custom made BMS.

Transmission

Introduction
In a vehicle, Power is produced within a Motor
(Engine), and it has to be transferred to wheels. The
mechanism which transfers the power includes
Gears, Clutch, Differential, sprockets, chain/belt,
shafts, constant velocity joints, Hubs, Etc. This whole
system is collectively called transmission in
automotive terms. Some of the components are
discussed in this section.

Differentials
When a car takes a turn, its inner wheel travels a
smaller path compared to the outer wheel in the
same time as you can see in the diagram(the radius
of curvature of the paths of wheels are different).

This means that there has to be difference in velocities of the wheels. In case both wheels move
with same speed, one of the wheels will have to slip. The differential is a device that allows the
inner and outer wheel to rotate at different speeds when cornering.
The mechanical differential
It is mainly used when there is just one power source
like in combustion cars there is just one engine. Take
the case of most commercial cars which are Front
Wheel Drive having one engine, but the power is
needed to be transmitted to the two front wheels.
Now, in case of cornering, both wheels have to be
transmitted torque also allowing sufficient velocity
difference. Mechanical differential uses gears to
transmit torque and rotation, from one power input
shaft to two output shafts, which are allowed to rotate
in different speeds. If the input speed is held constant
and the speed of one of the outputs is increased, the
other will decrease. For detailed explanation of
working and different types of differential, watch this video -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gIGvhvOhLHU

Electronic Differential
Electronic differential can be implemented only with multi drive system which means there are
two independent motors for every driving wheel-pair. The electrical differential has the
advantage that any value of power and torque could be applied independently on the different
wheels. The electronic differential uses the steering wheel angle and the motor speed values to
control the power to each wheel so that all wheels are supplied with the torque they need.
Because each wheel is individually driven by a motor, there is no power loss in the differential
gear. When cornering, power must not be taken from the inner wheel to apply more power on
the outside wheels.

Gears
Gears are used to transfer power between two different axes, to change the direction of
rotation, to control speed/torque, etc. There are many types of gears as shown.To know more
about these gears, visit:

http://www.thecartech.com/subjects/auto_eng/Gear_Types.htm

Gear Train:
When two gears are in mesh, the power they transfer remains constant(11= 22). If the
number of teeth on gears is n1 and n2, then:
More than two gears are connected in a mesh to form a gear train. A gear train is used to
achieve high gear ratios. A gear train may be simple, compound or planetary.

Simple gear train:
A simple gear train consists of gears simply meshed to one another as shown. Note that speed
of rotation of two adjacent gears is opposite, and the final gear ratio (which is obtained by
multiplying the gear ratios consecutively), is nothing but the gear ratio of the first (driving) gear
and last (driven) gear.














Multiplying equations (1), (2), and (3), we get:




Compound gear train:
When there is more than one gear on a shaft, as shown,
it is called a compound gear train. Its advantage over simple gear train is that higher gear ratios
can be achieved in much compact space.





















Note that speed of gears (2,3) and (4,5) are same as they are on the same shaft. Proceeding As
previous case, we get,

Hence, we conclude that,










Planetary gear train:
The planetary gears are used to provide necessary forward and reverse gear ratios in a much
more compact space.
Planetary gear sets contain three major components or members. They are:
The Ring Gear or Annulus which has internal teeth and wraps around the entire
assembly.
The Sun Gear (shown above in orange) which is the smallest gear and sits in the center
of the assembly. The planetary pinions orbit around the sun gear, hence the name of the
gear set.
The Planetary Carrier (shown above in yellow) which holds a set of Planetary Pinion
Gears. The Pinion Gears (shown above in green) interact with the Ring Gear and the Sun
Gear at the same time.
Each member of the planetary gear set can spin (revolve) or be held at rest. Any one of the
three members can be used as the input or driving member. At the same time, another
member may be held at rest or stationary. Depending on which member is the input, which is
the output, and which is held, either a torque increase (under drive) or a speed increase
(overdrive) condition will be produced.

Constant velocity joints
Constant velocity joints or CV joints are used to transfer power when two axes are inclined to
each other at a variable angle. As the position of wheels with respect to chassis keeps on

changing due to bumps on road, hence such joints are much needed to transfer power to
wheels. A universal joint can also transmit power at variable angles, but the problem with
universal joints is that they fail to maintain a constant velocity throughout the complete
rotation, i.e. even if the driving shaft is rotating smoothly, the motion of driven shaft will be
jerky as a result of varying speeds. CV joints overcome this problem. There are many types of
CV joints available like double cardan joints, rzeppa joints, Tracta Joints, Weiss joints, Tripod
joints etc. These are selected on the basis of weight, plunging action*, Cost, and many other
factors. To see the working of some of the joints visit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-velocity_joint#mediaviewer/File:Universal_joint.gif
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-velocity_joint#mediaviewer/File:Simple_CV_Joint_animated.gif
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-
velocity_joint#mediaviewer/File:Double_Cardan_Joint_(animated).gif



Cooling
Batteries perform best when they are operated within their specified operating range. Thermal
management for electric vehicle battery systems are crucially important for the performance
and longevity of the battery. An efficient thermal management system, at the battery level, will
enable electric vehicles to drive greater distances and significantly increase runtime on a single
charge.
Some problems caused by Inefficient Thermal Management
Batteries wear a lot more quickly when temperatures are not managed.
Potential safety hazards arise with uncontrolled battery temperatures.
Uneven temperature distribution creates unbalanced modules which results in a
reduction in performance.
Charge acceptance is affected when temperatures are not properly controlled.
Solution
The ideal thermal management system of an EV battery system must meet some stringent
design guidelines in order to be useful and cost-effective. The technology should meet and
surpass all of the obstacles. To list a few:
Improved temperature control overall: Temperature of all modules should be at (close
to) optimal temperature.
Reduction of temperature variations: To have uniform electrical properties, all the
modules should have uniform temperature.

