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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
These Survival Training Notes would never have been
compiled without the willing assistance of many people of various
backgrounds. Anthropologists, Micrologists, Soldiers, Bushmen
L
and keen naturalists all gave freely of their time to compile and
submit information for inclusion within these notes.
Twenty nine publications by noted authors have been
used to cross reference teachings and a list of these are
detailed at Annex 1 to Chapter A.
All of these publications are
COMPLEMENTARY to Survival Training and are mandatory reading for
Survival Instructors who wish to enhance their knowledge.
However, there can be no greater teaching medium than "hands on"
training or practical experience.
The people that have been active in compiling these
notes, for survival training in the Top End are:
Mr Peter Bindon Department of Archaeology Western
Australian Museum
4
Mr Rodger Hilton Who was the Professor of Micrology The
University of Western Australia
'\c,
Major Tim Daniel
Captain Graham Brammer OAM
Captain Len Tracey
Warrant Officer Class Two Rick Clifford
Warrant Officer Class Two Russell Hill
Warrant officer Class Two Wally Wallbutton
Sergeant Robert Peoples
Sergeant Peter \Pop' Dawes
Typists:
Miss Lyn Rowlands
Miss Narene Coleman
Mrs Denice Hoyne
Graphics:
Corporal Hindes i-\VUDETS
..^
Printing/Reproduction:
Mr Garry Sloane
Thank you all for your
notes, and to all those students
by the Army Survival Wing during
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contribution to these training
of survival courses conducted
1989 to 1993, thank you again
for allowing us the chance to implement and experiment with
survival skills and survival course content.
R.P. CLIFFORD
WARRANT OFFICER CLASS TWO
ARMY SURVIVAL WING
TELEPHONE: (089) 801298
PUBLICATION COMPILED JULY 1993
t
CONTENTS
~b -
RULES. PRIORITIES, AND MENTAL ASPECTS
Introduction
Priorities of Sustaining Life
Rules for Survival
Mental Aspects
Conclusion
Recommended Reading List
ER 2 ER A SURVIVAL PRIORI=
Introduction
Influence of Climate
Selection of Campsites
Materials
Design
'-, Construction
Thatching
Principle of Watershed Methods
Emergency Shelters
Drainage and Ventilation
CHApTER 3 DAY NAVIGATION
Introduction
Sun Movement
Equation of Time
Meridian Transit Table
Meridian Transit Diagram
Equation df Time Graph
Longitude Corrections
Finding North with a Watch
Shadow Stick
Sun Compass Part One
-" Circle of Declination
Sun Compass Part Two
Calculating Latitude
Manmade Means of Direction
Time and Distance
Dead Reckoning and Keeping a Log
Conclusion
CHAPTER 4 NIGHT NAVIGATION
Introduction
Stars
Rising and Setting
Calculating the Position of the Southern Cross
101
104
106-107
108-109
110
Annex A
Chapter 1
201
202
204
205
206
208
209
210
213
221
300
301
302
Table 3-l
307
312
313
314
319
320
322
324
326
332
335
340
351
400
401
405
408
-l-
CHAPTER 4
NIGHT NAVIGATION (CONT1
Planets
Venus
Moon
Calculating Direction
Southern Cross
Orion
Sirus and Conopus
Canopus and Achernar
Leo
Achernar and Pointers
Star Movement
CHAPTER 5 WATER CONSERVATION. PROCUREMENT,
D STERILISATION
Introduction
500
Fluid Loss
503
Water Conservation
504-507
Land Formation
508-517
Water Procurement in Rainforest
518-526
Water Procurement in Temperate Climates
527-537
Water Procurement in Arid Regions
538-542
Desert/Solar Still
543-544
Transpiration Bags 545
Vehicles
546
Urine 547
Bores - Wells
549-550
Desalination Units 551-560
Water Procurement at Sea 561-562
Water Clarification 563-564
Water Sterilisation 565-566
CHAPTER6 FIRE LIGHTING
Introduction
600
Spark
601
Tinder
602-603
Kindling
604-606
Fire Bow
607-616
Hand Drill
617-619
Fire Plough
620
Fire Lighting with Chemicals
621
Potassium Chlorate and Sugar
622
Potassium Permanganate and Sugar
623
Sodium Chorate and Sugar
624
Lens
625
Flint and Steel
627
Battery
628
Types of Fire 629
Snake Hole Fire 631
-2-
411
412
413
420
422(b)
422(b)(3)
422(b) (4)
422(b) (5)
422 (b) (6)
422(b) (7)
422(c)
7
/7
/
1
CHAPTER 7
Food Nutrients
Food Group Plan
b
Water
Five Food Groups
FOOD AND NUTRITIO::
CHAPTER0
TASTE TEST
Rules for Survival
Tests for Plant Edibility
Edible Plants of W.A.
Plants for Survival "Vascular@~
Fungi for Survival
CHAPTER 9
Introduction
_ Alkaloids
b
Spoilage
Preparation of Fish
PTER 10
Introduction
Birds
Mammals
Dressing
Rodents
11
Introduction
Drying
'L- Smoking
Salting
Brining
Cooking
Pickling
Pinole
PREPARATION OF FISB
SLAUGHTERING OF GAME
FOOD PRESERVATION
700
Table 7-l
704
Table 7-2
800
801-807
Table 8-l
808-820
821-848
900
904
906-914
912
1000
1001
1002-1004
1005-1018
1019-1020
1100
1101
1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
-3-
VENOMOUS AUSTRALIAN CREATURES
Introduction
Marine Animals
Sea Snakes
Jelly Fish Stingers
Cone Shellfish
Blueringed Octopus
Venomous Fish - Poisonous Fish
Snakes
Spiders
Scorpions
CHAPTER 13 NATURAL MEDICINE
Introduction
1300
Primitive Treatments
1301
Worms/Intestinal Parasites
1304
Skin Infections
1310
Burns
1311
Leaches and Ticks
1312
Bee, Wasp and Hornet Stings
1313
Maggot Treatments
1314
CHAPTER 14 SURVIVAL KIT
Introduction
1400
General
1401
Survival Kit Contents
Table 2-14
ER 15
IMPROVISED WEAPONS AND EOUIPMENT
Introduction
Weapons and Equipment
1200
1201-1202
1203
7
1204-1207
1208-1210
1211-1214
1215-1230
1231-1237
1239-1262
1263-1266
1500
1501
Introduction
1600
Principals
1601-1602
The Use of Baits
1603-1605
Where to Set
1606
Type of Trap
1608
Dead Fall (4)
1610
Simple Snare
1614
Log Fall
1617
Canadian Pendulum Snare
1619
Horse Hair Bird Snare
1627
Indian Bird Snare
1630
Blood Trails
1636
7
TRA.'S AND SNARES
-4-
,-.
.
CHAPTER 17 EMERGENCY Sir-NALS
Introduction
Mirrors
Marker Panel
Radio
Flashlight
Whistle
Aircraft to Ground
Ground/Air Emergency Code
Pyrotechnics
Signal Distress Day/Night
Rocket Signal Distress
Mini Flare
Miscellaneous Equipment
Summary
Distress Radio Frequencies
CHAPTER 18
SURVIVAL AT SEA
Introduction
1800
Psychology of Survival
1802
Duties of the Leader
1806
Hazards Causes of Death
1807
Hypothermia
1808
Dehydration
1810
Sea SicKness
1811
Immersion Foot
1822
Eyes 1824
Swimming for Survival
1832
Remember
1835
CHAPTER 19 FISHING AND FISHING TECHNIQUES
General
1900
Where to Fish
1901
Indication of Fish Feeding
1908
Angling
1910
Using Floats and Weights
1913
Bait
1917
Spinning
1919
Artificial Bait
1920
Night Lines
1922
Jigging
1924
Fish Traps
1925
Damming
1929
Spearing
1931
Narcotics
1938
1700
1700(a)
1700(b)
1700(c)
1700(d)
1700(f)
1704
Table 17-l
1706
1707
1708
1709
1711
1718
Annex A to
Chapter 17
-5-
PTER 24 FISH HOOKS
Introduction
2000
Hook Sizes 2002
Selecting Hooks 2008
Hook Eyes 2017
Treble Hooks 2020
Gaff Hooks 2031
Care of Hooks 2033
CHAPTER 21
Reef Knot 2100
Thumb Knot 2103
Overhand Loop 2104
Figure of Eight Fig 21-4
Sheet Bend 2105
Double Sheet Bend 2106
Fishermans Knot 2108
Double Fishermans 2109
Tape Knot 2110
Bowline 2111
Running Bowline 2112
Triple Bowline 2113
Bowline on Bight 2114
Round Turn Two Half Hitches 2117
Clove Hitch 2118
Timber Hitch 2119
Marlin Spike Hitch 2121
Quick Release Knot 2122
Prussic Knot 2123
Diagonal Lashing 2126
Plaiting Three Fig 21-29
Plaiting Four Fig 21-30
Plaiting Round Fig 21-31
KNOTS
CHAPTER 22 STRING RAKING
Introduction 2201
Tree Bark 2204
Pandanus 2207
Testing Material 2213
Construction of Cordage 2215
CHAPTER 23 ANIMAL SIGNS AND TRACKS
Introduction 2301
Tracks 2302
Bird Tracks 2306
Animal Tracks 2313
Bandicoots 2320
Kangaroos 2323
Possums 2334
Summary 2343
- 6 -
CHAPTER 24,
TRAINING CONSIDERATIONS
Introduction
Planning
b
Dates Allocated
Personnel to be Trained
Training Area
Suitable Training Areas
Land Clearance
Medical
Live Stock
'Field Brief
PTER 25
ALTERNATIVE USES FOR MII,ITARY EQUIPMENT
General
Guidelines
Principles
Preparation
Application
CHAPTER 26
KNIVES AND KNIFE SHARPENING
2401
2404
2405
2407
2408
2409
2410
2411
2422
Annex A to
Chapter 24
2501
2502
2503
2504
2505
Introduction
Selection of a Knife
Folding Blade Knives
Gimmicks
Edges
Sharpening Devices
Synthetic Stones
Diamond Stones
Steels
Sharpening the Conventional Edge
CHAPTER 27
SURVIVAL DEFINITIONS
2601
2602
2604
2605
2606
2608
2610
2611
2612
2613
L-Definitions
27-l
-7-
w-
i
CHAPTER ONE
SURUlUAl RULES,
PRIORITIES AND
MENTAL ASPECTS
-0
SURVIVAL
RULES. PRIORITIES, AND MENTAL ASPECTS
Introduction
101. When you find yourself in a survival situation, there
are several facts that you should remember. One fact is this: the
obstacles to have to overcome aren't so much natural ones as they
are mental ones.
Survive
102. The "Concise Oxford English Dictionary" defines
survive as follows:
a. To come through alive
b. To continue to exist
103.
can assist
Let there be no doubt that preparation and knowledge
the survivor to do just that.
Priorities for Sustainino Life
104. It is essential before any discussion on survival,that
the student understands the priorities for sustaining life:
a. The maintenance of physicalandmentalwell being;
b. Protection of the body from the effects of
exposure;
C. Replenishment of the body fluids; and
d. Obtain food.
Priorities of Survival
105. Priorities of sustaining life must inevitably lead to
the priorities of survival:
a. Water
b. Shelter
C. Food
d. Warmth
l-l
106. The first rule of survival is "DON'T PANIC". Sit down,
take stock of your situation and ask yourself the following
questions:
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
g-
h.
i.
k.
How much water do I have?
Where is the nearest water?
How much food do I have?
Where is the nearest food source?
What protection from the elements do I have?
How can I improve my shelter/protection?
Does anyone know where I am?
When will I be missed?
How long once I am missed could I expect a
search to move through or over this area?
.'
Where am I?
Courses open to me: move forward/back or
remain stationary?
107. Rules for survival can be remembered from the word
"SURVIVAL" itself, as follows:
a. S. SIZE UP THE SITUATION
b. u. UNDUE HASTE MAKES WASTE
C. R. REMEMBER WHERE YOU ARE
d. V. VANQUISH FEAR AND PANIC
e. I. IMPROVISE
f. v. VALUE LIVING
g. A. ACT LIKE THE NATIVES
h. L. LEAN ON YOUR BASIC SKILLS
Mental Asoects
108. Mental aspects that can affect the individual or group
in a survival situation are also known as the
"Nine Survival
Stresses", listed as follows:
l-2
U.
b. Cold
C.
d.
e.
raA1k Aa IldLUre s way of making you pay
attention to something that is wrong with
you. But nature also has ways of holding
off pain if you are too busy doing something
to pay attention to the injury right then.
Pain
may go
unnoticed if your mind is
occupied with plans for survival. On the
other hand, pain, once given in to, will
weaken the drive to surl ive. Pain can get
the best of you if you let it, even if it
isn't serious or prolonged. A special effort
must be made to keep hopes up and to keep
working. Pain is discomforting, like fear
but not in itself harmful or dangerous. Pain
can be controlled, and if the survival
situation is sufficiently grave, pain can
be made subordinate to efforts to carry on.
Thirst
Cold is a much greater threat to survival
than it sounds. It not only lowers your
ability to think, but also tends to lower
your will to anything but get warm again.
Cold is an insidious enemy. At the same
time that it numbs the mind and the body, it
numbs the will. Because it is hard to move
and you want to sleep, you can forget your
goal to survive.
Thirst is another enemy of survival. Even
when your thirst is not extreme, it can dull
your mind. As with pain and cold, thirst can
almost be forgotten if the will to survive
is strong enough. It is also important to
remember not to deprive oneself
unnecessarily of water. Serious dehydration
may occur in a survival situation even when
there is plenty of water available.
Hunger Hunger is dangerous because of the effects
it can have on the mind, primarily in
lessening the person's ability for rational
thought. Both thirst and hunger increase a
person's susceptibility to the weakening
effe\.ts of cold, pain, and fear.
Fatigue Even a very moderate amount of fatigue can
materially reduce your mental ability.
Fatigue can make you careless. It becomes
increasingly easy to adopt the feeling of
just not caring. This is one of the biaaest
danqers in survival. The confused notion
that fatigue and energy expenditure are
directly related may be responsible for many
deaths in survival situations.
l-3
f.
h.
Fear
certainly there is a real danger of over
e;:a:tion, but fatigue may be due to
hopelessness, lack of a
goa1 I
dissatisfaction, frustration, or boredom.
Fatigue may represent an escape from a
situation that has become too difficult. If
YO"
can recognise the dangers of a
situation, you can often E*lprnon the strength
to go on.
Fear of the unknown, fear of discomfort,
fear of people, fear of your own weaknesses.
You fear the terrain and the climate because
they are new and strange. Because the
environment is different
YOU
fear the
discomforts that might result, and you may
fear the people who are there. In many cases
even though these fears are overcome to some
extent, a lack of confidence in their own
fortitude and ability has broken people who
could otherwise have faired better.
Boredom Is one of the toughest enemies of survival.
Boredom is accompanied by lack of interest
and feelings of strain, anxiety or
depression, particularly when no relief is
in sight and you are frustrated. Relief of
boredom must be based on correction of the
two basic sources: repetitiveness and
uniformity. The ungratifying nature of a
task can be counteracted by clarifying its
meaning, objectives, and in some cases, its
relation to the total plan.
Loneliness The feelings of loneliness, helplessness,
and despair which are experienced by
survivors when they are isolated and have to
contend with threatening and trying
conditions, are among the most severe
survival stresses. However, these, like the
other stresses already discussed, can be
conquered. Isolation is not an all-or-one
sitcvation. The countermeasure for conquering
loneliness is to compensate for the changed
situation, to be active, and to plan and
think purposefully. Development of self
sufficiency is the primary protection since
all countermeasures in survival require that
you first be able to control yourself. No
one is born self sufficient; self
sufficiency is learned during the process of
daily living. Doing things by yourself,
being comfortable while alone, and being
able to accept new surroundings and new
problems are learned by experience.
l-4
I
i Group Poor organisation leads to anxiety,
frustration and mistrust. It can also lead
to
group
disharmony and infighting
culminating in
group
goals not being
fulfilled. Areas in group situations that
can cause friction:
1. Food Issues
2. Water Issues
3. Use of Essential Items
4. Shared Shelter
5. Religious Beliefs
6. Political Beliefs
7. Sex
8. Leadership
9. Hygiene
-
109. Most important in the requirements for survival is the
ability to accent the realitv of the situation and act
appropriately. Self confidence is important in controlling fear
and panic. Survival knowledge will serve to minimise fear, assist
in developing a positive mental attitude and therefore prevent
panic. Faith in the organisation will aid the survivor to combat
loneliness borne from isolation.
Conclusion
110. A wsitive mental attitude is the kev factor in
survival. Knowledge of the basic skills, selection of priorities
and an understanding of the effect that "survival stresses" will
have on a positive mental attitude is critical.
l-5
ANNEX A TO
_CHAPTER 1 TQ
:TJRVIVAL INSTRUCTOR
TRAINING NOTES _
RECOMMENDED READING LIST
Publications & Books
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
MLW Pt 3 Vol 2 Pam 7, SURVIVAL
MLW Pt 2 Vol 3 Pam 1, Basic Field Engineering
INFANTRY SECTION LEADING 1970
MLW Pt 2 Vol 2 Pam 2, Infantry Commanders Aide Memoire
1987
ASTRONOMY WITHOUT A TELESCOPE, Moore R.