Improved battery capacity.
Lightweight and compact: Minimizing mechanical pumping system making the size and
weight of cooling apparatus significantly smaller.
Cost-effective low maintenance: Reduction in mechanical tune-ups and antifreeze fills.
Prevent the overheating of devices called insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT). These
are high-power switching transistors used in hybrid and electric vehicles. The chips are
required to drive electric motors, switching large amounts of power from the battery
pack to electrical coils needed to accelerate a vehicle from zero to 60 mph in 10 seconds
or less.
Thermal management for EV batteries is critical to the success of electric vehicles since
vehicle performance, life-cycle costs, reliability, and safety all depend on the efficient
functioning of the battery system. An overheated battery will consume more energy
than one with proper thermal management, thereby reducing round-trip energy
efficiency.
Air Cooling
Air cooling which is the oldest technology occurs either naturally through convection or via
forced air utilizing a fan to increase heat dissipation. Very low mass and low thermal
conductivity mean that these applications are only suitable up until a certain heat flux (heat
density). Air cooling is only capable of up- taking 1.005 Kilojoules per Kilogram per degree
Kelvin.

Advantages of air cooled system:
Simpler design cheaper methods.
Less dependence on mechanical devices. The only mechanical device used is a fan.
Low design complexity implies easy maintenance and repairing.
Leakage (main issue in liquid cooled systems) is a problem.
Drawbacks of air cooling system:
Generally less effective at maintaining a uniform temperature (key for battery longevity)
within and between cells in a battery module, and they cant carry as much heat away
from the battery.
Large dependence on aerodynamic effects.
Nearly no control on temperature. Things like wind speed and surrounding air temp.
cant be controlled
Increasing cooling requirements size of the heat exchangers make designs prohibitively
large and require vast amounts of air to be moved via fans.

Water Cooling
Liquid cooling followed soon after convection air cooling and provided a vast performance
increase in absorbing and especially moving heat over long distances. This is in large part due to
the greatly increased mass and improved thermal conductivity that most liquids and especially
water offer over air cooling. Water cooling is capable of up- taking 4.183 Kilojoules per Kilogram
per degree Kelvin.
Advantages of liquid cooled system:
Increase in efficiency (nearly 4x).
More uniformity cooling on all the modules.
Much more control over temperature.
Drawbacks of water cooling system:
Large increase in weight.
The addition of a second mechanical device (the pump, radiator) further reduces overall
system reliability over air cooling, which requires only a single mechanical part (the fan).
The weaknesses of a liquid cooling system are the potential for fluid to leak (which can
cause an electrical short).
Maintenance and repair can also be costlier and more complicated for liquid-cooled
systems, which require more components and may weigh more than air systems.





DYNAMICS


Suspension
INTRODUCTION


In its simplest terms a race circuit may be thought of as a number of segments, each composed
of a corner, a straight, and a corner.

In Figure 1, at point A the vehicle has reached the apex of a turn and is about to begin
accelerating down the straight; at point B heavy braking is initiated and the speed falls off in
preparation for corner C.

Figure 1

An important principle of circuit racing, which may be observed in the Figure, is that the
velocity should never be constant unless held arbitrarily for reasons of endurance, traffic, or
safety, or limited by the maximum speed of the vehicle. One should increase speed at a
maximum rate (accelerate) out of each turn and continue to the point where, with maximum
braking (deceleration) the speed can just be brought down to the maximum speed for the next
comer.
The rotation and length changes of the resultant acceleration vector, as the vehicle progresses
along a circuit, has led to the concept of the "g-g" diagram. So what is a G ? It is in fact a very
useful way of generically measuring acceleration. Acceleration is the change in speed with time,
and would typically be measured in units of, for example, metres per second per second. That
is, how much your speed (in metres per second) changed in a given time (one second). The
determination of force requires that a mass (weight) is also known, so your acceleration will
change as the weight of your car changes, and you may not know this weight to begin with.
The G manages to remove the issue of weight by comparing measured accelerations with the
acceleration due to gravity, which is a reasonably constant value (9.8066 metres per second per
second, though it varies slightly with location). The result is a number which has no dimensions;
it is unit less. It is the same regardless of whether you are using metric or imperial units. You
also don't need to know the weight of your car.
A graph between lateral v/s longitudinal accelerations is called a g-g diagram.
By recording the outputs of longitudinal and lateral accelerometers (see section on Data
Acquisition) in the vehicle, a plot can be made of driver/vehicle performance. An examination
of these figures will show that most drivers spend most of the time at acceleration limits
while utilizing somewhat different driving techniques. However, the drivers were ultimately
limited by the manoeuvring acceleration capability of the vehicle.

The problem imposed by racing may now be summarized as one of spending as much time as
possible as close as possible to the potential vehicle "g-g" boundary. It follows that the basic
design requirements of a race car (and qualitatively the same for any performance car) are:
The provision of the largest vehicle "g-g" manoeuvring areas throughout the range of
operating conditions.
The provision of vehicle control and stability characteristics that enable a skilled driver
to operate at or near these acceleration limits.

Historically, every major innovation in race car design has resulted in extensions of these "g-g"
acceleration boundaries and an exploitation of them through improved control or driving
technique.



Tires
The forces for accelerating the race car in the horizontal plane originate principally at the tires;
an understanding of tire behaviour is one key to the achievement of the largest g-g" diagram.
The amount of research done in the development of tire materials and tire structure is
immense and therefore it is important to understand the basic parameters for a tire as all the
forces on the vehicle act through the tires (except aerodynamic forces). We will discuss 3
important properties of the tire.

Slip angle: It is the angle between a rolling wheel's actual direction of travel and the direction
towards which it is pointing (i.e., the angle of the vector sum of wheel forward velocity and
lateral velocity ). For a free-rolling wheel this slip angle results in a force parallel to the axle
and the component of the force perpendicular to the wheel's direction of travel is the cornering
force. This cornering force increases approximately linearly for the first few degrees of slip
angle.
In the photo shown below, the force on the tire acts in the rightward direction, and due to the
elasticity of the material of the tire, the tire undergoes deformation due to this lateral
(sidewards) force. Since the tread path has deflected from its initial orientation, the tire will
move in the direction of the tread path, even though the tire points in the forward direction. It
is an important parameter which is affected
dynamically due to the varying sideward forces
acting at corners (centrifugal force).







Pneumatic trail and self-aligning torque - Pneumatic trail
or trail of the tire is a trail-like effect generated by
compliant tires rolling on a hard surface and subject to
side loads, as in a turn. More technically, it is the distance
that the resultant force of side-slip occurs behind the
geometric centre of the contact patch.
Pneumatic trail is caused by the progressive build-up of
lateral force along the length of the contact patch, such
that lateral forces are greater towards the rear of the
contact patch (though less so when the rear of the
contact patch begins sliding) and this creates a torque on
the tire called the self-aligning torque. Because the
direction of the side-slip is towards the outside of a turn, the force on the tire is towards the
centre of the turn. Therefore, this torque tends to turn the front wheel in the direction of the
side-slip, away from the direction of the turn.

Suspension is basically the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages
that connects a vehicle to its wheels. The dynamics of a moving car is considered from two
perspectives:
Ride - a car's ability to smooth out a bumpy road
Handling - a car's ability to safely accelerate, brake and corner
These two characteristics can be further described in three important principles - road isolation,
road holding and cornering. The table below describes these principles and attempts need to
solve the challenges.
Road Isolation: The vehicle's ability to absorb or isolate road shock from the passenger
compartment.
Goal: Allow the vehicle body to ride undisturbed while traveling over rough roads.
Road Holding: The degree to which a car maintains contact with the road surface in various
types of directional changes and in a straight line (Example: The weight of a car will shift from
the rear tires to the front tires during braking. Because the nose of the car dips toward the
road, this type of motion is known as "dive." The opposite effect -- "squat" -- occurs during
acceleration, which shifts the weight of the car from the front tires to the back.)

Goal: Keep the tires in contact with the ground, because it is the friction between the tires and
the road that affects a vehicle's ability to steer, brake and accelerate.


Cornering: The ability of a vehicle to travel a curved path.
Goal: Minimize body roll, which occurs as centrifugal force pushes outward on a car's center of
gravity while cornering, raising one side of the vehicle and lowering the opposite side.

Now consider a 4 bar mechanism, having 4 links( components) with one of them being the
ground (in our case being chassis or body) and other 3 being free rods connected to each other
through joints which allow only rotation (such joints are called revolute joints).



Now take the suspension system, which can also be represented by the 4 bar mechanism, with
the chassis as the fixed link (ground), bar 1 being the upper a-arm, bar 3 being the lower a-arm
and bar 2 being the upright. Each of the a-arms is mounted to the chassis from 2 points and the
3rd vertex is mounted on the upright (see the above picture of double wishbone suspension).
So the motion of the upright, as seen from the front of the car during a bump can be easily
analysed by seeing the motion of the simple 4 bar mechanism. Now, just add two more
components to this mechanism, a bellcrank (which is just a body hinged at one point which
changes the direction of load from one to another), and a spring-damper. The bellcrank is also
known as a rocker because it oscillates or rocks about a pivot point.

The blue rods and the orange coloured upright together with the chassis (or ground link), form
the 4 bar mechanism as told above. The tire moves with the upright during bumps and this up-
down motion is transferred to the rocker which changes the direction of this force to compress
the spring of the shockers. Try to understand how the motion of the tire is transferred to each
of these suspension components and finally damped by the shocker.

Motion ratio - Motion ratio in suspension of a vehicle describes the amount of shock travel for
a given amount of wheel travel. Mathematically it is the ratio of shock travel and wheel travel.
The amount of force transmitted to the vehicle chassis reduces with increase in motion ratio. A
motion ratio close to one is desired in vehicle for better ride and comfort. One should know the
desired wheel travel of the vehicle before calculating motion ratio which depends much on the
type of track the vehicle will run upon.


Unsprung mass and sprung mass:
In a ground vehicle with a suspension, the unsprung weight (or the unsprung mass) is the mass
of the suspension, wheels and other components directly connected to them, rather than
supported by the suspension. The mass of the body and other components supported by the
suspension is the sprung mass.