WILD FOOD IN AUSTRALIA, Cribb A.B. C J.W., Collins,
Sydney, 1988
USEFUL WILD PLANTS IN AUSTRALIA, Crib A.B. 61 J.W.,
Collins, Sydney, 1981
WILD MEDICINE IN AUSTRALIA, Cribb A.B. & J.W.,
Collins, Sydney, 1981
STAY ALIVE, Dunlevy M., Aust. Govt. Publishing
Service, Canberra, 1978
A FIELD GUIDE TO TRACKS C TRACES OF AUSTRALIAN
ANIMALS, Rigby, Adelaide, 1981
SAS SURVIVAL HANDBOOK, Wiseman J., Collins Hairble,
London, 1987
BUSHCRAFT 1 (AUSTRALIAN TRADITION BUSHCRAFTS), Edwards
R ., The Rams Skull Press, Kuranda, 1988
BUSHCRAFT 2 (AS ABOVE)
BUSHCRAFT 3 (AS AB<VE)
SURVIVAL WATER IN AUSTRALIA'S ARID LAND,
Kavanagh
B.L., Australian National University, Canberra
DANGEROUS ANIMALS OF AUSTRALIA, Readers Digest
AUSTRALIAN BUSHCRAFT, Childs and Associates, Richard
Graves
BUSH FOOD, Isaacs J.
THE TEN BUSHCRAFT BOOKS, Graves R., Hodgbin & Pool,
Sydney (Out of Print)
l-6
20. THE BUSHMAN'S HANDBOOK, Lindsay H.A., Xelaide, 1976
21. BUSH TUCKER, Low T., Angus & Robertson
22.
L/
23.
24.
25. SURVIVAL, Lannoy L. & Nicholls P.C.
26. NATURE BE YOUR GUIDE, Harold Gattty, Collins Press,
(Out of Print)
27.
28.
29.
L
SURVIVAL, Time Life
TRAINING GUIDE 1, Combat Survival Training School,
RAAF Publications, Sept 1987
PLANTS OF THE KIMBERLEY REGION W.A., Petheram R.J. h
Kok B.
KNIVES, SKINNING, AND TANNING, Leidreiter A.
TOP END NATIVE PLANTS, John Brook, 1988
LAY COURSE IN TROPICAL MEDICINE, School of Public
Health and Tropical Medicine, University of Sydney,
Service Publication No. 14, William B. Nennessy
l-7
CHAPTER TWO
SHELTER.
A SURUIUAL PRIORITY
CHAPTER2
SHELTER A SURVIVAL PRIORITY
L
Introduction
231. Shelter is a high priority if the ildividual/group
is to survive. This precis is to not only provide the student
with an understanding of why shelter is held in high priority
but also to introduce them to a variety of shelters and
material requirements.
Influence of Climate
202. a. Climate will have a major bearing on the
type of shelter built in areas of extreme
temperature ranges. The problem becomes
acute in arctic or desert conditions.
Here the problems of exposure and lack of
building materials would appear almost
insurmountable - this is not so - people
have survived in both regions.
b. In tropical or temperate climates the
problems of shelters are not so acute,
however many areas in these climates
experience such things as floods, drought,
cyclone and other extremes which will
effect the type of shelter constructed.
Whv Build Shelters?
203. The answer to this question is simple - for
protection, a shelter will give
YOU
immediate physical
protection from rain, sun, wind and insects. It provides the
survivor with a chance for instant activity, mental and
physical, by preventing him from feeling sorry for himself.
Once built it is a boost to his morale by providing him with a
haven in an otherwise hostile environment. Finally it will
provide him with a sense of achievement, of having done
something positive to imb-ove his situation. It is this
positive attitude that is so
very
vital in him, and if
maintained, will ultimately ensure his survival.
Selection of Campsites
204. Whether static or moving, careful attention should
be given to the selection of campsites. The aim is to make
yourself as comfortable as your situation will allow. Try to
select a campsite that has the following:
a. Concealment (if evading);
b. At least two escape routes;
2-l
C.
d.
e.
f.
g-
h.
Be near an area that is suitable for
signalling and/or rescue;
Protection from natural hazards such as
floods, rock falls, tree falls, wind etc;
Near a source of drinking b. ter and food;
Materials for making shelters, beds etc;
Some freedom from insects, leeches, ants,
mosquitoes; and
Sited to allow drainage for water run off
and hygiene.
Materials
205. Materials both natural and artificial are an
important factor as to the type of shelter the survivor may
construct. Consider the following:
1
a. Caves and rock crevices;
b. Hollow trees;
C. Leaves, branches and bark;
d. Hollow logs;
e. Grass;
f. Clothing;
g-
Ground sheet;
h. Parachutes;
.
1. Wrecked vehicles or aircraft; and
turfs or earth/grass.
Caution. When selecting caves or rock crevices as
shelter
from electrical storms, consideration must be given to the
'Spark Plug' effect. This is created by the dissipation of
electrical energy as ground current.
take the line of least resistance
Electrical energy will
through fault lines and
crevices.
(See FIG 2-11
2-2
FIG 2-l
: NOTE For maximum safety the clearance from the roof of a
cave to the shelter's head should be 3 metres (minimum). (See
FIG 2-11
Desian
206. When you are planning your shelter you will make an
appraisal of the weather conditions, materials available and
the urgency of your shelter requirements. Your immediate aim
will be to get out of the asather t0 reduce the risk of
exposure, in this instance a hollow tree, a rock crevice or a
fallen
log
might be sufficient. Examples of
shelters and construction suggestions are on page 13.
emergency
207. If you are planning a more permanent shelter, here
.L are three basic designs with diagrams following:
a. Lean-to Suitable for fine warm
weather, normally constructed in one to
three hours, suitable for one or two men.
b. Enclosed Pvramid Cold inclement
conditions will house eight to sixteen
men, time to build 20 man hours.
C. Lona Hut If open, it is suitable for
mild conditions; if closed it is suitable
for cold conditions; will house 5 - 12
men. Time to build 40 man hours.
2-3
.
Construction
208. After deciding on the type of structure to be built, -
an axe, knife, hatchet or other cutting instrument is
essential. If there are several in the party, organise the
labour so that hands are not idle - have one or two cutting
poles, another carrying them to the site, others gathering
thatching material. Collect all material for the structure
before you start to build, stack it in neat piles where it
will be most convenient, your main structure poles in one
pile, battens in another and your thatching material neatly
stacked in several piles close to your work. When you are
ready to start building, have every man on the site. Organise
labour for the erection of the main house frame work, then
break your team up into small gangs, for lashing on battens
and completing details of the frame work. By this means you
will save hours of labour and succeed in building a better
hut.
Thatching
.i\
209. Materials suitable for thatching range from long
grass, reeds, ferns, palm fronds and pliant leafy branches.
a. Lona Grass/Reeds Are excellent when used
green or dry. It is advisable to cut and
store them first so that they season
before being used on a roof. If the
material is green and exposed to hot sun
it will tend to shrink and curl, so
reducing the coverage value for thatching.
Also, if it is stitched when green, as the
thatching dries and shrinks stitches will
become loose and the thatching will be
blown away in the first strong breeze.
b.
C.
d.
Bracken/Ferns With most bracken and
ferns it is advisable to thatch them
whilst green, and sew them down lightly
but firmly. .--b.
Branches If branches of trees or shrubs
are to be used, seek out a dead branch
with some leaves still on it. Shake the
branch. If the leaves fall off the
material is almost useless and will only
serve for a day or so. If the leaves
withstand this shaking, the plant will
probably serve your purpose fairly
effectively. Some trees and shrubs drop
their leaves within a few hours of being
cut, so they are useless.
Palms Palm leaves are best used for
thatching when they are dead. Crest
quantities can be found lying under the
tree and are excellent material.
2-4
'I'he best time to collect them is early in
the morning when they are soc+ened by dew
or after a rainfall; if collected in the
middle of the day they are brittle and are
easily broken. It is always advisable to
wet them down before you start sewing them
onto battens, this dampening down softens
the leaves and makes them lay flat thus
ensuring better coverage.
Princiole of Watershed
210. Thatching for protection against rain will only be
effective if certain principles are followed. It is
interesting to watch the behaviour of drops of water on
thatch. The drops run down the strands, until they come to
the very end of the blade of grass or thatching material.
There, the droplets gather size and, when it is big enough,
and heavy enough, it falls off and on to the blade immediately
beneath. If the stitching interrupts the smooth continued
course of the water droplets, then the water will follow the
stitching because it is at a steeper angle. Thatch will not
leak if stitching is properly covered. It is the "quality" of
coverage rather than thickness which makes a thatch waterproof
(SEE FIG 2-2'1.
FIG 2-2
b
Methods
211. There are almost as many methods of thatching as
there are materials, each method having its own advantages for
each material. Here are the four basic methods:
a. Sewn Thatch
Lay
the thatching
material with the butts to the ridge.
Secure one end of the twine to the batten,
thread the other end through the needle
and pass the needle through the thatch at
the angle shown, then push the thatch over
against the last stitch.
(SEE FIG 2-31.
2-5
FIG 2-3
b. Stick Thatch This method is ideal
when long lengths of twine are not
available. The thatch is held in place by
sticks tied to the battens with short
pieces of twine jSEE FIG 2-41.
FIG 2-4
C. Stalk Thatch The stalks are simply
woven between the battens. It is quite
efficient if the palms are well bunched
and have a good overlap to give a
watershed effect (SEE FIG 2-51.
FIG 2-5
2-6
.
-
d. Tuft Thatch This method is
excellent if the materill is long and
pliable i.e. reeds and grasses. The
material is gathered into sheaves about an
inch thick. The butt end is bent over the
batten, a few strands are then twisted
around the sheaf and the end is tucked
irrto the sheaf to hold it secure, then the
sheaf is slipped along the batten next to
the preceding one (SEE FIG 2-61.
FIG 2-6
- -
-
-e-s _ _-
Conclusion
212. The construction of shelter for occasional or
continuous use exclusively from local materials is not
difficult. In place of nails, lashings of vines, bark or other
fibrous material can be used. Keywords are quality and
ingenuity. Do a good job initially so the shelter will
provide the protection necessary and precious time lost making
repairs will be better used gathering food.
2-7
L
EMERGENCY SHELTERS
Hastv Shelters
.-
213. If no materials are available for constructing a
shelter make use of
any
cover and protection that is
available: cliff overhangs, gradients and so forth, which will
help shield
YOU
from wind or rain. Incc;porate natural
windbreaks in quickly constructed shelters. In completely
open plains, sit with your back to the wind and pile any
equipment behind you as a windbreak.
Bouqh Shelters
214. Make use of branches that sweep down to the ground
or boughs that have partly broken from the tree to give basic
protection from the wind - but make sure that they are not
broken so that they do not come down on your head! Weave in
other twigs to make the cover more dense. Conifers are more
suited to this technique than broad-leaved trees, as they
require less weaving-in to keep out rain [SEE FIG 2-71. -,
FIG 2-7
7
215. Make a similar shelter by lashing a broken-off bough
to the base of another branch where it forms a fork from the
trunk jSEE FIG 2-81.
FIG 2-8
2-8
Root Shelter
216. The spreading roots and trapped earth at the base of
a fallen tree make a good wind and storm barrier,
if they are
L
at the right angle to the wind. Filling in the sides between
the extended roots will usually make
the shelter much more
effective, and provide a good support for building a more
elaborate shelter from other materials.
Use a Natural Hollow
217. Even a shallow depression in the ground will provide
some protection from wind and can reduce the effort in
constructing a shelter. However, take measures to deflect the
down hill flow of water around it, especially if it is a
hollow on a slope, or you could find yourself lying in a pool
of water.
218. Make a roof to keep the rain off and the warmth in.
A few strong branches placed across the hollow can support a
light log laid over them, against which shorter boughs and
sticks can be stacked to give pitch to the roof and so allow
'u water to run off. Consolidate with turf or with twigs and
leaves _ISEE FIG 2-g)-.
FIG 2-9
Fallen Trunks
219. A log or fallen tree trunk makes a useful windbreak
on its own, if it is at the right angle to the wind. With a
small trunk, scoop out a hollow in the ground on the leeward
side.
220. A log also makes an excellent support for a lean-to
roof of boughs _(SEE FIG 2-101.
2-9
i/
FIG 2-14
Drainaue and Ventilation
221. A run-off channel gouged from the earth around any
shelter in which you are below, or lying directly on, ground
level will help to keep the shelter dry. Hasty shelters will
usually have many spaces where air can enter. Do not try to
seal them all, ventilation is essential.
Saolina Shelter
222. If suitable sapling growth is available, select two
lines of saplings, clear the ground between them of any
obstructions and lash their tops together to form a support
frame for sheeting. Weight down the bottom edges of the
sheeting with rocks or timber (SEE FIG 2-111.
FIG 2-11
2-10
223. If you lack
closer together,
sheeting, choose or place saplings
weave branches between them a;;d consolidate
with ferns and turf. You can make a similar shelter from
pliable branches driven into the ground.
Ooen Lean-to Shelter
224. If there is nothing solid to lean a roof against and
you are not trying to keep out heavy rain or a blizzard, use
panels of wattle or frames covered in grass for protection.
225. Erect a horizontal cross-piece between trees or on
simple supports. On the windward side lean a panel of wattle,
or tie or lean saplings
Add
side walls as necessary.
at 45 degrees to make a roof.
Site your fire on the leeward. Add
side pieces and - this is the trick - build a reflector on the
other side of the fire to make sure that you get the full
benefit of the warmth (SEE FIG 2-12L.
FIG 2-12
226. Best known from it: North American forms, the tepee
occurs in many cultures. The quickest type to erect has three
or more angled support poles, ,ied where they cross to make a
cone. They can be tied on the ground and lifted into place
before covering with hides, birch bark panels or sheeting.
Leave an opening. at the top for ventilation _ISEE FIG 2-131.
FIG 2-13
2-11
227. Wider angles will give qreater arei, but shed rain
less easily.
Parachute Tepee
228. A parachute, suspended by its centre makes an
instant tepee. Peg out the bottom edge (SEE FIG 2-141.
FIG 2-14
229. Parachute material can be used to cover a tepee, but
even simpler is to suspend one from a tree. Give the sides a
steep angle and even when the fabric is not impervious, the
rain will run off. Fold a segment of the chute double for a
door flap, slit along a seam and make a tie fastening to close
it.
Bamboo
230. This large-stemmed plant,
actually a grass, is a
very versatile building material and can be used for pole
supports, flooring, roofing and walls.
.,-
231. The giant form of bamboo - which can be over 30m
(lOOft) high and 30cm (:ft, in diameter - is an Asian plant,
found in damp places from;, India through to China both in the
lowlands and on mountain s,opes, but there are types native to
Africa, Australia and southern United States.
WARNING
232. Take great care when collecting bamboo. It grows in
clumps which are often a tangled mass. Some stems are under
tension and when cut fly forcefully and dangerously apart,
exploding into sharp slivers.
2-12
FIG 2-15
233.
injury.
Split bamboo can be razor sharp and cause serious
The husks at the base of bamboo stems carry small
stinging hairs which cause severe skin irritations.
234. Split bamboo vertically to make
guttering to collect rainwater.
roofing and
(SEE FIG 2-15) The split
seams, laid alternately to interlock with one inother, form
efficient and waterproof tiles.
FIG 2-16
235. Flatten split bamboo for smooth walls, -floors or
shelving by cutting vertically through the joints every 1.25
cm (l/2") or so around the circumference. It can then be
smoothed out JSEE FIG 2-171.
FIG 2-17
236. The paper-like sheaths formed at the nodes can also
be used as roofing material.
2-13
b
TroDical Shelters
237. In rain forests and tropical jungle the ground is
damp and likely to be crawling with insect life, leeches and -
other undesirables. Instead of bedding down on the ground you
will be better in a raised bed. Consequently you may want to
make higher shelters.
238. Unless you are at an altitude high enough to make
the nights cold, you will be less concerned with protection
from the wind than with keeping reasonably dry. A thatching
of palm, banana and other large leaves makes the best roofs
and walls.
239. Also known as 'Wait-a-while vine' atap is especially
useful despite the barbs at each leaf tip which make careful
handling necessary. Look for any plant with a similar
structure as the bigger the better. Also, The broader the
individual leaflets, the better _(SEE FIG 2-181.
9
FIG 2-18
240.
into two
Atap is best used horizontally, splitting each leaf
from the tip and then tearing it into two clean
halves down its length.
241. Closely layer halves of atap on your roof frame, you
.-
can let it be a little less dense on walls.
Woven atap can be
particularly effective for the sides of a shelter (SEE FIG 2-
191.
FIG 2-19
2-14
Another method:
242. Do not split down the leaf but fold the leaflets on
one side across to the other and interweave them.
You will
probably find this easiest
if you work first from one side
L
then the other - but it does take practice.
stick Walls and Screens
243. It is easy to build walls by piling sticks between
uprights driven into the ground and (if possible) tied at the
top. Caulk them well to keep out wind and rain.
These are
ideal for making one ,side of a shelter,
for blocking a
shelter's opening or for a heat reflector behind a fire (SEE
FIG 2-201.