Suspension at its best - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JXMyZ929lpY




Aerodynamics

WHAT IS AERODYNAMICS?
Aerodynamics is a branch of dynamics (branch of physics concerned with study of forces and
torques and their effects on motion) concerned with studying the motion of air, particularly
when it interacts with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. At low speeds and on days when
it's not very windy outside, it's hard to notice the way air interacts with our vehicles. But at high
speeds, and on exceptionally windy days, air resistance (the forces acted upon a moving object
by the air -- also defined as drag) has a tremendous effect on the way a car accelerates, handles
and achieves fuel mileage. The term aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas
dynamics, with the difference being that "gas dynamics" applies to the study of the motion of
all gases, not limited to air.

HOW IS AERODYNAMICS RELEVANT TO FSAE?
The frictional force of aerodynamic drag increases significantly with vehicle speed. Its main
goals are reducing drag and wind noise, undesired lift forces and other causes of aerodynamic
instability at high speeds and also it is important to produce downforce to improve traction and
thus cornering abilities.
SOME BASIC TERMS

1. DRAG: - When a ball is sent flying through air, in addition to gravity the ball experiences the
aerodynamic DRAG of the air. It appears that friction of air is the only source of this drag, but
actually friction do not contribute much to drag, it is due to the pressure built-up in front of the
ball as it pushes the air out of the way.
One can predict the relative importance of the viscous force, and force due to the pressure
build-up in front of the ball with the help of Reynolds number.
Re = u L /
Where is the fluid density, is the viscosity of the fluid, u and L are typical velocity and size
scale of the flow (in case of the ball its velocity and diameter). If the Reynolds number is very
large (ex. 100000), the drag is almost entirely due to pressure build-up in front of it (example-
football).
On the other hand if the Reynolds number is small (ex.5), the drag is mostly due to friction of
the air (ex. dust particle in air).
2. LIFT AND DOWNFORCE:- A fluid flowing past the surface of a body exerts a force on it. Lift is
the component of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction. It contrasts
with the drag force, which is the component of the surface force parallel to the flow direction. If
the fluid is air, the force is called aerodynamic force. Bernoulli's theorem states that within a
steady airflow of constant energy, when the air flows through a region of lower pressure it
speeds up and vice versa. Thus, there is a direct mathematical relationship between the
pressure and the speed, so if one knows the speed at all points within the airflow one can
calculate the pressure, and vice versa. For any airfoil generating lift, there must be a pressure

imbalance, i.e. lower average air pressure on the top than on the bottom. Bernoulli's principle
states that this pressure difference must be accompanied by a speed difference.
The negative of the lift is the Downforce. When the vertical component of the aerodynamic
force is in downward direction, it is called downforce.
ADVANTAGES OF INCREASING DOWNFORCE IN RACE CAR:
Increased braking performance
Increased cornering speed
Increased stability (necessary to achieve cornering speed)
AERODYNAMIC ELEMENTS IN A RACE CAR
Apart from increasing the streamlining the whole body, additional elements are added in a race
car that functions to increase the downforce and reduce the drag and also increase its stability.
WINGS: Wings are most efficient aerodynamic devices. They are placed on the rear and front of
a car. Wings can be single element (only one wing) or multi element (many wings one above
other, usually 3). The shape of a wing is an aero foil usually cambered in a way that air going
below has faster speed than the air flowing above it. You can search more about multiple
element wings on net. End plates are accompanied for lateral stability and seperate the wing
from the turbulent wheel flow.
UNDERTRAY: It is a plane tray that is placed at the bottom surface of the car. Its main function
is to smoothen the flow below the car and also it do not allow wake formation which increases
pressure below the car. At the end of the undertray, it is slightly tilted and also diffusers are put
so that the air's velocity can be lowered when the air leaves the car's premises, this helps in

increasing pressure behind the car and hence decreasing drag. Search about diffusers more on
internet.
BARGEBOARDS AND SIDEBOARDS: Bargeboards is a vertical panel situated longitudinally,
between the front wheels and sidepods. Bargeboards primarily acts as flow conditioners,
smoothening and redirecting the turbulent air in the wake of the front wing and the rotating
front wheels. Bargeboards also acts as vortex generators which helps in increasing downforce.

BRAKES
Basic concepts
Pascals law pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is
transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid such that the pressure
variations (initial differences) remain the same
Newtons law F= ma
Principal of Leverage
Principal of Hydraulic multiplication It is a direct application of Pascals law


Law of friction Frictional force=N

Working of disc brakes
A typical Brake system is shown in above two Figures a) idle and b) applied. The assembly
contains five main components: brake pedal (works on the principal of leverage), master
cylinder, brake lines, caliper and rotor. Brake fluid is filled in the lines and the pistons. When the
driver presses the pedal with a force F and it travels a distance d, then a force of 4F with a
travel of d/4 is applied on the master cylinder. This change in pressure is further transmitted
to brake calipers through brake lines.
A brake caliper is basically a simple piston arrangement with a brake pad at the end for
increased coefficient of friction. The force is further multiplied 9 times and becomes 36F
whereas travel becomes d/36. This force is the normal reaction for the frictional force which
brings the rotor to rest. But things are a bit more complex than this.


Master Cylinder
The master cylinder is not just a single piston cylinder. It has two separate pistons with their
separate fluid reservoir and each one is connected to two wheels through brake lines. It is done
so because in case of a leak in any one of the brake lines, only one half of the braking system
fails, Enabling the other half to provide stopping force to avoid accident. Depressing the brake

pedal causes both the primary and the secondary pistons to move forward and exert hydraulic
pressure independently in the primary and secondary brake systems. When the primary piston
moves forward, it blocks off the compensating port and seals the fluid in front of it. As it
continues to advance, it transmits fluid pressure to the primary hydraulic circuit as well as to
the secondary (slave) piston. The secondary piston moves forward and blocks off its
compensating port. It seals the fluid in front of it and transmits fluid pressure to the rear wheel
cylinders. Lets see what happens in case of a leak.
Loss of brake fluid through leaks or broken brake lines can be a cause of brake failure. One half
of the system is lost when the primary system fails. However, initial pedal movement causes
the unrestricted primary piston to bottom against the secondary piston. Continued movement
of the pedal moves the secondary piston mechanically to displace fluid and transmit pressure to
actuate the brakes connected to the secondary system. The pedal travel will increase by a large
amount In this case. Similarly, if there is a failure in the secondary system. Initial pedal
movement, in this case, causes the unrestricted secondary piston to bottom against the
forward wall of the master cylinder. Movement of the primary piston displaces fluid and
transmits hydraulic pressure to actuate the brakes connected to the primary system. Again the
pedal travel will increase by large amount.


Hydraulic system configurations
In previous section, we discussed about how complete brake failure is avoided by using two
independent circuits. Now we will see how this is implemented.
A] Front rear split:
B] Diagonal or crisscross split:
Under what conditions are is diagonal split system preferred over Front rear split system???

Brake Balance
Have you ever wondered what would happen if front wheels lock (stop rotating and simply
slides over the road) before the rear ones, or vice versa?? The vehicle will Understeer* or
oversteer* and can lose control. Therefore, it is necessary for the wheels to lock
simultaneously. As the weight distribution on both the wheels is not equal, both will need
different braking force to lock. Moreover, when the vehicle decelerates, the weight is shifted on
front wheels due to inertia. The weight distribution (both static and dynamic), can be calculated
by a simple FBD as shown in next page.
This Difference in Normal reaction calls for Brake biasing, i.e. the pressure in front brakes and
rear brakes should be different. This is achieved by proportioning valves. A fixed proportioning
valve reduces the pressure increase to the brake line to which it is attached to, above a pre-
determined pressure called the split point. The rate of pressure reduction is called the prop
valve "slope". The valve must be located between the master cylinder and the caliper. Some
Master cylinders have integrated proportioning valves in them.
Using the weight transfer equation
(on next Page) you can calculate the
normal forces on the front and rear
tires for any deceleration. Then
multiplying by the tire to road
coefficient of friction and the radius
of the tire, you can calculate the
front and rear brake torque required
for perfect balance. As shown in the
below graph Ideal rear to front
torque ratio is nonlinear and a fix
ratio shows large deviation (Pink and
blue line). However, with a prop
valve, we can obtain a close to ideal
curve.




Calculation

Chassis
The main purpose of the frame/chassis is to rigidly connect the front and rear suspension while
providing attachment points for the different systems of the car. The suspension is designed
with the goal of keeping all four tires flat on the ground throughout the performance range of
the vehicle. Generally, suspension systems are designed under the assumption that the frame is
a rigid body. For example, undesirable changes in the geometry of suspension can occur if the
frame lacks stiffness, and this can cause inconsistent handling. So the chassis must be designed
To carry load of the driver
To support the load of the motor/engine and other components
To withstand the forces caused due to the sudden braking or acceleration
To withstand the stresses caused by sudden bumps
To withstand centrifugal force while cornering

Three main types of chassis are used in cars

Ladder Chassis It is the earliest kind of chassis. In
this chassis a separate body is mounted on to a
rigid ladder like frame. It looks like a ladder - two
longitudinal rails interconnected by several lateral
and cross braces.

Monocoque A monocoque chassis supports the loads
through the external skin, similar to an egg shell. It
reduces the weight as the same chassis acts as frame
and the external body. Monocoques are made of
aluminium in commercial cars and carbon fiber is used
in F1 and by some FS teams too.

Space Frame - Space frame is a truss-like, rigid structure constructed from
pipes. In a space frame chassis, the suspension, engine, and body panels are
attached to a skeletal frame of tubes, and the body panels have
little or no structural function. Formula student teams
mostly prefer space frame because it gives better
visualization of load paths, it is easier to
manufacture etc.



Figure 2 Monocoque chassis
Figure 3 Spaceframe chassis

Now let us look at some basic concepts used in designing of a chassis

Stiffness - Stiffness is the extent to which a body resists deformation in response to an applied
force. Mathematically, the stiffness is defined as K = F /
Where, F is the force applied on the body
is the displacement produced by the force.

Torsion - It is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque.
Deformation due to torsion in chassis affects the wheel loads, so
its torsional stiffness must be high i.e. it should deform less in
torsion. The shear stress during torsion as given in the figure can
be calculated in it by the formula
= T r/J
Where, is the shear stress, T is the torque applied, r is the distance from the center, and J is
the second moment of area of the cross section about the axis of the rod.


Bending - Bending characterizes the behavior of a structural element
subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal
axis of the element. The normal stress in the figure can be calculated in
it by the formula
= M y / I
Where, is the normal stress, M is the bending moment
applied, y is the distance from the neutral axis, and I is the second
moment of area of the cross section about the neutral axis.