FIG 2-20
244. To make a very sturdy stick wall, increase the space
between the uprights,
build it,
use two stacks of sticks and,
fill the space between with earth.
as you
Coverinas
245. Make wattle and woven coverings for roofs or walls
from springy saplings, plant stems,
grasses and long leaves
(either whole or, if large enough, shredded for tighter
weaving). First make a framework from less pliable materials,
either in situ or as a separate panel to attach later.
Tie
the main struts in position. Weave
materials (SEE FIG 2-211.
in the more pliant
FIG 2-21
2-15
246.
If no ties are available drive vertical stakes into
the ground and weave saplings between them. Caulk with earth
and grasses. If suitable firm cross pieces are too few, weave
__
creepers between the uprights. Very large leaves, lashed or
weighted down, or hooked over lines of creeper, can be
overlapped like tiles or shingles to keep out rain.
Thatchinq
247. Some suggested methods of thatching:
a. Three lobed leaves or leaves cut in this
fashion can be locked over a thatching
frame without
any
other fixing being
necessary to hold them in place (SEE FIG
2-221.
FIG 2-22
b. Elephant grass and other large leaves can
be woven between the cross pieces. Only a
small number are needed to produce a
shelter quickly. (SEE FIG 2-231.
FIG 2-23
2-16
C. Long broad leaves can be sewn along the
thatching batten with vines.
d. Palms and other long-stemmed leaves can be
secured by carrying the stem around the
batten and over the front of the leaf.
These are then held in place by the next
leaf. Leaves must overlap th3se below by
at least 2/3 of their length.
248. More permanent structures are shown below:
FIG 2-24
Enclosed
Pvramid
FIG 2-25
L Lona Hut
CHAPTER THREE
DAY NAVIGATION,
TIME AND DIRECTION
CHAPTER3
DAY NAVIGATION
~T1M.R AND DIRECTIONS
Introduction
300. Although a compass is the accepted method of
obtaining direction, it is not always reliable, such as in
areas where deposits of iron affect its needle. Then of
course in a survival situation you may not have a compass.
Likewise your watch which is the accepted means of measuring
time, maybe out of action or you just may not have one in a
survival predicament. In this chapter there are various means
explaining methods of obtaining direction without a compass
and time without a watch.
Sun Movement
301. As you know, the sun crosses the imaginary North -
South line (Meridian) every day moving from East to West when
it reaches its highest point (zenith) above the horizon.For
all practical purposes there are twenty-four hours between
each sun crossing of your North - South line
revolving 360 degrees;
(meridian)
therefore it will move 15 degrees for
each hour or\ 1 degree in 4 minutes.
Eouation of Time - and Corrections to Standard Time
302. Each day every longitude of the earth passes under
the sun, but because of the slight variation in the earth's
path,
the exact moment when the sun passes over the meridian
of longitude is not precisely at twelve o'clock every day.
The difference may be as much as sixteen minutes before twelve
o'clock on your clock time or fourteen minutes after twelve.
303. This passage of the sun over the
north-south line is called
imaginary
'meridian transit'. It differs
from clock time throughout the year,
April, 15 June, 30 August,
except on four days (16
25 'ecember).
304. For convenience, the time of meridian transit is
averaged out over the year,
time.
and the average is called 'mean'
305. The sun's passage of the meridian is called 'solar'
(sun) time. The correction of time between "mean" and "solar"
is called the 'equation of time'.
3-l
TABLE 3-l
----a-- --__-__-__---__--_--___
___-__--__---__-_-__-----
-------0a----------
TIME OF MERIDIAN TRANSIT
____-_-_________-__-----
------------
Jan 1
12.03
6 12.06
11
12.08
16 12.10
21 12.11
26 12.13
31 12.14
May 1 11.57
6 11.57
Sep 3 11.59
8
11
1 I. . 5 8
11.56 13
16
1i.56
11.56 18
21
11.54
11.56 23
26
11.53
11.57
28 11.51
Feb 5
10
2';
25
12.14
12.14
12.14
12.14
12.13
Jun 5 11.58
10 11.59
15 12.00
20 12.01
25 12.02
30 12.03
Mar 2 12.12 Jul 5
7 12.11
12.04
10
12 12.10
12.05
15
17 12.09
12.06
20
22 12.07
12.06
25
27 12.06
12.06
30 12.06
Apr 1 12.04
6 12.03
Aug 4 12.06
9
11
12.05
12.01 14
16 12.00
12.05
19
21
12.04
11.59 24
26
12.02
11.58 29 12.01
Ott 3
8
13
2'3"
28
11.49
11.48
11.46
11.45
11.44
11.44
Nov 2
12
:2'
27
11.44
11.44
11.45
11.46
11.48
Dee 2
7
12
2127
27
31
11.49
11.51
11.54
11.56
11.58
12.01
12.03
- - - - - - - - - - w- - e
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - w- - - - - - - - - - w- - - - - - - - - -
306. The table above on meridian transit can be shown
the form of the figure 8 for your easy memorising.
-.
in
307.
shown,
A figure 8 drawn on the ground to the proportions
and with the
transit
four dates
coincides with
remembered when meridian
mean
accurate corrections.
time, will * reasonably
(Refer Meridian Transityzgram).
Note: The four dates when there is no correction are 16
April, 15 June, 30 August and 25 December.
3-2
FIG 3-1 Meridian Transit Diauram
308. Draw the top circle of the figure 8 just less than
one- third the size of the bottom circle.
Draw a straight
line through the centre of both circles equally dividing the
figure 8. Draw a straight line through the centre of the
bottom circle,perpendicular to the centre line. Mark this
line into six equal divisions, 3 divisions on each side of the
centre line. Each division represents 5 minutes of time. The
centre line becomes the 0 minute mark, the first division on
either side of the centre line is the 5 minute mark, the
second division on either side of the centre line is the 10
minute mark, and the intersection with the circle is the 15
minute mark.
309. Mark in the months as shown, remembering that 16
April, 15 June, 30 August, and 25 December will fall on the
centre line as there is no correction on these dates.
310. Label the right side of the figure 8 'behind',
c.
indicating that in those months sun time is behind clock time.
Therefore minutes must be added. Label the left side of the
figure 8 'ahead' indicating Lhat in those months sun time is
ahead of clock time. Therefore minutes must be subtracted.
311. The number of minutes is found by taking a straight
line from the date of the month on the outside circles towards
the minutes line. Keep this line parallel to the centre line.
The intersection point will give the number of minutes to be
added or subtracted to make sun time and clock time equal.
Eauation of Time "Graoh"
312. Another method for determining the equation of time
is by employing the Equation of Time Graph shown at Fig 3-2.
3-3
FIG 3-2
EQUATK3N OF TlME
313. maitude Corrections. The other correction which
you require to make to solar time is for longitude.
Time set
for clocks on various parts of the earth are called 'Standard
Time*. These are set to various longitudes. You must find
out at what longitude your standard time
is taken from then
find out your position of longitude,
whether it be East or
West of standard time longitude,
accordingly.
and aajust your Solar time
If you are West your Solar time will be later
than the standard time and you must add four minutes for each
degree you are West.
deduct.
Likewise if you are East you must
ie Western Australian Standard Time is based on
lcngitude 120" E of GMT, Perth's longitude is 116" E of GMT
(which is 4" West of WA Standard Time, therefore your
correction for Solar Time is plus
(Standard Time).
16 minutes to your watch
See table below for Australian Standard Time
Longitudes.
TABLE 3-2
------------------------------------ ~__----------------------
HRS ahead Longitude East Australian Areas of GMT
--------^----------------------------------------------------
8.00 120 degrees Western Australia
9.30 142 deg 30 min South Australia, Northern Territory
10.00 150 degrees Tasman.a, Victoria, NSW, Queensland
------------------------------------------------------------
Findina North With a Watch
314. A quick method of obtaining direction with a watch
in the Southern Hemisphere is to hold your watch horizontal
and point the 12 at the sun, midway between the 12 and the
hour hand is North. To assist with the 12 to Sun direction
place a pin or small stick vertical on the 12 so as to cast a
shadow over the centre of the watch ISEE FIG 3-31. For the
Northern Hemisphere the hour hand points to the sun and midway
between the hour hand and 12 is South. These methods are not
accurate, but only approximate.
3-4
,-.
FIG 3-3
NORTH HEMISPHERE
315. The orientation of the sun may be determined on an
overcast day by rotating a broad object eg: a knife blade and
identifying the direction of the shadow.
Note: Take into account that when you are located between
- the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn the use of the watch
method will be inaccurate (due to the sun being at 23" 30 min
South Lat on 21 Dee) + allow 3 weeks prior 31 Ott and 3 weeks
after 21 Dee before employing the watch method. The closer to
the equator you are during summer (in the southern hemisphere)
the more inaccurate is the watch method (Up to 28").
Findina North With a Watch (Southern Hemisnhere)
316. The accurate method, knowing the time, is to
calculate the number of degrees changed to minutes in time,
before or after noon, and then to measure from the sun's
position along the elliptic (curved) path of the sun through
the sky to the meridian, remembering 1 degree equals 4
minutes. To judye degrees on the sky use approximation of
angles in degrees by employing hand angles at arm's length,
as shown in Fig 3-4.
FIG 3-4
3-5
317. Example: It i= 1416 by your watch, therefore the
sun is to the West of the North-South line (Meridian).
following applies _ISEE FIG 3-51:
The -
a. 1416H equals 136 minutes West of the Meridian;
b. 136 minutes equals 34 degrees alon< t.he Sun's
path past noon;
C. measure 34 degrees
using
back along the Sun's path
the method as previously described and
you will have true North. (For the Northern
Hemisphere read South for North and reverse
all other cardinal points).
FIG 3-5
318. Even if
YOU
make no allowance for the two
corrections of time and Longitude you will be accurate within
five to eight degrees and if you make the two corrections you
will be accurate to less than one degree.
Findina North bv Usina the Time and Sun
Findina North bv the Sun
319. Shadow Stick:
a. Place a stick (approx 1 metre) vertical in the
ground, mark the tip of the shadow on the
ground with a peg or stone. 10 minutes later
mark the shadow tip again. The two marks
indicate East/West line. This method is
accurate on the 21st March, and the 21st
September when the Sun is over the Equator and
three weeks either side of these dates.
This
is when the Sun is at right angles to the axis
of the earth (See FIG 3-6).
3-6
1
FIG 3-6
Finding E/W With a Shadow Stick !Onlv 100% accurate
on 21 Mar 6 Sent1
---
E
b. At all other periods when you want greater
accuracy, place the stick in the ground, and by
using the shadow as the radius, draw a circle
and mark the tip of the shadow. Continue
marking the tip of the shadow every 10 minutes.
Now continue the curve until it cuts the circle
on the opposite side,draw a
straight line
between both points where the curve cuts
the
circle and this will be your
East/West line
iSEE FIG 3-7.
FIG 3-7 Findina E/W with a Shadow Stick
3-7
320. Sun Comoass /Part 1). If constructed correctly the
sun compass is very accurate in the following ways:
C--l
a. if you have the correct time you are able to
find true North accurately, and
b. if you know where true Nort;, is (ie by the
shadow stick method) you can tell the correct
time. eg. the Sun Clock.
321. First you must understand a
earth's position
few points about the
before
North or South of the Equator during the
3-r t
constructing a sun
follows:
compass, and they are as
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
FIG 3-8
The degree, or slope of the inclined path of
the earth is approximately 23.5 degrees;
On the 21st Jun the Sun is furthest North and
23.5 degrees from the Equator.This forms the
Tropic of Cancer;
/I
On the 21st Sep the Sun crosses the Equator 0
degrees;
On the 21st Dee the Sun is the furthest South
and 23.5 degrees from the Equator. This forms
the Tropic of Capricorn.
On the 21st Mar the Sun crosses the Equator
again (SEE FIG 3-8).
q!RECllON OF ROTATION
---
3-8
322.
From this information you can now construct a Circle
of 'Declination' (deviation) (SEE-:
/---
a. With a radius divided into 23.5 equal
sections draw a circle on the ground or on
paper,
any size;
b. Divide the circle into four quarters with
lines crossing the centre of the circle
(N/S and E/W lines).
The N/S line is
marked into 23.5 sections North and South
as shown on Fiu 3-9;
C. Divide each quarter
of the circumference
into three equal divisions, then these
divisions into four more equal
divisions.These represent the average four
weeks per month. Mark in the months as
shown including the 21st of Jun, Sep, Dee,
Mar (NESW points respectively).
FIG 3-9 Circle of Declination (to find the correct Latitude
of the Sun throughout the year)
6
323. You can find the position of the sun's latitude on
any day of the year by finding the date on the circle and draw
a parallel line to the Equator (E-W line), so as to cut the
N-S line indicating the degree of latitude North or South.
i.e. on the 30 Aug the sun will be over latitude 9 degree
North approx.
3-9
324. Sun Comoass (part 2). This part of the Sun Compass
can be constructed on the ground, on a card or even on a map.
If worked out on the ground it is important the area be clean, -
level and open to sunshine throughout the day. Construction
is as follows:
a.
b.
C.
d.
FIG 3-10
e.
f.
First draw a circle, (1.5 to 2 latres on the
ground);
Work out carefully and accurately the true
North line;
Draw in the N/S and E/W lines;
Divide the outer circumference of the circle
into twenty-four equal divisions. Each division
will be exactly 15 degrees. These divisions
can be either marked off, if on a card, with a
protractor or on the ground by using a cord for
the radius of the circle -E FIG 3-10);
Starting frcm North or
any
other cardinal
point, mark the distance of the radius onto the
circle both left and right.
Continue to divide the circle by moving from
your start point to every other cardinal point,
marking left and right.
the circumference of the circle should now be
marked at twelve equal divisions. As shown at
Fia 3-10.
3-10
I--
h.
.
1.
k.
1.
m.
n.
0.
Starting again from north or any other cardinal
point divide one of the twelve equal divisions
in half.
BY
employing the radius of the circle to
intersect the arc from one division to the next
on the outside of the circle.
From the centre of the circle to the arc
intersection, extend a straight line, mark
where it cuts the circumference of the circle.
Divide the other 11 divisions using the same
method, until the circumference of the circle
is divided into 24 equal divisions.
Lightly connect these divisions with faint
lines parallel to the N/S line;
At this stage you need to know your approximate
latitude (ie from a map and within an error of
5 degrees);
Mark off your latitude North or South on the
outer circle (the E/W line being 0 degrees).
Draw a faint line across the circle parallel
with the E/W line so that you cross the N/S
line. Mark the point on the N/S line;
You now have to draw an ellipse which will
touch this mark and also touch the E/W line
where it intersects the circle.
325. Do this with two pins (or pegs on the ground) placed
on the E/W line directly above or below where your latitude
touches the circle and some string tied to each pin/peg
embracing the marked latitude on the N/S line.
By moving a
pencil (stick for on the ground) inside the string left and
right to the East and West points you will have a perfect
ellipse (SEE FIG 3-11).
FIG 3-11
w
a. Mark in the hours where the ellipse crosses each
faint line division with 120OH on the N/S line
across to 06OOH at the West point and 18OOH at the
East point. The half and quarter hour intervals can
T--\~
be estimated.
b. Finally put in a declination circle (see Sun
Compass Part 1 (para 312) Fit 3-9 to find out
where the shadow stick should be placed for any
day of the year. Remember the radius of the
declination circle of 23.5 degrees must
coincide with the degrees on your Sun Compass
circle iSEE FIG 3-121.
FIG 3-12
3-12
Calculatina Latitude
326. To be able to calculate your latitude you need to:
/--
a. Identify which hemisphere you are in;
b. Know the sun's angle of declination (Circle of
Declination);
C. Know when zenith occurs; and
d. Be able to measure angles.
327. The way latitude is calculated depends on whether
the sun is in the same or opposite hemisphere to the one you
are in. This can be determined by the circle of declination.
Once this is known either of the following equations is used:
a. Sun is in the opposite hemisphere: Latitude
equals the angle of the sun at zenith minus the
angle of declination
(Lat = < sun @ Z - < declination)
b. Sun is in the same hemisphere: Latitude equals
the angle of the sun of zenith plus the angle
of declination
(Lat = < sun @ Z + < declination)
Determination of Latitude
328. At local solar noon, when the sun is crossing the
observer's meridian (Meridian Passage (Mer Pass)), it will
appear to hover in the sky for some minutes, between ascending
and descending. If its altitude can be measured at this time
(using theodolite, sextant, protractor and plumb line),the
latitude can be calculated when the declination (DEC) of the
sun is known (from the Nautical Almanac) or circle of
declination.
For example, in the southern hemisphere:
Latitude = 90" - il.titude (- Nth DEC or + Sth DEC)
Therefore if the altitude = 33"and DEC is 15"N
Latitude = 90 - 33 - 15 = 42%.
Declination = Altitude at zenith - Co latitude
Co-Latitude = 90" - latitude for Nth Hemisphere
Altitude is the angle of the sun above the horizon.
3-13
329. When between the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer the
suns position can move past your own causing major
inaccuracies if the equation for the same hemisphere is used.
If in the southern hemisphere you are north of the Tropic of
A
Capricorn and the sun's position is south of yours, then the
equation for the opposite hemisphere should be used or angles
of declination should be treated as negatives. The same rule
applies for the reverse situation in the nort:xn hemisphere
(ie. the sun is north of our position in the northern
tropics.)