Triangulation-
Consider a rectangle with its sides made of stiff bars and joint to each other by pin joints, that is
the vertices are flexible and can change angles. Now suppose that a force acts on it. The
rectangles vertices will change angles and it will start deforming. A system like this can be
called a mechanism which can be used to achieve desired output motion from some input
motion. This can be done with any other polygon with number of sides more than 3.

In case of a triangle, for a given set of sides of triangle, it gets fixed. Unlike a rectangle, its
angles wont change on application of force. Hence a triangle becomes a structure, and not
mechanism. So, triangulation can be used to increase the torsional stiffness of a frame, since a
triangle is the simplest form which is always a structure and not a mechanism. Obviously, a
frame which is a structure will be torsionally stiffer than a mechanism. Therefore, an effort
should be made to triangulate the chassis as much as possible.

Let us have a look at some of the terms in a Formula Student chassis


ELECTRONICS

Drive Control
From the viewpoint of electric and control engineering, EVs are advantageous over traditional
vehicles with internal combustion engine. The remarkable merit of EVs is the electric motors
excellent performance in motion control, which can be summarized as
(1) torque generation is very quick and accurate, hence electric motors can be controlled
much more quickly and precisely;
(2) output torque is easily comprehensible;
(3) motor can be small enough to be attached to each wheel;
(4) And the controller can be easily designed and implemented with comparatively low cost
Controller is the heart of an electric vehicle, and it is the key for the realization of a high-
performance electric vehicle with an optimal balance of maximum speed, acceleration
performance, and traveling range per charge.
Control of Electric Vehicle (EV), that too a F1 car, is not a simple task in that operation of an EV
is essentially time-variant (e.g., the operation parameters of EV and the road condition are
always varying). Therefore, the controller should be designed to make the system robust and
adaptive, improving the system on both dynamic and steady state performances. Another
factor making the control of EV unique is that EVs are really "energy-management" machines.
Currently, the major limiting factor for wide-spread use of EVs is the short running distance per
battery charge. Hence, besides controlling the performance of vehicle, significant efforts have
to be paid to the energy management of the batteries on the formula car to finish a whole race.
Hence, in recent years, there is quite a lot of researches in the exploring advanced control
strategies in electric vehicles. As the development of the high computing capability
microprocessor, such as DSP (Digital Signal Processor), it is possible to perform complex control
on the electric vehicle to achieve optimal performance. However, it is essential to establish a
model-based control for the EV system, and systematically study the characteristics to achieve
optimal and robust control, therefore, students are advised to have a brief knowledge of other
departments before proceeding.

DRIVE CONTROL
Need
The Drive Control system must enable a driver to be competitive on the racetrack in both speed
and efficiency. It must also meet all requirements of the Formula SAE Electric rules and
regulations
Objective
Our objective is to create a drive control system that can compete strongly against those from
the competing teams. The drive control system should convert inputs from the driver into
outputs for motors and the battery system to enable the driver to race quickly, easily,
comfortably, and safely.

Rules for Competition:
Two important rules for drive control are listed below:
Two potentiometers are required for the throttle pedal in order to create a redundancy.
For the drive system to function properly the position measurement from each
potentiometer must be within 10% of each other. If the measurement differs more than
10% between the two potentiometers the controller then shuts the motors down.
The controllers will be configured for regenerative braking to occur for the range that
begins when the car starts to slow down, and ends when the speed is 5kph.

Basic Design

The above block diagram shows basic control unit functions. This is particularly for vehicle with
two motors namely left and right.
As shown above in this diagram, its components are one by one as follows :
INPUTS 72 V DC Battery Power
Brake Sensor () analog
Throttle Sensor () analog
Steering Sensor () analog
Wheel Sensor (10-30v) digital

Outputs: Left Motor Power
Right Motor Power


Functionality: Utilize input from brake, throttle, steering and wheel sensors to properly adjust
the speed of each motor by delivering the proper amount of power required.
Advanced circuit diagram:

This is circuit diagram involving the inputs, outputs and the voltage signals to all of them.

Inputs: (Actual sensors used)
1) Brake Sensor - Potentiometer
2) Throttle sensors - Two potentiometers (For the rule 1 stated above)
3) Steering sensor - potentiometer
4) Wheel sensor- Inductive sensors
5) Input signals from BMS ( Battery Management System)
(Please search working of potentiometers and inductive sensors on internet easily available)

All the inputs are fed to main micro controller which is actually like brain of the drive control
unit. This controller processes the inputs.
Outputs:
The output signals are generated by micro controller which are further fed to motor controller.
These motor controller acts like nerves which transmit signals from brain to our body parts. (In
case of this vehicle the body part is torque generating motors.)
The signal is analog type in the form of voltage ranging from 0 to 5 volts, where 0 stands for no
torque and 5 stands for maximum torque.
So based on inputs the micro controller (the brain) processes the data and gives signals to
motor controller (the nerves) which tell motors how much torque is to be generated. The

torque generated in left and right motor can differ from one another.
The basic principles of control unit are dealt now.
An EV controller may preferably have following functions:
Due to the frequent acceleration/deceleration and up/down of EV, it is preferably that
the regenerative control function is included, to save energy in battery and hence
enhance the driving range per charge;
Self-diagnostics and restoration from failure;
Scalable to function expansion;
And comprehensive protection functions, including over-temperature protection, over-
voltage and under-voltage protection, over-current protection, short-circuit protection,
motor-lock protection, and protection for control unit, main switch and security, etc.
Figure below shows detailed implementation of an EV controller with DSP (digital signal
processor). The whole system is composed of power circuit and control circuit. The control
board is usually provided with the motor, so we have to work on the programming and
connections of a DSP.