330. Measuring angles of the Sun at zenith: The angle of
the sun is measured on the earths surface from the vertical as
shown in FIG 3-13.
FIG 3-13
331. The
follows:
a.
b.
C.
*
sun
(sunQZ=
'1
\
\
%p
Angle Meusured
EathsSufc~ce
technique for measuring this angle is as
Establish a shadow stick and mark the shadow
when the sun is at Zenith.
Connect a card from the top of theboman to the
point where the shadow is marked.
should be taunt and not sag.
The string
Using a protractor with a plumes line, measure
the angle of the card as shown in the diagram
JSEE FIG 3-m.
FIG 3-14
Earths Suface
3-14
d. Subtract this angle from 90" tc give the angle
of the sun at zenith.
Manmade Means of Direction
332. Maanetic Comoass. (Improvised) This can be made by
stroking the desired metal with a magnet on its side. A
quicker and better method is to coil a piece of insulated wire
around the desired piece of metal and attach the ends to the
terminals of a battery. The voltage to magnetise a needle
could be as little as 2 volts (SEE FIG 3-161.
FIG 3-16
MAGNEIISED
BY VOLTAGE .
333. The magnetised pointer can be suspended in water
(using cork, grass or paper) or it could be suspended by
cotton (Not accurate).
334. Blazinq. Remember mark both sides of trees at head
height and line two or more up to gain correct direction.
/? 335. Time and Distance. It is vital that not only the
direction but the distance travelled is known. The following
is a guide but with practice the individual will know of his
capabilities JSEE TABLE 3-3).
TABLE 3-3
Dist per Hr
--------------------------------------------------------------
a. Night Cloud No Moon Close Country 1000 m
b. Night Cloud No Moon Open Country 2000 m
C. Night Cloud Full Moon Close Country
2000 m
/--d. Day Mist/Night Clear Hill Country- 2500 m
--------------------------------------------------------
3-15
Natural Means of Direction
336. Animal/Bird Life:
a. By observing the habits of birds/animals over a
period of time
YOU
can obtain a general
direction for water. Also by watching
migratory paths of birds
YOU
can keep a
reasonable line of march; and;
b. The flat sided white ant hills located in some
parts of Northern Australia can be used to
maintain direction as the flat sides are facing
east and west.
337. Wind Direction.
BY
noting the direction of
prevailing wind a survivor can keep a good sense of direction.
The direction of the prevailing wind can be ascertained by:
(SEE FIG 3-17).
FIG 3-17
338. Plant Growth. The sun affects
especially in the latitude nearer the poles.
plant growth
If the rings on
a tree stump are examined the rings are closest on the sunny
side (in Australia - the North side). Moss is unreliable as a
guide and is thought to grow on the dampest side of a tree.
339. Rivers/Coastal. The best place to survive is on the
coast or along water. Also the bulk of the country's
population lives on the coast or near water (ie major rivers)
so a survivor who follows a water course to the coast has a
good chance of being rescued.
Dead Reckonina and KeeDina a Loq
340. When in a situation where a map is not available and
improved means of determining
essential to keep
direction are required it is
a record of one's position relative to a
fixed point, for instance whilst searching for water, help or
other survival resources.
3-16
341. Dead Reckoning (DR) is
the estimation of
one's
position using the direction and Distance travelled.
This
requires correction each time a known or fixed position Can be
confirmed using land marks or sun sights.
342. Accurate (DR) will enable a direct return path to a
start point or other required position to be determined
without needing to retract ones steps there by conserving
water, energy and time.
343. Direction or bearings are found using hand angles
and cardinal points if a compass is not available.
Distance
is recorded from the number of paces taken or from a
time/speed estimation for long distances.
344. Legs are then plotted to scale on paper or on the
ground using graphed paper, string or straight sticks marked
with equal divisions. The direction and distance to any point
on the journey can then be determined from the diagram known
as a log _ISEE FIG 3-181.
FIG 3-18
l!StLEG:O"KN?4O&ll
2nd LEG: 270 FOR 5CQrn
3rd LHS: 140 FOR 6OOm
RETURN TO sp: 86 FOR 87Sm SCALE: lcm = 1oOrn
345. Vector Sketches. To reduce the size of the log the
r-.
legs may be recorded as a vector diagram which can be expanded
to a scale log when required.
346. The distance and bearings are recorded free hand as
lines drawn from the centre of a common circle. The lines are
orientated to the distance taken but need not be drawn to
scale length. Distance and bearings are recorded for each leg
(SEE FIG 3-19).
FIG 3-19
3-17
347. The vector diaqram is resolved or expanded by
drawing each leg to scale in the same fashion as for the 10~:
method. Legs are not required to be drawn in order as the end
point will be the same for each combination.
-.
348. If the bearings have been accurately represented on
the diagram then the circle can be moved to the end of each
log and used as a protractor to save time.
349. All legs require to be recorded as straight lines
for accuracy. The temptation to follow tracks and water
courses without recording changes of direction must be
resisted.
350. Sketch maps of an area can quickly be compiled by
utilizing a number of logged journeys thereby enabling a ready
reference to the location of resources.
Conclusion
351. This precis has attempted to introduce a variety of
methods of determining direction. Particular note should be -
made of those methods which are accurate and those which are
only a guide.
3-18
. .
CHAPTER FOUR
.
NIGHT NAVIGATION
CHAPTRR4
NIGHT NAVIGATION
Introduction
400. The aids to night survival navigation are the stars,
moon and one planet, Venus. The latitude that the observer is
located in will affect the selection of stars in the field of
view. Most star charts and books are printed for the areas of
35 degrees South latitude so observers in Northern Australia
will see more of the northern and less of the southern skies
than in the diagrams printed in such publications. Observers
need to be aware of this to enable them to use the celestial
bodies to their advantage.
Stars
401. Most of the bright points of light in the night sky
are stars.
/--
Stars are great glowing balls of gas like the sun
but very much further away. A few like SIRIUS and CANOPUS are
extremely bright but many others are faint and difficult to
identify with the naked eye.
402. Over the eons star watchers have come to group the
stars, in various fixed positions, known as constellations.
As the night passes or seasons change, the constellations rise
and set, changing their position and orientation in the sky
but never their shape. These constellations were named long
ago
and apart from ORION (the Hunter) and SCORPIO (the
Scorpion) it is difficult to relate their name to their
appearance. Other constellations form the 12 signs of the
Zodiac (the way or procession of animals) and all signs except
LIBRA represent people or animals.
403. Unlike the stars, the Sun, Moon and Planets do not
stay in fixed positions in the sky. These celestial bodies
move against the background of the stars passing through the
signs of
- through
the zodiac one by one. The Sun appears to pass
the zodiac once a year spending approximately one
month in each constellatic\ of the zodiac.
404. This has given rise to the idea of ASTROLOGY,
defined as the art of judging the influence of stars and
planets on human affairs, (as opposed to ASTRONOMY, the
science of the heaven which is what this precis is about) of
having one of the zodiac signs represent each month.
405. Rising and Setting. The background of the stars is
truly fixed. As the earth is turning from west to east this
makes the stars and planets appear to rise in the east and set
in the west. At the same time the southern stars wheel
clockwise around a fixed point in the heavens known as the
south celestial pole.
4-l
406. At places such as Adelaide, 35 degrees south
latitude, the south celestial pole is 35 degrees above the
southern horizon.
(In
Tasmania it would be higher and in
Queensland lower) from 35 degrees south stars within 35
-\
degrees of the south celestial pole never set. For this
reason the Southern Cross, on a clear night, is always visible
in the southern part of Australia though in the Top End of
Australia at times all that will be seen of t.t.1 Southern Cross
will be the pointers (ALPHA and BETA CENTAURI) with the actual
Cross itself below the horizon.
407. The effect of the sun moving through the zodiac
(actually due to the annual journey of the Earth around the
Sun) is to make the stars appear to rise about approximately
four minutes earlier each evening. Four minutes a
day
corresponds to two hours a month and six hours in three
months. A star or constellation which is rising due east at
2100 hours on a particular day will have risen at 1500 hours
three months later. For the same reason the Southern Cross
will be high in the south eastern sky on early evenings in
May t
high in the south western sky early in the evening in
August, low in the south western horizon in November and
coming up low in the south east in February. The further
north the observer is located the correspondingly lower the
southern cross will appear.
Calculatina the oosition of the Southern Cross
408. It is possible to tell the time from the Southern
Cross. While there is no practical need for this, the
principle can be applied conversely to enable an observer to
find the Southern Cross at any given time. Imagine the South
Celestial Pole to be the centre of a 24-hour clock and the
Southern Cross to be the hour-hand. The Southern Cross will
tell the correct time on this 24-hour clock on 1st April. As
all stars gain four minutes (one degree) each day, by 1st May,
the Southern Cross will be two hours fast (30 degrees) and
will be vertical at 2200 hours. On 1st June, the Southern
Cross will be four hours fast and will be vertical at 2000
hours. On 1st June, the Southern Cross will be four hours
fast and will be vertical at 2000 hours and will be at four
o'clock at midnight fSEE FIG 4-11.
,--I
FIG 4-l
I
4-2
409. As the distance of the Southern Cross from the South
Celestial Pole is 30 degrees south of latitude 30 degrees
south, the Southern Cross is circumpolar and does not sink
below the horizon. In latitudes of less than 30 degrees
,-
south, the Southern Cross sets, and as one goes further north,
the Southern Cross remains below the horizon for greater
periods.
410. To determine whether the Southern Cross can be seen
from a latitude of 15 degrees north at 0300 hours on 15th
January, assuming there is a clear southern horizon, the
following steps are used in the calculation:
a. The Southern Cross tells correct time at 0300
hours on a 24-hour clock on 1st April.
Thereafter, it gains two hours each month. On
15th January, it will be running 19 hours fast.
b. Add 19 hours to 0300 hours. This puts the
Southern Cross at 2200 hours.
C. Therefore, the Cross can be seen because 2200
hours on a 24 hour clock is above the horizon.
Planets
411. From time to time you will see a bright point of
light in the sky, one which looks like a star but is not
marked on a star chart or fits any constellation. Unless this
is a supernova or comet, both very rare, it will be a planet
(the word planet means wanderer). Planets are much smaller
than stars and are much closer to the earth. They shine due
to light reflected from stars. The Sun has a family of nine
planets, and five of those, MERCURY, MARS, JUPITER, SATURN and
VENUS, can be seen at various times in the sky making their
way through the star groups of the zodiac. Venus is the most
suitable to use as an aid to navigation.
412. Venus. Venus is usually the brightest of the
planets and shines as a brilliant 'morning star' (in the east
Tc-. for up to three hours before dawn) or 'evening star' (in the
west for up to three hours Tfter sunset).
Moon
413. The moon is a captive satellite of the earth and
revolves around the earth once every 28 days. The moon rises
approximately 50 minutes later each day/night and always shows
the same side to the earth. The moon generally rises in the
east and sets in the west.
414. Throughout a month the moon passes through a series
of phases, new moon, first quarter, full moon, last quarter
and then to new moon again. Seven days elapse between each
phase equating to one week.
/--
4-3
415. The phases of the moon are an illusion as half of
the moons surface is illuminated by the sun at all times.
Due
to the moons monthly travels around the earth and the changing
relative positions between the Sun, Moon and Earth varying Y-Y
amounts of illuminated surface are seen.
416. As an aid to finding direction when the moon rises
before the sun sets the illuminated side of tht? moon is facing
to the west. Conversely if the sun has set before the moon
has risen then the illuminated side of the moon is facing
towards the east (SEE FIG 4-21.
FIG 4-2 Phases of the Moon
417. The moon rises and sets in each phase as shown in
the table below:
TABLE 4-l Moon Rise/Set
SERIAL PHASE RISE
1 New Moon Sunrise
2 First Quarter Mio +ay
3 Full Moon Sunset
4 Last Quarter Midnight
4-4
SET ILLUMINATED
SIDE FACING
Sunset -
Midnight West
Sunrise -
Midday East
Phases of the Moon as an Aid to Navication/Time~ellinq
Relationship of Sun and Moon as viewed in Southern Hemisphere
-
West East Waxing crescent
(developing) closely
follows sun.
Illurrinated side faces
sun (west). Moon
becomes more visible
as sun sets. Line
joining crescent tips
indicate N/S.
West
East First Quarter (waxing)
moon at zenith at
sunset Dark/illum-
inated boundary line
on moon indicates N/S
line illuminated side
& west.
West
East Full moon rises as sun
sets. Ascent of moon
is from East. Hand
angles can be utilised
to determine North and
East.
%
West
West
West
East Full moon reaches
zenith at midnight
(l/2 way between moon
set/moon rise).
Therefore zenith of
moon can be utilised
to determine North
and hand angles for
East and West as for
Sun.
Sun rises as full
moon sets. Therefore
descent of moon from
zenith indicates
West.
4-5
East
West
West
West
Last Quarter of moon
rises at midnight.
Zenith at sun rise
utilised for time and
-.
direction.Dark/illumin
-ated boundary
indicates North/South.
East
Last quarter of moon
reaches the zenith at
sunrise. Utilised to
determine north and
time.
zenith at midday.
Eg.rises at sunrise
and sets at sunset.
Can be utilised to
determine direction
and time during
daylight if not
obscured by sunlight.
After NATURE IS YOUR GUIDE - Harold Gatty, FONTANA
Note: Longitudinal
orbits
correction to watch time applies.
Moon
independently to the sun therefore
meridian transit does not apply.
correction for
Angle of Crescent will change
due to Latitude of observer and the declination of the sun.
Aae of Moon
418. The age of the moon may be calculated for any date
by the following calculation:
a. determine the age of the moon (in days from new
moon) on a given date eg: from tide tables.
b. add eleven days for each months difference
between known date and required date.
C. add one day for each month in addition to the
12 months.
d. add one day for each day elapsed in the month
to the date required.
e. reduce the sum by 30 each time 30 is exceeded.
4-6
Example:
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
g*
Add elapsed days to 16 May 92
h. Reduce by 30 if exceeds 30
Age of moon on Mar 30 1991 is 15 days (Full
Moon)
Required age of moon is 16 May 1992
Age of moon Mar 91
Add 11 days for 12 mths
30 Mar 91 - 30 Mar 92
15
11
--
Reduce by 30 if greater than 30 26
Add one day for additional months 1
(4x 92)
--
27
16
--
43
-30
--
13
419. Moon will be 13 days old and will therefore be two
days before full moon.
Calculatina Direction
420. Three methods as a minimum can be used to calculate
direction using the stars and moon:
a. observation of relative positions of stars to
be south or north celestial poles.
b. observation of the illuminated face of the moon
during first and last quarters.
C. observation oi apparent star movement.
421. The methods described in sub para a. and b. above
are dependent on the observers ability to identify individual
stars and constellations,
phase of the moon.
the amount of visibility and the
The method in sub para c. above requires
only the observation of any one star and a means to measure
any apparent movement.
4-7
422. These methods are described below:
Stars
a. v
b. S
(
'enus Though not a star, Venus can be used
to calculate east or west as
described in paragraph 412.
outhern Cross.
There are two methods used to
determined south:
1)
Extend the length of the axis of the cross
4.5 times,
along the line of the axis to
an imaginary point.
From this point drop
a vertical line to the horizon to find
south (SEE FIG 4-3).
FIG 4-3
(
; !) Extend a
line through the axis of the
cross towards the horizon until it meets a
line drawn at right angles to a line
bisecting the pointers. From this
imaginary point drop a vertical line onto
the horizon to find south (SEE FIG 4-4).
-
FIG 4-4
4-8
I---
FIG 4-5
(3) Orion. (Looking Sc;:h). The
constellation Orion indicates East or West
depending on its position in the sky. A
line through the two top (left hand)
stars, Betelguese and Bellatrix, dropped
vertically to the horizon, indicate East
as it rises and West as it sets (SEE FIG
4-51.
(4) Sirius and Canopus.
Extend the distance
from Sirius and Canopus again, along the
axis. From this point drop a vertical
line to the horizon to find south f SEE FIG
4-61.
FIG 4-6
4-9
(5) Caqcpus and Achernar. Canopus, Achernar
and the South Celestial Pole form an
equilateral triangle. A vertical line is _
dropped from the South Celestial Pole to
the horizon to find South (SEE FIG 4-71.
FIG 4-7
(6) Leo. The Constellation Leo indicates
North. A line is dropped from the
brightest star in Leo, Regulus, to the
right of the star below it onto the
horizon to find north (SEE FIG 4-81.
-
FIG 4-8
(7) Achernar and Pointer. Halfway between
Achernar and the Pointers a vertical line
is dropped to the horizon LO find south
(SEE FIG 4-9).
FIG 4-9
FIG 4-10
C. Star Movement. The direction of apparent
movement of a particular star
by using a sighting procedure
similar objects (SEE FIG 4-101.
can be observed
using sticks or
423. The direction that the star appears to move Will
indicate the direction you are facing as shown below:
(1) Apparently rising: facing East.
(2)
Apparently falling: facing West.
(3)
Looping flatly to right: facing South East.
(4)
Looping flatly to left:
facing North West.
Note : This method is also very inaccurate especially if
the star is close to the south celestial pole i.e. the bottom
star in the cross because as the cross rises it will appear to
pivot on this star, however as it sets, the top star of the
cross can rotate or move down and to the right, so you can get
the wrong impression of direction of star movement.