Note that the figure is just for one motor, the controller can be programmed for both the
motors similarly. Do not get confused with the components of a DSP (ADC, Flash, etc.), because
we get a DSP and work only on its programming and connections.



Data Acquisition System
DAQ is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical conditions such as
change in acceleration, angular/linear position, etc. converting the resulting samples into digital
numeric values for later study and comparison. It typically converts analog wave forms into
digital wave forms for processing. The most fundamental Data Acquisition System in a race car
is the driver (remember Niki Lauda) but due to its limitation in terms of accuracy and storage of
data we need an electronic DAQ.
Components:
1. Sensors: Convert physical parameters to electrical signals.
2. Signal converting circuitry that converts sensor signals to a form that can be converted
into digital values.
3. Analog to digital converters.
Now these digital values are recorded using a data logger. Data logger inputs are in the form of:
1. Voltage: single ended or differential for Pressure, Temperature and/or Position.
2. Voltage pulse/Frequency: for RPM.
DAQ or Data Acquisition system can be performed for vehicle dynamics, powertrain, brakes,
driver performance and cooling. We will be doing it to improve our cars dynamics and to
prepare driver for race track.
Although DAQ is study of vehicles dynamics, its preparation/manufacturing is work of
electronics department.
To do this the sensors we will be using are:
1. Linear potentiometer: To measure compression of shockers, 1 on each shocker on wheel.
2. Rotary potentiometer: To measure change in angular position of steering position.
3. 2 axis Gyro: To measure yaw of the car.
4. GPS: Global Positioning Sensor, to check the position of car at every moment.
5. Wheel RPM Sensor: To measure RPM of every wheel, checking that none of the wheel is
dragging on a straight path.
6. IMU: Inertial Measurement Unit, to measure roll, pitch, and acceleration of car.

(* Please read about roll, pitch and yaw by yourself. If possible also read a little bit about working
of the sensors mentioned above.)

The data from all these sensors is recorded using Arduino (microcontroller) in a micro SD card
which can be studied later and then compared against time and position of the car on track to
improve drivers reaction while driving like when to change gear and when to accelerate so as
to improve lap timings. Also, we compare left and right suspension of car to provide a better
handling/dynamic performance of car.


MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING

Materials
When you are designing a Race Vehicle, a very important factor in determining the
performance is the weight of the vehicle. High weight for a FS car is not desirable in almost all
cases (except for the increase in downforce). To lower the weight of a car we use multiple
materials in the different components. There are a host of material properties which we have
to look upon before using it. Now say you have an idea about which material to use in a
particular component, the big thing left is to transform it into the desired product. For this we
have a host of manufacturing processes. In fact the use of material also depends on the ease of
its manufacturing. In our FS team we have a different department which keeps itself up to date
about the different materials and the different manufacturing processes. In this paper you will
get a rough idea about the different material and different processes which the Team goes
through.
Material Properties
Here we are mostly concerned about the Mechanical Properties and Manufacturing properties
of materials. For a note of all the properties do visit.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_properties
I will talk only about the most useful of the Properties
Mechanical Properties
1. Ultimate Tensile Strength and Compressive strength The Wiki definition - the capacity
of a material or structure to withstand Tensile/ Compressive loading.
What it means- A material can be loaded in 2 ways tension and compression. In
compression the Max stress that a material can withstand. I guess you have a fair idea
about Stress Strain curve, given that you all have cleared JEE. So in a Stress Strain
curve the value of the stress Maxima is the Ultimate tensile/compressive stress
depending on the type of loading.



Fig 1.1 The Stress Strain Diagram of Mild Steel.
2. Relevance to The CAR- Now while designing a component we need to see that it doesnt
fail. We have a rough idea about the kind of force experienced by the component. We
need to see that the Theoretical max stress on the body is lesser than the strength of
the material. Normally we try to keep the strength of the component almost double
than the theoretical stress applied on it (this is called factor of safety, I wont divulge
details of it now, for the most interested people here is the wiki link
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_of_safety and another useful link
http://www.engineersedge.com/analysis/factor-of-safety-review.htm

3. Resilience the wiki definition
Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically,
and release that energy upon unloading.
Our explanation From JEE knowledge we know that area under stress strain curve is
Energy density. Also that area is equivalent to definite integral. Now if we integrate till
the elastic point A the value obtained is the Resilience (actually it is a little more than
that, but in the scope of this text Im limiting the information given)
4. Use in the CAR When we design springs and dampers we need to know how much
energy the material can absorb before losing its Elasticity. Basically it is needed
anywhere where the material undergoes shocks and vibrations. Higher the resilience,
better the material for application in springs.

5. Toughness - a mechanical term that is used in several contexts; loosely speaking, it is a
measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture. This is the definition
given in Callister.
Our definition - It is basically the area under Stress Strain Curve till fracture. This gives us
an idea about the energy absorbed by the material before Fracturing.

6. Use in CAR the bumpers of the car (In an FS car instead of a bumper we use an Impact
Attenuator) are aimed at Reducing the damage to the vehicle in a collision. So while
designing it we will look at the toughness of the material used.

7. Hardness According to Callister, hardness, which is a measure of a materials
resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small indent or a scratch). Hardness is
very easy to measure, it doesnt require a special sample and is non-destructive. There
are multiple scales of hardness Brinnel Hardness, Rockwell Harness and Vickers
Hardness. The reason we need hardness is that as a thumb rule we can say that
Tensile Strength (in MPa) = 3.45 * Brinnel Hardness
8. Specific Strength - The specific strength is a material's strength (force per unit area at
failure) divided by its density. It is also known as the strength-to-weight ratio.
Our Explanation-Self Explanatory
Use in the CAR- I talked to you about the weight reduction initially, this is the property
used for that. It means that we aim at using materials with less weight and higher
strength, for example in our Upright ( for info on upright read the suspension material)
we have used Aluminum 7075 T-6 ( for a look into the properties see the link below -
(http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA7075T6)
It is very light (density 2800 SI units) and has a Ultimate Tensile strength near to that of
hardened steel. By use of such material we decrease the weight of the car.

9. Flexural Strength - a mechanical parameter for brittle material, is defined as a
material's ability to resist deformation under load The transverse bending test is most
frequently employed, in which a specimen having either a circular or rectangular cross-
section is bent until fracture or yielding using a three point flexural test technique. The
flexural strength represents the highest stress experienced within the material at its
moment of rupture. It is measured in terms of stress, here given the symbol .
Fig- 1.2 The three point flexural test

Use in the CAR We use ASTM A179 grade steel seamless pipes in our chassis. It needs to
have high Flexural Strength.
10. Coefficient of Friction I expect everyone to know what this is. I want to comment on
the fact that Newtons Law of Friction is not followed by the racing car tire. It is only for
smooth bodies. We normally feel that frictional force on a body can never exceed the
value of the load applied on it, but for pneumatic tires used in race cars nowadays,
ideally for a load of 500 kg-f a 800 kg-f friction force can be generated giving us a value
of Coefficient of friction to be 1.6.

11. Fatigue Limit Before going into fatigue limit we need to tell u what fatigue is. When
there is periodic loading and unloading in a material it is seen that the material fails at
stresses much lower than the UTS (Ultimate Tensile stress). There is a S-N curve used to
study fatigue, S being stress and N being number of cycles. There are 2 types of S-N
curves, one for ferrous metals and another for non-ferrous.
Now let us discuss the fatigue limit. It is seen that for ferrous metals below a certain
stress level the material doesnt suffer fatigue for any huge number of cycles. This stress
value is the Fatigue limit. In non-ferrous materials such property is not observed
The typical S-N curves are given.

12. Fatigue strength- Defined as the stress level at which failure will occur for some
specified number of cycles (e.g. 107 cycles).
Figure 1.3 The S-N curves. This figure is taken from Callister, Wiley Publications

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
As told to you manufacturing is the link b/w a design and the final component. A component
design may have to be altered if it cannot be manufactured. There are a plethora of
manufacturing processes which were used in a car like XLR-14.
A few basic technical terms are defined as follows:
Tolerance: It is the limit in variation of dimension of the final component. It is to be
considered while manufacturing is going on. Ex. In the pic shown 27+- 0.4 implies that
the dimension of plate one cannot be more than 27+ 0.3= 27.3 or less than 27-
0.3=26.7.If it is so the product is rendered useless. Tolerances for circular shaft are
defined in a different way.
Surface finish: It is defined as the amount of irregularity on the surface of a material and
is defined by the Ra value. More the Ra value more id the roughness.

The process of realization of a product involves the following steps:

We rarely have to perform manufacturing processes like casting, moulding, forming as we get
the resultant product from market. We only do machining. Machining processes are divided in
to 3 main categories according to finish and accuracy:
Raw
Material
Casting,
moulding,
forming
Machining
process


Material Shaping operations are a coarse set of operations which give the raw material a shape
close to the actual product. Most of the material is removed in these operations. These include:
1. Drilling.
2. Basic operations on a Lathe like Turning, Facing, Knurling, Parting, Grooving, Drilling
3. Power tool operations like grinding, cutting
4. Manual or NC Milling
5. Shaping.
Finishing operations are a relatively finer sets of operations required to make the actual
product in terms of exact tolerances /dimensions and finish required. These include:
1. CNC milling.
2. Reaming.
3. Bench grinding.
4. Broaching.
Finally there are super-finishing machines for extremely high surface finish and close
tolerances. Negligible material is removed in these operations. The list of operations are:
1. Honing
2. Lapping
3. CNC Grinding
Super-finishing methods are very costly and are usually not required in fabrication of XLR.
JOINING PROCESS
Joining process are an independent set of processes which are also a class of manufacturing
processes. They can be classified as follows:
Welding-> Mostly used by us are M.I.G, Arc Welding, T.I.G.
Brazing-> Mostly used by us is Brass.
Bonding-> Highly sophisticated, not used by us.

Material
shaping
operations
Finishing
operations
Superfinishing
operations

REFERENCES
1. William Milliken and Douglas Milliken, Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, Society
of Automotive Engineers Inc (August 1995)
2. Carol Smith, Tune to Win, Aero Publishers, Inc.; 1st edition (June 1, 1978)
3. Ian Hooper, Development of In-Wheel Motor Systems For Formula SAE
Electric Vehicle, The University of Western Australia
4. Qi Huang, Jian Li and Yong Chen, Control of Electric Vehicle, University of
Electronic Science and Technology of China P.R.China
5. Simon McBeath, Competition Car Data Logging: A Practical Handbook, J H
Haynes & Co Ltd; 2nd Revised edition edition (11 December 2008)
6. Wikipedia

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