425. Unless you can identify the star group and have a
good working knowledge of its movement through the night sky -
then this method should be avoided.
-
4-12
-
-
CHAPTER FIVE
/--
.f4
/--
WATER CONSERUATION,
PROCUREMENT AND
STERILIZATION
/--
CHAPTERS
WATER CONSERVATION. PROCUEUWENT AND STERILISATION
Introduction
500. Water is the essential key to life. Failure to
appreciate your water requirements could prove fatal. The
average person can survive without food for 3 weeks, but only 3
days without water. Many people have died of thirst within reach
of water because they lack the knowledge of find water.
501. Survival depends on a person's ability to:
a. Retain as much existing body fluid as possible;
b. Protect himself from the sun (radiation); and
C. Find water to replace fluid lost.
502. When there is no drinking water available your expected
days of survival in an arid area are greatly reduced.
at Fig 5-1 shows two alternatives,
The graph
and doing no work and secondly,
one of remaining stationary
the other of walking at night and
resting during the day. _(SEE-PIG 5-l).
FIG 5-l
LBOEND:
Wdkinr at viaht
matil exhaonted thorn
reaLlng
No azercirr-----
Fluid Loss.
503. Normal body functions such as urinating, sweating,
breathing can cause the body to lose approximately 1.25 litres
per day. However the main loss is from perspiration. When water
is available the minimum required to sustain life, at various
temperature levels is shown at FIG 5-2.
5-l
FIG 5-2.
C No Water 1 L
Days Days
--_-_--_-_---_----- ----__
48" 2 2
43" 3
33" 5
32" 7 6
27" 9 10
21" 10
18" 10 11
10" 10
3
5.5
11
11
,---
2 L 5 L
Days Days
_------__--__--__
2 2.5
3.5 4
6 7
9 10.5
11 13
12 14
12 14
12 14.5
,---
12 24L
---Y
Days Days
----------- ------
3 4.5
5 7
9.5
15
19 29
20.5 32
21
21
13.5
23
32
32
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
. I
Water Conservation.
504. Where possible it is important to control the rate of
loss, "CONSERVE SWEAT, NOT THE WATER". Do not consume water for
the first 24 hours unless the loss of fluid is excessive.
This
is important as the kidneys may not be conserving fluid fully.
Doing so will ensure that water consumed later will be used more
econoniically. On subsequent days drink the full allowance.
505. Here are a few rules to help conserve water:
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
g-
h.
Avoid vomiting if possible.
Control of diarrhoea if possible.
506. Sea sickness will cause loss of fluids, rest and
inactivity if possible will counter this sickness.
Move at night and rest in shade during the day.
Avoid over exertion. This will help control the
rate of sweat loss.
Some form of head dress is important in arid
areas. This will minimise evaporation of sweat.
Clothing should be loose and free.
Avoid tal:;inmY too much/reduce smoking.
It is advisable to limit food intake when there
is insufficient supply of water. (To digest
food, it is brought into a solution, and this
requires water).
5-2
507. Water should be consumedwhenever a survivor is thirsty
-
and not between periods of exertion or at any particular time of
the day. Water should be consumed freely when available.
Sipping will not combat body loss and it is a fallacy that water
taken during the heat of the day is immediately lost through
sweat. "RATION YOUR SWEAT AND NOT YOUR WATER".
PROCUREMENT
Land Formation.
508. The contours of the earth's surface provide us with a
natural water table. No matter how flat in appearance it may be
in some areas, water runs off or seeps to lower lying spots where
it collects in various quantities, either as surface or
underground water. Study the immediate area and common sense
will help you in the selection of probable water sources. As you
travel, observe continuously for other indications to confirm
your opinion.
Rock Formations.
509. Limestone. springs and seepage may be found in most
rocky soils but limestone has more and larger springs than any
other rock. Because limestone is easily dissolved, caverns are
readily etched in by ground water. Look in these caverns for
springs.
510. Lava. Because lava is porous it is a good source of
seeping ground water, look for springs along the walls of valleys
that cross the lava flow.
511. Sandstone. Look out for seepage when a dry canyon
cuts through a layer of porous sandstone.
512. Granite. Is an impervious rock, water seeps down the
fractures and catches in natural hollows. In areas abundant with
granite rock, look over the hillside for green grass.
Dig a
shallow depression at the base of the greenest area and if you
.P observe water seepage dig a soak and collect any water that may
fill the hole.
Soil Structure.
513. Ground water is usually easier to find in loose soil,
places that are visibly damp, where animals have scratched or
where flies hover indicating recent water surface.
514. Ground Water. Ground water occurs along valley floors
where springs may remain above high water mark of dry rivers and
creeks. Look for green grassy areas on the sides of the hills
and in valley floors as digging in these areas could be
productive. In Dry creek beds try locating the low points in the
sharp corners of the creek bends as shown at FIG 5-3.
5-3
FIG 5-3.
515. Moutainous Areas. A careful search of rock formations
may reveal rainwater trapped in crevices.
Digging in gullies and
dry stream beds may revel springs especially in gravelly areas.
Again look for green vegetation along the base of cliff edges as
shown at
FIG 5-4
FIG 5-4.
*---..
Seenaae Veaetation at Base of Cliffs
516. Coastal Areas. Digging in the sand above the high
water mark in the sand dunes which back most beaches may reveal
water seepage/damp soil. Sand hills trap rain water, this water
filters down and floats on top of the heavier salt water.
Dig
down to uncover the top Scm of fresh water.
It may be advisable
to rivet the sides with materials to stop the sand from falling
in. Once fresh water seeps out do not dig any further as the
salt water will come through. JSEE FIG S-51.
5-4
FIG 5-5
517. On coastal areas where cliffs are present a careful
search along the lower edges of the cliff will reveal small soaks
or springs. This may be evident by lush growth of ferns,
greenery or mosses. Rain water will generally flow down a fault
in the rock formation and is frequently trapped in crevices.
Presence of greenery on any part of the cliff will indicate
/---
water. (SEE FIG 5-61.
FIG 5-6
518. The problem for the survivor in tropical rainforest is
not generally lack of water but of water fit to drink.
519. Trees and Plants. Many trees and plants create
natural receptacles in which rainwater is trapped, eg. Malayan
Pitcher plant, Bromeliaed, Bamboo etc. Water may have to be
strained and sterilised due to insects and the length of time the
water has been trapped.
"Taste Test"
When obtaining fluid from plants the
should always be applied.
,---
5-5
520. Palms. Buri, Nipa, Sugar,
Traveller and Coconut palms
will exude a drinkable sugary fluid. To obtain the fluid bend
the plant downwards if possible and cut off at the flower tip.
The liquid will flow from the plant and can be caught in the
receptacle or taken straight into the mouth. Care should be
taken if drunk straight into the mouth that the plant does not
touch the lips.
521. Moisture can also be obtained by cutting a section from
the palm approximately 50cm down the stem, peel off the outer
skin and chew the soft moist pith, swallow the liquid and spit
the rest out. This method also applies to banana trees.
522. Fruits. The unripe green coconut will provide a good
substitute for water, in most cases approximately .5 litre a nut.
Excessive amount should not be taken as the fluid is a laxative.
Any tropical fruit which has a pleasant smell and exudes a clear
liquid when squeezed or pulped may be alright to drink provided
it is not bitter. It is suggested to take only a small amount
initially, if no ill effects are apparent wait for an hour and
take a little more.
523. Vines. Water can be obtained from vines in swampy
areas where normal water may be unfit to drink. Cut the vine if
possible on either side of the loop or as high as possible, and
at ground level. Cut into lengths of approximately 1 metre, and
let stand vertically, it will exude a cool refreshing liquid.
Water from vegetable source is not recommended to keep over 24
hours. Reject any vines with milky sap or bitter tasting fluids.
Many of the milky saps are extremely poisonous and will cause bad
sores, severe pain, irritation and blindness (if allowed to get
into the eye).
524. Bamboo. Water can be found in the base of a large
bamboo. shake the stem and listen for the splashing sound. cut
the bamboo or puncture it with a sharp instrument. Water from
this source should be strained to get rid of any bamboo slivers
that may be present.
525. Staanant Water. Muddy water from swamps or holes can
be drunk once clarified and sterilised.
526. Recentacle. BambG>, coconut husks, vines cut and
pushed into dirt will provide evcellent receptacles.
Water procurement in Temcerate Climates
527. Trees, Scrubs and Plants. A sound knowledge of the
types of trees and plants that yield water or indicate the
presence of water in these areas is a great help to a survivor.
Trees absorb water through the roots and distribute to branch,
stems before losing moisture through the leaves. Generally some
supply of water can be obtained from tree roots or some supply
of water can be obtained from tree roots or branches. When
handling tree roots, lever some of the root out of the ground,
then rip up the rest with the minimum of damage. Cut into
lengths approximately 1 metre and drain as vines.
5-6
528. The following trees will yield varying amounts of
-
drinkable fluid or indicate the presence of soaks and springs.
a. Eucalyptus;
b. Mallee;
C. Ghost gum (river gum); and
d. Mulga.
529. Some trees specifically catch and hold water, such as
the Baobab, desert oak and sheoaks. It is preferable to extract
the water from these trees rather than chew the pith. Chewing
the pith to extract moisture may aggravate thirst.
530. Pig face, pig weed and cactus contain a large portion
of drinkable moisture. Placed in shirt or cloth, squashed into
pulp,
the juices can be squeezed out. Thirst may be alleviated
by chewing them and the residue spat out. Sap warning is still
,--
applicable when trying to extract fluid from trees, roots and
plants.
531. Paddy melons also contain a drinkable fluid, however
fluid will only be present for a short period of time after rain.
use in the same method as pig face.
532. Humans. Look for evidence of indigenous existence.
Desert natives often know of lingering surface pools in low
places. They cover them in various ways to prevent animals
getting to the water and the sun's radiation, so look for them
in likely brush heaps or sheltered nooks.
533. Animals. Most animals require water, though some
species can travel long distances between drinks. Converging
game trails especially if fresh, are a good indication to water.
Grazing animals such as cattle, kangaroo and wild pigs are never
far from water due to their habit of drinking at dawn and dusk.
Regular animal trails if followed downhill generally lead to
fl water.
534. Birds. Grain eating birds are very good water
indicators. Colonies of finches feed on grain and they always
stay close to water. Wild pigeons, top knot pigeons and galahs
have a habit of drinking at dawn and dusk. Their manner of
flight is a sure indicator as they fly low, in a straight line
going to the water hole, and fly slowly from tree to tree,
returning to their nests. In general all grain eaters and ground
feeders require water daily with the exception of parrots and
cockatoos.
535. Carnivores. These birds, (hawks, eagles) are not good
indicators as they obtain most of their moisture from the flesh.
Water birds, (ducks, geese) should not be regarded as good
indicators as they can travel long distances between water holes.
536. ReDtiles. Not good indicators as they live off
moisture, dew and flesh from their prey.
r~
5-7
537. Insects. These can be good indicators and are =ts
follows: ?
a. Bees. Bees in an area are a certain indication
of water, however the area of search might be
quite wide for a bee can fly as far as 5-6 lans
from its hive. Look for other indicators to
pinpoint the water source.
b. Ants. Ants require water so if a column of ants
are observed marching up a tree, a small
reservoir of water may be hidden in the tree.
Tree reservoirs are fairly common in dry areas,
as they are replenished by dew of the branches.
Enlarge the hole and dip in a piece of rag or
tuft of grass to extract the water. Small straws
can also be used to suck out the water. Do not
expect every line of ants to lead you to water as
they also collect nectar and moisture from the
flowers of flowering trees.
C. Flies. Flies generally indicate a wet soak
nearby. MASON flies with a green or yellow
iridescent body usually build nests a few hundred
metres from water. Watch the fly hover and dive
to the ground and roll up a tiny pellet of mud
for its nest. Dig down to approximately 40cm at
the most for fresh water. Black and oranae
coloured hornets also use wet
nests.
mud for their
WATER PROCuRewENT IN ARID REGIONS
Introduction.
538. Survival in arid regions differs from other areas by
the fact that the survivalist uses up an excessive amount of his
body fluid (62% of the body) and has a lesser chance of replacing
it. Any form of movement or exertion produces excessive
perspiration which robs the body of its life giving fluids.
539. Plants and Veaetation. Vegetation is very scarce and
grows profusely only in sand, rock or grass, where water is
present. Australian deserts however have sparse vegetation which
are adapted to arid regions. They have extensive root systems
which can go deep down to the water source. The salt bush, mulga
and baobab trees have water bearing qualities.
540. As a rule wherever vegetation occurs in any form, water
can be found by cutting the stems, from the roots or branches,
digging beneath the tree, plant and grass.
2-Y
541. Dew. Dew collection is an ancient method of
collecting fluid. Dew can be sponged off the sides of vehicles,
grass or leaves. Using handkerchiefs, tufts of grass tied to
ankles, and walking in areas where dew has fallen can be very
productive. If conditions are favourable it is possible to
collect up to a litre of water in an hour.
5-8
542. Animals. On the fringes of Australian deserts,
kangaroos dig in dry creek beds and soaks to lie in the damp soil
,-
in the heat of the day.
these areas.
Survivors may find water by digging in
In North-West Australia aborigines dig in dry
claypans for desert frogs beneath the clay. These frogs store
water in their bodies and can be squeezed for fluid.
and water might be available.
Dig deeper
543. Desert Still. Perhaps the most successful method of
procuring water in the desert is by using the desert still. The
still is simple
equipment.
to construct with a minimal requirement of
544. Construction. Place a container in the bottom of 1
metre x .5 metre hole (approx).
top of the hole,
Place the plastic cover over the
seal the edges and place a small stone in the
centre directly over the container as a weight.
This will direct
droplets after condensation takes place, into the container. The
principle behind it is that the plastic sheet and air underneath
gains a greater temperature than the ground, and moisture starts
evaporating from the ground. This process can be aided by
,/- placing leafy branches or urinating into the hole prior to
sealing. (SEE FIG 5-7).
FIG 5-7
545. Transoirator Baas. The transpirator bag is a method
of water procurement that is energy saving and effective.
Plastic bags are placed over leafy branches causing the tree to
"sweat" water which is then condensed in the bag.
bags are much more
Clear plastic
effective than coloured bags,
noticeably more water.
collecting
the bags as
Care should be taken to avoid puncturing
this reduces their performance markedly. The
procedure for using transpirator bags is as follows:
5-9
a. Select the Tree. The tree should be the
lushest, greenest and healthiest looking tree
-\
available. Branches used should receive the most
exposure to sun during the day; with a preference
toward large leafy branches for maximum surface
area. The bag should be placed on a separate
tree, or at least a separate branch, each day.
b. Establish the Sums. A sump should be
constructed which allows for the passage of water
but prevents fallen leaves from laying in the
water. This prevents the leaching of alkaloids
from the leaves which makes the water toxic. The
sump should be large enough to hold at least half
a litre of water, more if the trees are providing
more water. See Pia S-8 for method of
construction.
C. PreDare the Branch. The branch should be
cleared of any sharp protrusions which could
puncture the bag.
x---A
If necessary, leaves can be
gathered together and bound with a cord to enable
as many as possible to be placed in the bag.
d. Position the Baa The bag should be eased over
the leaves and secured tightly to the branch to
achieve an airtight seal. It is important to
ensure that the sump is at the lowest point so
that water droplets will fall into it. This may
require the branch to be bent and tied down. Do
not break the branch as this will greatly reduce
the tree's yield. The bag should be placed
during the first hour of daylight for maximum
yield.
e. Pecoverv of the Bat. Recovery should take place
during the last hour of daylight on the same day
it was placed. Remove the bag carefully and
clear any leaves or grit from inside. The sump
should be left secured until ready to pour the
water into a container (or drink from the bag).
FIG 5-8 TransDirator Baa.
CLEAR PlASTlC BAG
WATER COLLECT10
S-10
546. Vehicles. Most transportation vehicles (planes,
boats, cars) have inbuilt receptacles for the carriage of coolant
..-
fluids. These fluids contain rust inhibitors and anti-freeze
that cannot be drunk without causing nausea and finally death.
Even the use of a desalination unit cannot separate the additives
from the water. Water from batteries should not be drunk as it
contains lead particals and sulphuric acid. Dew however could
be collected from windscreens and metal parts of the vehicles
early in the morning.
547. Urine. Medical and survival authorities advise
against drinking untreated urine. Urine may be distilled using
a simple condensation/desalination to process clean sterile
drinking water.
548. Snails. Snails are common on some arid regions of the
world. They are fairly ubiquitous and contain a high proportion
of water, so they can come to some extent satisfy thirst as well
as hunger.
549. Bores/Wells.
.f---
Numerous bores/wells are generally found
in cattle and sheep grazing areas in arid regions. They are
placed not too distant apart for grazing animals to water and
most cattle stations obtain their own water from bores or wells.
This water source should not be overlooked in dry areas and are
relatively easy if survivors follow an animal track or regular
trail which will be present in most cases. Some bores contain
high amounts of minerals that can cause nausea and diahorrea
unless the water is treated and or processed through a
desalination unit.
550. A beer can weighted with a stone or other object may
be lowered on a long length of fishing line or other cord
toobtain water from a capped bore or disused windmill.
551. Desalination Unit. The importance of desalination
units cannot be over stated. With the right knowledge and
improvisation a survivor can turn muddy, saltwater and borewater
into a source of drinkable water.
- 552. A desalination unit works on the principle of being
able to produce steam (that is free of impurities).
the steam in a condensing chamber.
Cooling of
Channelling the cooled steam
(water) into a clean storage container. Proven desalination
units employed during survival courses are shown at Fia 5-9. Fiq
5-10, Fiq 5-11.
FIG 5-9.
5-11
553. Preparation. As shown at Fig 5-9 this system employed
a 200 litres, 20 litre drum, a coke can (or a piece of bamboo)
-,
a small length of plastic tube (not essential) and any container
that will hold water. The drums require to be cleaned out prior
to use. An easy method is to place water, sand and small stones
inside the drums and roll them until the ru:;t and residue has
been removed from the inner walls, then rinse the drums out.
Next manufacture a connector out of a can or any item that is
hollow and will fit tightly into the bung holes between the two
drums.
(Warnina: Containers which have contained herbicides
and
pesticides should be avoided unless in extreme circumstances.)
554. Settina UD. Setting up of the system shown at Fig 5-
9, can be achieved by placing the 200 It drum on its side onto
a mound of dirt or rocks at approx a 30" degree angle.
Ensure
that the large bung hole on the 200 It drum is uppermost.
555. A small fire channel and fire pit are dug under the
base end of the 200 It drum. Fill the drum with the contaminated
,-
water no more than two thirds full. The reason for this is; if
the drum that is heated is full and the water boiled then the
boiling water would be forced through your connector and into the
cooling chamber so your are not separating the water from its
impurities and are collecting nothing but contaminated water.
556. Once the 200 It drum is firm then place the connector
in and the 20 It drum on.
557. The 20 It drum can be held in position by a frame work
of crossed support beams or simply by another mound of earth or
sand. At this point determine the lowest point on the 20 It drum
and puncture the drum to allow the (processed steam) water to
drip out and into your catchment container. The plastic tube can
be used form the hole in the 20 It drum and into a bottle if
required.
558. The 200 It and 20 It drum desalination unit, once in
position, is then utilised by placing a small controlled fire at
the base end of the 200 It drum and keeping the water inside at
a constant boil. The 20 It drum should be cooled using wet cloth
or bags to improve the cooling/condensation of the steam. A good
tight seal must be maintained of the connector to avoid steam
loss. Monitor the heat source and water collection constantly
as this unit can produce over 20 Its of drinkable water in 24
hours.
FIG S-10.
5-12
A
559. Fia S-11 A variation for a desalination unit when only
/--
one drum is available and the survivor has a plastic bag and a
length of pipe. This system works very well but must be
monitored, ensure that the drum is not more than 2/3 full.
Avoid a large fire as this can cause the pipe to over heat, the
plastic bag to melt down or over inflate and lurst. It is
stressed again that the survivor must monitor this
closely.
system
FIG 5-11
560.
in
Fig 5-11 shown above is another variation employing the
service cups canteen steel, this method of desalination
requires a lid to be shaped that fits the cup snugly and has a
lip that can be crimped tight as required. This lid has a grease
nipple fitted to the lid. The ball bearing and spring have been
removed from the grease nipple allowing the steam to be forced
through the nipple and along a piece of plastic tube about 2m in
length into a bottle. Points to watch are; ensure that the cup
is only two thirds full prior to bciling, have a very small fire
as the plastic tube can easily be burnt. Hang the first 30-40cm
vertical from the lid to avoid burning. Then loop the plastic
tube down the ground running it through wet soil to cool down the
r steam into a cup or a water bottle. Again be aware of the heat
produced by the fire as you can easily burn your plastic hose.
Water Procurement at Sea.
561. A survivor in this situation will normally be in some
form of life raft or boat, where emergency water and rations may
be available. Water procurement is a vital factor as it is
limited. However many people have survived. Rainwater is of
course a good source of fresh water caught in receptacles.
Spare
clothing may also be saturated and placed in shade for future
use. Always brush off any salt crust from receptacles prior to
collection. Unless a solar still is available sea water should
oniy bz used to cool the body. Fish that are caught can be diced
into small pieces, placed in a rag and squeezed for juices.
juices can be sucked from fish eyes and vertebrae of large fish
and eaten raw. Turtle blood is also a good substitute for water
but is must be consumed before it coagulates in about 30 seconds.
,-
5-13
562. Sea Water. May be rendered drinkable by:
/7
a. Boiling in a receptacle and trapping the steam.
b. By placing hot rocks into sea water and trapping
the steam.
C. By use of a solar still.
d. By processing through compressed charcoal.
Clarification.
563. Muddy water may be clarified by:
a. letting it stand for 12 hours.
b. Passing it through sand, charcoal or cloth
filters.
*?
C. By passing it through gravel, grass or hessian.
564. This water can then be sterilised before use as the
water will be clear of sediment but not from bacteria.
Water Sterilisation.
565. Do not drink impure water. Water borne diseases are
normally present in impure water and as such are very real
hazards to the survivor. The immediate effect of contaminated
water is to cause vomiting and or diahorea.
Methods of Sterilisation.
566. a. By use of sterilisation tablets, allowing the
water to stand for 30 minutes.
b. By adding 2 or 3 drops of iodine to 1 litre of
/7
water, stand for 30 minutes.
C. Add a few grains of Condies crystals, per litre
of water and stand for 30 minutes before
drinking, or
d. Boil for 3 minutes.
5-14
CHAPTER SIX
/-
FIRE LIGHTING
PIRELIGBTING
600. There are a number of different methods of producing
fire using natural materials.
Fire can also be started by
artificial means, other than matches or cigarette lighters.
Eg: chemicals, battery, magnifying glass, etc.
To start a fire by natural means one must first
produce a spark which is applied to tinder, where a flame
develops. Kindling is used to boost the flame in the tinder so
that fuel may be added to produce a satisfactory fire.
601. A spark can be obtained by using the following:
/---
a. Flint;
b. Stones and steel;
C. Magnifying glass etc;
d. Batteries;
e. Friction; and
f. Chemical means, i.e. Candy's Crystals and
sugar.
Tinder
602. Tinder is
very
important in the process of
firelighting. Care must be taken in its collection and
storage. It must be perfectly dry and of a suitable type. The
-. quality of tinder will probably decide whether you have fire
or not.
603. Some tinders are:
a. Dry root rot;
b. Some animal manure;
C. Dry mosses/lichens;
d. Cattails (bulrushes);
e. Top of the blackboy stem;
f. Fluff from bird's nests;
g*
Burnt cotton material;
/--
h. Crushed bark;
6-l
i. Crushed grasses; and
j*
Banksia flowers in semi dry state.
Kindling
604. Kindling is the intermediary between the small flame
produced in the tinder and the large flame produced by fuel.
605. Kindling can be:
a. Bark;
b. Small Twigs; and
C. Leaves.
606. As well as the above, the following can be used in
dry or wet weather:
?
a. Blackboy trunks;
b. Inner bark on dead trees;
C. Paper bark;
d. Dead branches from living trees;
e. Under crown of Blackboy; and
f. Fuzz sticks.
Firebow
607. A firebow is a device used
friction. A number of other friction
method and the saw method may be used.
to obtain fire by
devices such as the
608. The firebow contains four parts. They are the hand
piece or head piece, the iootpiece, the bow and the drill.
_ISEE FIG 6-11.
FIG 6-l
6-2
609. The head piece is made out of hard wood or stone.
r-
610. The foot piece and drill should be of the same type
of wood. Some suitable woods are:
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
Q*
h.
.
1.
j-
Lantana;
Mintbush;
Blackboy stem;
Stinking Roger;
Willow;
Dog Wood - Securnega Melanthesoides;
Miniritchie S/t - Acacia Lysiphloia;
Sandpaper Fig - Ficus Opposita (t);
Native Hibiscus - Hibiscus (shrub); and
Freshwater Mangrove - Barringtonia Actuagula
611. Cut a small circular depression on one side of the
foot piece and cut a "V" notch into the side of the footpiece
that is adjacent to and just enters the circular depression.
This is to allow the "PUNK" as it is generated to drop out of
the hole and down onto the tinder placed below the footpiece.
612. The bow can be fashioned from an "L" shaped or
straight stick with some flexibility required. The bow string
can be fashioned using improvised string, green hide or a good
sturdy boot lace.
613. The "Head Piece" that is fashioned from hardwood
requires a depression cut in one side to accommodate the top
of the "Drill".
0.
614. Wind the bowstring once around the drill, ensuring
the drill is outside of the "Bow". Place the drill in the
depression, hold the head piece over the drill and bear down
slightly, while your other hand moves the bow backwards and
forwards. The tension on the bow string can be adjusted by
the use of the little finger.
615. The friction of the drill rotated on the footpiece
produces fine wood dust. Friction produces heat turns which
turns to "Punk". This punk should be black and feel like
silky baby powder. NOTE: If the punk is coarse or stringy
then change the drill and or footpiece.
616. Adjust the speed as your rhythm increases and
continue until an ember is formed. This ember should drop
from the foot piece through the "V" onto the additional timber
placed below the foot piece. Nurture the ember to flame by
- blowing gently.
6-3
Hand C:ill
-.
617.
The hand drill when employed in dry areas with low
humidity can be a very fast method of starting an ember.
Some
instances of starting a fire using this method have been
recorded under two minutes from start to flams.
618. The method used to obtain an ember is that the drill
is spun between the hands while exerting a downward pressure
to ensure a firm contact between the "drill" and foot piece.
The drill and footpiece should be of the same material. The
drill should be from 30cm to 90cm in length and have a
diameter that is about that of an average mans ring finger.
619. The footpiece should be long enough to be held in
place by the foot or leg of the "Firestarter" with a circular
depression and groove cut into one end as described in para
611 and the outcome should be as outlined in para 615 (SEE FIG
6-2).
FIG 6-2
Fire Plouah
620. This method if ignition also works by friction. cut
a straight groove in a soft wood baseboard and then 'plough'
the tip of a hardwood shaft up and down it. This first
-7
produces tinder and then eventually ignites it [SEE FIG 6-31.
\
FIG 6-3
6-4
Fire Liahtina with Chemicals
621. A survivor's pack is not likely to include a
complete chemistry set but there are some
very
common
chemicals that, if they are available, can be used to produce
combustion. The following mixtures can all be ignited by
grinding them between rocks or putting them un,der the friction
point in any of the types of fire drill alresdy described.
Mix them carefully, avoiding contact with any metal objects.
All are susceptible to dampness and must be kept dry.
Potassium Chlorate and Suaar
622. In a mixture of 3:l by volume is a fierce-burning
incendiary which is ignited by dripping a few drops of
sulphuric acid on to the mixture.
1 Potassium Perman anate d Suaa
623. Mixed 9:l is less sensitive and temperature is a
critical factor in how long it takes to ignite. The addition
of glycerin will also produce ignition.
/--
Sodi 1 um C lorate and Suaar h - Mixed 3:
624.
*
Potassium Chlorate is found in some throat
tablets - their contents may be listed on the
pack. Try crushing one mix with sugar or
potassium permanganate.
*
Potassium Permanganate is included in your
survival kit.
*
Glycerin is a constituent of anti-freeze.
*
Sodium Chlorate is a weed killer.
lysina a Lens
625. Strong direct sunlight, focused through a lens, can
produce sufficient heat to ignite your tinder. Accidental
..-.fires are caused by the sun shining through broken bottles on
to dry leaves or pasture. Your survival kit magnifying glass
or a telescope or camera lel,s will serve instead.
Powder From Ammunition
626. If you are carrying fire arms you can use the
gunpowder propellant from a round to help ignite your tinder
by throwing a hot spark into the propellant.
Flint and Steel
627. Flint is a stone found in many parts of the world.
If it is struck vigorously with a piece of steel hot sparks
fly off which will ignite dry tinder. A saw-edged blade can
produce more sparks than an ordinary knife and should be in
your kit. A block of magnesium with flint on its side is an
even more efficient device - magnesium burns very strongly.
I
6-5
Batterv Fireliahtinq
628. A spark from a car battery can start your fire, and
torch and radio batteries should have sufficient power.
You
need two lengths of wire, which you simply attach to the
terminals. If you cannot find any wire you could do it with a
couple of spanners or other metal implements.
Unless you have
long pieces of wire, take the battery out of the vehicle
first.
Tides of Fire
629. However quickly you want to get a fire going,
remember to take time while you gather fuel and get the tinder
ready and choose the best location and type of fire.
Fires for Warmth
630. With a single fire outdoors, only surfaces facing it
are warmed. With two fires you can sit between them - but
that would use a lot of fuel and, no matter which way the wind
is blowing, you are bound to be covered in smoke. Build one
fire and use a reflector.
Snake Hole Fire
631. This is a shielded fire that produces a good draught
and burns almost anything once lit. In the side of a firm
earth bank excavate a chamber about 45 cm (18 in) deep. From
above drive a stick down into the chamber, manoeuvre it about
a little to make a chimney, removing the spoil that falls
below. Build the fire in the chamber.
6-6
CHAPTER SEUEW
/--
FOOD
AND
NUTRITION
mR7
FOODARDRDTRITI~
700.
Food.
This is made up of nutrients:
a. Protein,
b. Fat,
C. Carbohydrates,
d. Minerals,
e. Vitamins, and
f. Water.
701. General Functions of Food:
/---
a. Provide energy for the performance of work.
Measure of food energy - Calorie or Kilojoule.
b. Building of new tissue and repair after injury.
C. Regulation of body processes.
702. In order for food to supply adequate amounts of
nutrients to maintain health, foods should be selected from
five food group plan [SEE TABLE 7-l):
TABLE 7-J, Legend: ++ large amount + smaller.amount
-__--_---_-_--__--_-~-~~~-~~~~-~~~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~~~~~~-~~---
Pr Fat CH0 Vitamin Minerals
--_____-____________------------------------------------------
a.
r b.
C.
d.
e.
Group 1
Milk &
milk products
+ + + + +
Group 2 ++ + + +
Meat L
animal products
Poultry/fish/milk
products
Legumes
Group 3
Fruits C
Vegetables
+ ++
Group 4
Cereal/
Starches/
Roots
+ ++ +
++
+
Group 5
Fats h Oils
++
7-l
+
703. Eneruv Reauirements
Energy is used for:
a. Performance of mechanical work;
b. Maintenance of body tissues, growth and repair.
A Body's requirement
for energy depends on:
a. Body size,
b. Activity, and
C. Climate.
For example:
18 - 35 yr man approx 65 kg.
Sedentary 2700 Cal per day
Moderate 3000 Cal per day
Very Active 3600 Cal per day.
Fat, carbohydrate and to a lesser extent protein
provide energy requirements. Survival rations are based on
the five food group plan and are designed to adequately meet
daily nutrient requirements. In cases where rations are used
ALL of the pack should be eaten.
704. Water 70% of the body composition is water. The
function being:
a. Cooling agent (sweat);
b. Solvent for chemical processes; and
C. Eliminate toxic substances - through urine -
particularly salt and urea.
-\
/7
-.?,
Water Inout and OutDut
705. a. Input through diet and fluids.
b. Output through:
(1)
Loss from skin due to sweat,
(2) Evaporate through lungs,
(3) Output through gastrointestinal tract, and
(4) Output from kidney in urine.
Water Reauirement
706. Requirement for water increases depending on
environmental conditions and physical activity. To reduce the -.
amount of water loss:
7-2
a. Sweat production should be minimised by:
(1)
Protection from sun
(2) Least amount of physical activity.
Clothes soaked in water provide moisture for
evaporation.
b. If water is available in limited quantities it
should be drunk in small volumes to allow
kidneys to perform at its most efficient
concentrating ability.
Drinkinq of Sea Water
707. No benefit is derived from drinking sea water in the
long run. Salt concentration in sea water is much greater
than body fluids. The functional ability of the kidney is
/--
insufficient to excrete excess salt without the use of
additional body fluids. This therefore will cause or increase
dehydration.
Cookinq
708. a. All water must be boiled or sterilised
b. Food is more palatable and digestible if
cooked. It may also contain infective agents
e-g. f
poisoning bacteria or disease causing
bacteria which can cause severe vomiting and
diarrhoea which can lead to severe and rapid
dehydration.
Some foods do contain natural poisons e.g., plants,
fish.
7-3
3lucose -
Erom sugar
energy ROR -
and starchy
metabolism of
foods
to glycogen
muscles and
converted
to fat and
Fatty acids - Small Lymph and 1. Fuel for
glycerol - intestine Blood energy
from fats and 2. Deposited
2ils and fat in fat,
neat, eggs
deposits as
snd milk
fuel reserve
in an
insulator
against heat
loss and
shock.
3. Supply of
essential
fatty acids
necessary to
life.
4. Supply of
fat soluble
Vitamins A
and D.
Amino acids - Small Blood 1. Building
from animal intestine of body
protein. Non protein for
essential 2nd growth and
protein: first repair.
cereal, fruit 2. Supply of
and essential
vegetables, amino acids
nuts. necessary for
life.
3. converted
to glucose
for energy or
deanimate to
fatty foods.
7-4
Vitamins
Salts widely
distributed
in foods.
Best sources
- calcium -
milk and its
iron
products.
Iron organ
meats
Water
Roughage -
The cellulose
from plant
foods
Large
intestine
Mostly large
intestine
25% stomach
and small
intestine
75% Large
intestine
Not absorbed
Blood
Blood
Blood
7-5
Essential for
the
regulation of
all body
processes,
important for
growth, good
vision,
digestion,
etc.
Adequate
intakes
necessary for
protection
from
deficiency
disease
scurvy (VC)
and Beri-
Beri (VB).
1. Regulation
of body
processes.
2. supply
constituents
to body
tissues and
fluids eg:
calcium to
bones and
teeth, iron
to blood.
1. Quenches
thirst. Time
of survival
without water
shorter than
food.
2. Solvent
for all salts
and chemical
reactions in
the body.
3. Body
fluids -
about 68% of
the human
body contains
water
1. Gives the
food bulk.
2. Stimulates
the wall of
the
i alimentary
canal to
contract.
-
CHAPTER EIGHT
TASTE TEST
Rules of Survival
800. As soon as a soldier is isolated, he should apply
the following rules:
a. Check his rations and estimate the length of
time he may be on his own. Time of isolation
derived from his appreciation.
b. Divide the available food, two-thirds for the
first half of the expected isolation and
one-third for the remainder.
C. If less than one quart of water is available
each day, try to avoid starchy and highly
flavoured foods and meats, unless nothing else
* is available. Remember eating makes a man
thirsty, so if any choice is available eat
foods high in carbohydrates, such as dried
fruits, fruit bars and sweets.
d. Keep strenuous work to a minimum. The less
work performed the less food and water are
required.
e. Eat regularly if possible, but do not nibble.
Plan on one good meal a day; cooking makes food
safer, more digestible and palatable. Use the
water as soup.
f. With few exceptions everything that walks,
crawls, swims or grows from the soil is edible.
The safety rules and some of the exceptions are
explained in the next section.
TESTS FOR PLANT EDIBILITY
First test - Smell
801. Take some of the leaves as a test portion, touching
them cautiously at first, and then crush them well in one
hand. If there is any definite smell of almonds or peaches
(what may be called a peachy-almond smell) it is a strong
indication of prussic acid which is highly poisonous. It is
better to play safe and discard the plant, or if there is a
scarcity of plant life, to continue the tests only with
extreme caution.
Second test - Skin Irritation
802. Rub lightly or squeeze some of the juice of the test
portion on to the underarm between the elbow and armpit. In
P the case of a plant with little juice, crush or pulp it with
or without water until it is in a juicy state.
8-l
If there is any reddening or irritation, it is wise
to discard the plant for the time being; but make a definite
mental or written note of the plant for further retesting when
?
circumstances permit. Wait 20 - 30 minutes before proceeding
to third test.
Third test - Lips, Mouth and Tonaue
803. If there is no irritation or reddening from the
second test, carry out the following, stopping the test as
soon as any irritation is noticed:
a. Place the test portion cautiously on the lips.
Wait for 30 - 60 seconds for some possible
reaction;
b. Place the test portion cautiously into the
corners of the mouth. Wait 30 - 60 seconds
again;
C. Place the portion cautiously on the tip of the -?
tongue. Wait 30 - 60 seconds and then if there
is still no irritation, carefully introduce the
plant into the mouth and chew steadily without
swallowing.
d. While chewing slowly, wait for any of the
following symptoms:
(1) Any definite bitter taste (which indicates
alkaline poisoning);
(2) Any irritation or soreness of the tongue
or throat; and
(3) Any other disturbing reaction.
Fourth test - Swallowinq
804. If there is no irritation or other disturbing
reaction, the next test ,s to eat a small quantity, and then
wait for any reaction.
The part of the plant being tested should first be
boiled, if equipment is available and the situation will
allow. Boil the plant, in plenty of water if possible, until
it is obviously cooked, saving the fluid for separate testing.
Boiling very often dissolves harmful juices. Also it often
renders the plant edible where it may not have been edible
raw, for example, tapioca (or maniac).
When any part of a plant is tested, boiled and
proved edible, retest it raw, when time permits. If boiling
is impracticable and the plant must first be tested raw,
retest it boiled at the first opportunity. The resultant
knowledge may prove useful. Eat a mouthful only of the cooked
plant, and if forced to test it raw, take a small mouthful
only.
-Y
8-2
805. In either case wait four hours and watch closely for
the following symptoms:
a. Any soreness of the mouth, tongue or throat;
b. Any inclination to belch repeatedly;
C. Any nausea or sickness;
d. Any other stomach pains or distressing
symptoms; and
e. After some time has passed, is there
any
gripping pain in the lower stomach or abdomen.
During the four hour wait, it is unwise to eat or
drink anything else. From a practical point of view, however,
this may not be possible; it would be in order then for the
soldier merely to avoid eating or drinking anything to which
he is not thoroughly accustomed.
.F--
Fifth test - Eatina a Ouantitv
806. Provided there are no reactions from the fourth
test, repeat this test, increasing the quantities of the first
four hour period five or six times. If the portion of the
plant tested has passed all the above tests, it may be
accepted that the tested part is edible in reasonable
quantities; whether it is palatable or nourishing, time and
experience will decide.
Warninq
807. a. Never short cut the tests. This is dangerous.
b. Do not assume that because birds or animals eat
a plant or part of it, that it is edible to
man.
.f-
C. Learn the rules for testing.
d. If in doubt do not eat.
8-3
.-
TABLE 8-l
EDIBLE
RN
Plant
Edible Part Process
--__-___-_-_-_--------
_-_____-___-___-_-----------------------
Caper/Native Pomegranate
Salt Bush (Barrier or Ruby)
Bearded heath
Australian Boxthorn
Mistletoes
Cockatoo Bush
Turkey Bush/Dogweed
Nitre Bush
Prickly Pear
Fruit
Fruit/leaves
Fruit/leaves
Fruit/leaves
Fruit/leaves
Fruit/leaves
Fruit/leaves
Fruit/leaves
Fruit/leaves
Geebung
Quandong
Sandlewood/Bush Plum
Dodder Laurel/Devil's Guts
Doubah
Pig Face
Nardoo
Fruit/leaves
Fruit/Seed
Fruit/Seed
Fruit/Seed
Fruit/Seed
Fruit/Seed
Sporocarp
Black Nightshade
Leafless Ballarat
Acacia/Wattle
Berries
Fruit
Seeds
Flowers
Prickly Moses
Mulga
Eumong
Grey mangrove
Seeds
Seeds
Seed pods
Seed pods
Red River Gum
Bitter Bush/Native Willow
Seeds
Seeds
Jerry-Jerry Seeds from fruit
Native Flax
Pig Weed/Purslane
Wild Millet/Umbrella Grass
Seeds
Seeds/leaves/stem
Seeds
Grey Salt Bush
Fragrant Salt Bush
Leaves
Leaves
Black Boys/Grasstrees Base of leaves
Top of Stalk
Sago from trunk
Raw
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
(Jelly)
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
Raw/Cooked
Grind and
Cook
Raw
Raw
Grind
Use as
flavouring
Grind
Grind
Roasted
Steam, soak
in water
Unknown
Pound for
flour
Grind with
water
Pound
Raw/Cooked
17
Grind and
bake
Cooker
(boiled)
Cook with 3
changes of
water
(contains
salt)
Raw
Raw/Cooked
Crushed and
washed, cook
8-4
Plant
Edible Part Process
____________________-----------------
-----_______-__----------
Sheep Sorrel
,-
Amaranth
Fat Hen
Sow Bane
Chicory
Water Hyacinth
Potato weed/Gallant Soldier
Penny wort
Cat's ear/flat weed
Prickly Lettuce
Compass Plant
Watercress
/-----
Yellowwood Sorrel
Dock
Samphire/Glass wart/
water) Chicken Claws
Sow Thistle/Milk Thistle
Chick weed
Sea Blite
Dandelion
New Zealand Spinach
Minindie Clover
Bulrush/Cattail
Ferns
r Shepherds Purse
Spear Thistle
Hedge Mustard
Bell Fruit
Gum Tree
Leaves
Young Shoots
Leaves/seed
Leaves
Leaves
Roots
Leaves/leaf stalks
Flower spikes
All except roots
Leaves
Leaves
Stems/unopened
Flowers
All
Leaves
Leaves
Young Shoots
Leaves
Young shoots
Tips of stems
Leaves
Roots
Leaves
All except Roots
Roots/young shoots
Tip of stem
Fiddle head
Leaves
All
All
Roots
Bark from young
roots
Cook quickly
(boil)
Boil
A s for
spinach
AS above
Raw - better
boiled
Dry
crush
(bake as for
coffee)
Boil
Boil
Boil
Boil
Raw/Boiled
Raw
As herb
Boiled
Boil (C","o"o"~
Very
pickled Salt
Boil
Raw
Raw
Raw/Cooked
Dried-baked-
crushed
(Coffee)
Raw/Cooked
Used as a
herb
Raw/Cooked
Pollen
Raw/Cooked
Cooked
Cooked
As a herb
Unknown
Peeled off;
place in hot
ashes till
crisp; pound
between two
stones and
chew
for juices
8-5
Plant Edible Part Process
____________________------------------------------------------
Black man's potatoes Bulb
Unknown
Tar Vine/Hog Weed Leaves/Tap root Bake
Milkmaids Roots Boil/Bake
Chocolate Lily/Grass Lily Roots Cook
Native Potato/Potato Orchid Bulb Roasted
Yam Daisy/Native Dandelion Roots
Itoast
Orchids (not all varieties) Tubers or roots Cooked
Marsh Wort Tubers Cooked
Salsily/Oyster Plant Tap Root Cook
Water Ribbon Spike contains As for flour
pollen
tubers Baked
Nut Grass Nut Tuber Roasted
Tea Tree (Ti) Leaves Used for tea
REMEMBER:
1.
2.
The taste test should ALWAYS be used on any unknown
plants.
A.
The above list does not contain every edible plant
in WA.
8-6
PLANTS FOR SURVIVAL
"Vascular" Plants
Ferns
808. Although ferns are associated with wetter climates
than Western Australia,
there are in fact 50 different kinds
here. Cooked fern shoots are a recommended survival food in
the tropics, and the same would apply here, although only the
Bracken fern of the south-west is likely to be large enough to
be useful. Ferns grow from underground stems which often
contain starch.
809. Bracken Fern. This large fern, up to a metre high,
is a common weed of pasture in the South-West.
It has typical
fern-like fronds (leaves) much too tough to be eaten except in
the coiled up young stage, when they must be cooked. It also
has deep underground stems which are rich in starch.
/--
810. Nardoo. This does not look like the typical fern
and the shoot itself is of no use. However, the underground
parts bear starch-filled nodules, much valued by aborigines as
food. They can be collected from the surface of dried-up mud
pans and dried to give a direct source of starch.
Seed Plants
811. Seed plants are the flowers, grasses, pine trees,
vegetables, etc. from which all our agricultural crops come.
As there are a large number of different plants involved it is
best to consider them-under the parts which may be useful.
812. Fruits. Very few WA plants have edible fruits.
The warning of red fruits likely to be dangerous applies to
them, and the red fruit of the Zamia Palm is poisonous,
although the seed within can be eaten if specially prepared.
Two good fruits are Native Plum, used for jam by settlers in
the South-West, and the Quandong. The fruit of Pigface is
p, also good to eat.
813. Seeds. The seeds of grasses such as Spinifex are
good to eat and used by aborigines. They are tedious to
collect, of course. The largest seed available is that
contained in the Zamia Palm fruit or found on the ground by
the palm after the fruit has rotted away. These seeds are
poisonous if not specially prepared. Specially prepared, they
can be a good source of food. They are cracked open and the
kernel is pounded with water then heated and the water thrown
away; this is repeated three times.
814. Beware of the seeds of the pea and bean family,
despite the familiar peas and beans being so good to eat; many
of them are highly poisonous. The seeds of purslane were used
by aborigines.
815. Flowers. Many flowers give sufficient sugary juice
(nectar) to provide aborigines with medicine. As food for man
/- the nectar is more valuable when collected by bees and turned
into honey.
8-7
816. Leaves. Leaves of grasses are safe to eat,
although impossible
to digest in quantity;
leaves of other '7
plants may contain poisons
and more work needs to be done on
them. Purslane is not only safe to eat, but a good source of
Vitamin C. Pigface leaves are safe, but the variety needs to
be specified.
817. Bark. Where the bark of a tree meets the wood
there is a succulent layer rich in sugar.
It is known that
Arabs collecting acacia gums
can sustain themselves on the
bark of the acacia for days at a time.
The Australian acacias
have not been investigated for this possibility, and many no
doubt have objectionable substances which would prevent them
being suitable.
818. Inside the Trunk of Certain Trees This is the most
promising food source of all, as two of our'most common trees,
the Blackboy and Zamia Palm, have a fibrous core instead of
wood. The plant stores food in this core and, freed from the
fibres, it can be eaten by man.
-
819. The core of the Blackboy has a sugary sap in its L
fibres, making up 10% of its weight. Over 100 years ago it
was discovered that the pith of a large Blackboy could yield
as much as 20 gallons of sugar juice.
820. The core of the Zamia Palm was used by the early
settlers as a source of SAGO. Commercial sago is made from
palms of South East Asia and the same method can be employed
with Zamia. It demands an abundant supply of water. The
trunk is split and chunks grated with a grater. The heavy
starch is then washed into a trough and the fibres discarded.
If insufficient water is available the pith could be grated,
cooked, chewed and then the fibres spat out.
821. Boots. Many plants have roots full of food
substances so that they are swollen into tubers or bulbs. The
botanical names are given to aid identification. A few safe
roots are as follows:
a. Native Parsnip (Platysace). Is pleasant raw
b. Wild Yam (Dioscorea). Cooked in ashes and
pounded before being
eaten.
C. Blood roots (Haemodorum). Roasted and pounded.
d. Wild potato (Prasophyllum). Roasted.
822. Others, such as the Tuberous Sundew (Drosera) are
being investigated. The bark of the root of the York Gum is
known to be good for chewing or pounding into a flour.
8-8
Funai for Survival
n 823. Fungi are
living things that are neither plants nor
animals. In many ways they are plant-like, but are devoid of
the green colour (chlorophyll) of true plants.
Nutritionally
they are more equivalent to vegetables than to meat, but they
do contain vitamins and can be a valuable source of food.
However, a few of them contain powerful poisons and it is
important to be aware of precisely what one is eating. They
are very seasonal but in the right season, which is Autumn,
they are abundant and are obvious things to eat.
The pioneer
botanist of Western Australia, James Drummond, wrote (in
1843) :
"Few orders of plants appear to contribute more
to the support of animal life in Western
Australia. Many species, particularly the
genus Boletus, are used as food by the natives
and directly supply no inconsiderable portion
of their support for several months of the
year".
T--x
824. Regrettably this great body of knowledge has been
lost and is having to be gradually re-built.
825. Mushrooms and toadstools are the best known fungi,
but the brackets and jellies on rotting wood, puff balls,
stinkhorns, yeast and the common moulds on bread are all
fungi. A mushroom is an umbrella-like fungus which is either
inedible or actually poisonous. Of course, any fungus may be
poisonous if it is old and rotten. The best known mushroom is
the Common Mushroom, of which there are many varieties.
Before considering fungi as food, one must learn to recognise
the Common Mushroom and the deadly Amanita. So long as one
keeps these two distinct, one is unlikely to come to great
harm, as the vast majority of inedible fungi are merely
unpleasant - not deadly. One does not have to know the
majority of the many umbrella-like fungi in order to recognise
a mushroom. After all, one could pick out an apple or a pear
from a display of fruit, the majority of which might be
tropical and unfamiliar.
826. The Common Mushroom. Start by getting familiar
with the cultivated mushroom as bought in the shops. The base
of the stem will have been cut off, but note the ring which
represents the remains of a delicate skin which clothed the
gills at the button stage. The gills under the cap are very
pale pink, darkening as the mushroom ripens. Finally they are
dark chocolate brown. If a ripe cap is placed on a piece of
paper
the minute spores - which are the 'seeds' of the
mushroom - fall from the gills and make a coloured print with
the outline of the gills. Note that the gills do not quite
reach the stem; this character helps to tell the mushroom from
other dark-spored species with which it might rarely be
confused. The top peels, but so does that of many toadstools,
so that this is a useless character; nor does one need to peel
it before cooking.
8-9
827. The top of the most common variety of cultivated
mushroom is smooth and pale.
Wild mushrooms. differ from the -
cultivated mushrooms in size and flavour - some are inferior
in flavour, others better - but all share the character of
pale gills darkening to dark brown and giving a dark brown
spore powder, a ring, and a stem base free from a cup.
The
larger ones are known as Horse Mushrooms. When gathering for
oneself one can always check the base by levering it up out of
the ground with a knife blade or stick. The top may be smooth
but one common WA variety has fine scales over the cap.
WARNING: There is a variety which gives a yellow
colour when it is cut near the stem base. This is the Yellow-
staining Mushroom and is highly indigestible to some people.
828. 'Maaic Mushrooms' The so-called magic mushrooms
have a dark spore powder and grow in similar situations to
field mushrooms. They are sometimes accidentally eaten by
careless mushroom-pickers and give them a fright.
Their real
danger is that people in search of stimulation
may -.
deliberately and ignorantly eat various small dark-spored
toadstools, some of which are deadly.
829. The Amanitas. DANGER, several of the most
poisonous fungi known belong to this group. Some are
harmless, or even good to eat, but one should avoid all on
principle. They are common in WA., and many are large, with a
solid flesh which makes them tempting to eat. First look at
the base; it either sits in a
cuPI
called volva, or is
swollen, with the cup represented by large scales. Then note
the ring; there are amanitas where the ring is almost
invisible, but the combination of ring and cup is a certain
sign of amanita. Note the gills; they are white, and stay
white, giving a white spore powder. Many amanitas have a sour
smell which warns one off. One of the most common large white
amanitas of our local woods is covered with a white meal which
comes off on one's fingers. The famous red Amanita with white
spots, the
FlY
Agaric, has not been found in Western
Australia. It has an effect similar to the 'magic mushroom'
-Y
and should not be eaten, although it is not as deadly
poisonous as sometimes believed.
FIG 8-l
830. Characteristics of the deadly amanita family of
mushrooms:
1.
2.
3.
White Gills
Ring around Stem
Distinct volva on cup
E GILLS
8-10
831. When standing fungi is found, the presence of any of
the above dictates your preference to leave it alone.
f--~
832. Parasol Mushrooms Have heavily scaly caps,
white
spores, prominent ring and no cup at base; most are good to
eat but there is the danger of confusion with amanitas because
of the white spore powder. The Shaggy Parasol is excellent,
but a similar form with pale green spore print should be
avoided.
833. Volvarias Anyone who has eaten Chinese soups may
have fished out a wholesome mushroom in which the cup is even
better developed than the cap. It is the Padi Straw Mushroom,
commonly cultivated in S.E. Asia. The scientific name for the
cup,
the volva, gives this group its name. In contrast with
those other volva fungi, the amanitas, the gill colour and
spore colour is pink - not white. The most common volvaria
locally is found growing in long grass in abandoned gardens.
It has a sticky cap, no trace of a ring, and a tough stem
which is not good to eat. Despite the statement in Cleland's
book (p.92) it is eaten in Europe and has been sold in the
,-, local market in Perth.
834. Ink caps These fungi are easily recognised
because of the habit of the older specimens dissolving into
any inky mass. They can actually be used as ink. This is not
putrescence, although one would not want to eat them at this
stage. They should be caught just before the flesh begins to
darken, and are then delicious cooked in a little fat. The
best known is the "Shaggy Cap", or "Lawyer's Wig". These
mushrooms come up from buried wood and rubbish in the soil and
are common on filled building sites or road verges. In the
desert country there is a stalked puff ball called podaxis
which looks similar but is unfit to eat.
835. White - Spored Gill Funai on Wood For example the
Oyster Mushroom of Europe. BEWARE of the largest of these,
the Ghost
Fungus, as it is known to cause vomiting several hours after
being eaten. It is a cream-coloured gilled bracket, common on
Peppermint Trees and sometimes growing at ground level. At
night it emits a greenish phosphorescent glow, whence the name
Ghost Fungus. There are several other white-spored, gilled,
bracket fungi which are eaten in South East Asia. One is the
easily recognised Split-Gill, which is not uncommon in WA.
836. Rustv - Spored Gill Funai on Wood Some may not be
poisonous, some definitely are, but none are known to be safe
to eat.
837. The Boletes. All the fungi mentioned so far have
gills under their caps, but there is a large group of fleshy
umbrella-like fungi, which have pores underneath just like the
common bracket fungi found on logs. These boletes are an
important source of food as few, if any, are likely to be
poisonous and then not deadly. They are fleshy, but
unfortunately are often spoilt by being badly attacked by fly
maggots.
8-11
839. Many varieties show strong colours when cut but this
does not necessarily mean that they are poisonous.
The famous
Cap or Steinpilze of Europe is a bolete,
not been found in WA.,
anda;ith;z;2 it has q
relatives of it . The
aboriginal WOORDA or WURDO was a bolete. The boletes of WA
have not been studied sufficiently yet to make many
recommendations, but two known to be wholesome are the
slimy-topped pine bolete so common in plantatiolus of pine and
the giant bolete which occurs in pastures in the western wheat
belt and known as the Salmon Gum Mushroom.
840. Beef Steak Funaus This looks like a bolete growing
out of wood. It is unlike one of the bracket fungi only in
that it is soft and fleshy. It has the appearance of an
animal tongue sticking out of the living tree, often Jarrah,
and in some countries is known as Ox Tongue Fungus. The
colour is red, the flesh meat-like and the underside has pores
which are separated, almost like thick hollow hairs. The
whole cuts like a piece of meat, but it has nothing like so
fine a flavour! Nevertheless, it is safe to eat. It is the
aboriginal NUMAR.
-----I
841. White-spored pore-fungi on Wood are very often the
cause of timber rots. The local varieties are too tough to
eat though not actually poisonous. Two of them, the Punk
Fungi, may be as much as .5 metre across and 15cm thick. They
grow from the trunk of large Gum Trees. Dried they have the
property of conserving fire for hours as they smoulder away.
842. Coral Funaus Another fungus associated with
Jarrah trees, but growing up from the ground amongst the trees
is the richly-branching Coral Fungus. There is a canary yellow
and a have not opened out may be called Cauliflower Fungus.
843. Puffballs Usually one is advised to avoid wild
fungi in the button stage, as they are too young for
characters of stem, gill, and spore colour to be observed.
However, the common puff ball, occurring on practically every
lawn, does not have even rudimentary stem or gill, and is so
familiar that it can be safely collected. It should be broken
open and only eaten if the flesh is still white and not
/7
coloured. The matured puff-ball, which is full of spore
powder, would be most unpleasant to eat, although not actually
poisonous.
844. Morels The morel fungi can occur in great
abundance in the forest, especially after extensive fires.
They are firm, odourless, fungi consisting of a deeply
furrowed cone growing on a white stalk. They have been
appearing in beds of bark chips in the Metropolitan area.
Both cone and stalk are hollow, and the recommended method of
eating them is to stuff them with morsels of meat and then to
bake. One should not confuse them with the somewhat similar
Stinkhorns, which have a froth-like structure and an
abominable smell.
8-12
845. Black fellow's Bread
This is an underground fungus
consisting of a mass of tapioca-like material encased in a
black rind. The whole may weigh as much as a kilogram.
The
P
contents may be eaten raw, and have a pleasant acid flavour.
They are normally found embedded in the sides of road cuttings
or are turned up when farmers are ploughing, especially in the
Karri country round Pemberton.
846. Truffles These are underground fungi much prized in
Europe as fine-flavoured food. Several are known to be valued
by aborigines in Western Australia: the Elder Truffle (named
after the expedition which discovered it) is about the size of
an egg,
and occurs under trees in the Great Australian desert
near Lake Hazlett and Lake Mackay, where it is found just
breaking the surface in loose sand.
847. Yeasts Grow naturally on sap of plants. They are
very rich in Vitamin B and their deliberate culture on rice
extracts in P.0.W camps in S.E. Asia during the Second World
War saved many lives. The story is told in the article by
Audas. (See reference).
/---
848. w We eat mouldy cheese without coming to
harm and mould on food is not normally in itself harmful
(although it may indicate that the food is 'off' and therefore
unfit to eat). Boer soldiers used the skin of mould from food
as dressings for wounds and abscesses thereby pre-dating the
discovery of penicillin - which is made from moulds - by 50
years!
REFERENCES
Aberdeen, J.E.C. (1979) An Introduction to the Mushrooms,
Toadstools and Large Fungi of Queensland. Handbook No 1 of
the Queensland Naturalist's Club
Audas (1946) Biology behind Barbed Wire. "Discovery" n.s. Vol
7.
,,p Cleland, J.B. (1934-35) Toadstools and Mushrooms and other
Larger Fungi of South Australia. Government Printer, S.
Australia. Reprinted 1971:.
Cribb & Cribb (1975) Chapter 10 "Fungi" in Wild Food in
Australia. Collins, Sydney.
Meagher, S.J. (1974) The food resources of the aborigines of
the South-west of Western Australia. Rec. West. Aust. Mus
3:60
Southcott, R.V. (1975) Notes on some poisonings and other
clinical effects following ingestion of Australian fungi.
South Australia Clinics.
,-
8-13
CHAPTER NINE
PREPARATION OF FISH
PTER 9
PREPARATION OF FISR
troduction
900. In a survival situation an individual must know how
to prepare, cook and store fish.
One cannot afford to ruin
or waste food by using the wrong techniques to clean it.
Every Part of a food substance caught or killed can be eaten,
preserved, used for clothing or improvised equipment.
Fish
901. Care must be used when selecting fish to eat.
Some
fish are naturally poisonous to humans.
Many poisonous fish
do not have true scales but have bodies that are covered with
smooth skin, rough skin, bristles or spines.
902. DO ROT eat fish that look like:
aLI Puffer fish which become balloon like when caught or
disturbed.
b. Porcupine fish, which are covered with spines and
also expand when disturbed
903. DO NOT eat the intestines or roe of fish.
For
example the liver of a shark contains high concentrations of
Vitamin D that could prove fatal.
Alkaloids
904. Some fish are toxic because of poisonous alkaloids
contained within food sources eaten by the fish. Cooking does
not destroy these toxins.
905. Most of the information concerning fish poisoning is
not based on scientific study and there are no steadfast rules
to go by. Remember act like the natives, if they eat it you
eat it. If they don't eat it then neither should you.
Snoilacfe
906. Spoilage of fish in a tropical environment can start
within minutes of the fish being killed, which means that
where possible the fish should be treated or eaten as soon as
possible to avoid the onset of salmonella (food poisoning).
907. Do not eat fish that have a peculiar smell as
opposed to how it smelled when caught.
9-l
908.
. .
SUSDlCl
ous colour the gills should be red to pink in
colour if they are grey to white the fish is bad.
909. - Scales should be a pronounced shade of grey - not
faded, the body should be wet not slimy.
910. Fish eves When caught the fish should have clear
eyes.
911. push test If upon pressing the thumb against the
flesh the fish remains deeply dented,
it is probably stale and
in advanced stages of decomposition.
912.
Taste
If a fish (especially one with dark meat) has
a sharp or peppery taste discard it.
913. If symptoms like diarrhoea, itching, cramps,
paralysis, nausea, vomiting or metallic taste appear, drink
sea water and purge your stomach by vomiting.
914. All fish should be thoroughly cooked to kill disease
producing organisms (many fresh water fish serve as vectors of
human parasites).
The safest fish to eat in a tropical climate are
those from the open sea or deep water beyond the reef. Many
coral fish contain toxic substances in their flesh.
Preoaration of Fish
912. Fish must be prepared for consumption as soon as
possible after cooking.
Cut out the gills and large blood vessels that lie
next to the back bone, remove the head.
Some fish do not need to be scaled, whilst others
such as catfish can be skinned.
The fish should be gutted by cutting along the belly
from the anus to the head and the belly cleaned by scraping it
clean with a knife.
The fish is nc-(r ready for cooking or preservation.
9-2
CHAPTER TEN
SlAUGHTERING
OF
GAME
RING OF G?ME
1000. Killing any animal should be done as swiftly and
effectively as possible. Using any method that .Involves slow
death or torture of any animal only serves to degrade the
animal and the individual doing the killing.
This can also
induce mental anguish that could cause witnesses not to be
able to eat the animal. (Food aversion)
Birds
1001. In most cases fowl should be plucked and cooked with
the skin on in order to retain its food value.
a. Most fowl are easier to pluck after scalding,
waterfowl are an exception as they are
easier to
.F---
pluck while dry.
b. After the bird is plucked, cut off the neck close to
the body, clean out the insides via an incision in
the abdominal cavity, wash out with fresh clean
water.
C. If plucking is impractical skin the fowl to remove
the feathers. Use the neck, liver and heart for
stew.
d. Scavenger birds should be boiled at least 20 minutes
to kill any parasites.
e. Feathers should be saved for use in insulating or
manufacturing of lures etc.
f. Do not overlook eggs in the intestines of the bird.
/I
Mammals
1002. When medium or large game are caught in your traps
or snares they may well be still alive. Animals that are
conscious should be killed using a spear or club. Do not
approach too close as the animal whilst cornered, is extremely
dangerous.
1003. Where possible the animal should be cleaned near an
adequate water supply, allowing the carcass and removed edible
portions to be washed and cleaned.
1004. Fleas and parasites will leave a cooled body, so if
possible wait for this to occur before commencing to clean and
dress the animal.
10-l
Dressing
1005. If the animal is large, roll it onto its back and -Y
with a sharp knife cut through the skin below the sternum
towards the tail. This first cut should be shallow and about
5 to 6cm long. Do not pierce the stomach.
1006. Insert two fingers of your left hanl into the cut
with the palm up. After the fingers are forced forward and
the flesh is raised, place the blade between the fingers,
cutting edge leading the direction your fingers are pointing,
with the blade uppermost. Move the blade and fingers forward
together, with the fingers forcing the stomach down so as to
avoid cutting it.
1007. If you should cut the stomach or internal organs you
could render the meat unpalatable.
1008. Continue the cut towards the tail. When you reach
the genitals, cut to one side of them and continue the cut to
the anus, being careful not to puncture it.
-
1009. Remove the knife and turn it around. Insert the
knife (blade facing you) into the cut just below the sternum
and cut between the hide and the breastbone until you reach
the base of the neck. If possible,
splitting the sternum.
open the chest cavity by
This is accomplished by cutting to one
side of the sternum where the ribs join. (The bone is softest
there.)
1010. If the carcass must be dragged any distance, it is
better not to split the breastbone or cut the hide from the
breastbone until you reach your destination. This allows less
dirt and debris to contaminate the carcass.
1011. Reach inside and cut the windpipe
close to the base of the skull as possible.
and gullet as
Now, with the
forward end of the intestinal tract free, work your way to the
rear, lifting out internal organs and intestines and cutting
only where necessary to free them. During this process, it
helps to roll the carcass from side to side.
1012. The bladder she Ild be handled gently because urine
can contaminate the meat. Cut the bladder away from the
carcass without puncturing A?.; then,
and cut beyond the point you
pinch the urethra tightly
are pinching. Remove the
bladder.
1013. From the outside of the carcass ream the anus by
making a circular cut around it with your knife. Pull the
anus into the body cavity and out of the carcass.
1014. Lift or roll the carcass to drain all blood.
save as much blood as you can.
Try to
Then,
is a valuable source of food and salt.
boil it thoroughly. It
10-2
1015. Save the kidneys, liver, and heart. Use the fat
surrou-ding the intestines. All parts of the animal are
/---
edible, including the meaty parts of the skull such as the
brain, eyes, tongue, and fleshy portions. Check the heart,
kidneys, liver and intestines for spots or worms. If the
animal is diseased in any manner, there is danger in handling
the meat and preparing it for cooking. If you have gloves,
use them while preparing the animal to help prevent
contracting the disease. Once the animal has been
well-cooked, there is little chance of sickness even though
the animal was diseased.
1016. Do not throw away any part of the animal. The
glands, entrails, and reproductive regions can be used for
bait in traps and on fish lines. The bladder and its contents
can be used for bait (lure) in traps and snares. The contents
of the bladder may also be used to remove human scent and
attract other animals of the same species. In addition, the
bladder can be used as a container for water.
1017. Next, the skin is removed. Make cuts along the
P\
inside of the legs to the knee and elbow joints.
Make a ring
cut around each leg just below the hoof or paw.
Then start
peeling the skin back, using the knife to cut the membrane
between the skin and meat in a slicing motion.
Continue this
until the entire skin is removed.
1018. Save the skin. It is light when dried and good
insulation as a bed cover or article of clothing or for rope
making. The carcass may now be easily disjointed.
Small Mammals and Rodents
1019. All mammals are edible, regardless of what they are.
Dogs t
cats, hedgehogs, porcupines, and badgers should be
skinned and gutted before cooking. Prepare them as a stew
with a quantity of edible leaves.
1020. Both rats and mice are palatable meat, particularly
if cooked in a stew.
and boiled.
These rodents should be skinned, gutted,
P
Rats and mice should be boiled about 10 minutes.
Either may be cooked with dandelion leaves.
Always include
the livers.
10-3
CHAPTER ELEUEN
FOOD
PREPARATION
/--
1100. The following means of preservation can be used in
the field by the survivor:
a. Drying - sun or fire;
b. Smoking - hot or cold;
C. Salting;
d. Brining;
e. Cooking;
f. Pickling; and
90
Pinole.
Drvinq
1101. Fresh meats and fish must be used - the decay cannot
be reversed.
a. Cut the meat into small strips across the grain
and remove all fat. The fat will not dry. The
smaller the strips the sooner it will dry.
b. Hang meat strips in a sunny, breezy spot for
approximately 2 - 3 days, or over a slow
burning fire (SEE FIGS 11-l AND 11-21.
The
meat will go dark in colour and hard.
Watch
out for blow flies. If the meat is dipped in
salty water this will keep the flies away.
C. The meat or fish properly dried will last for
months and can be eaten raw, or soaked in water
until soft, then cooked.
d. Dried meat is known as Biltong or Jerky.
e. Pemmican is made by crushing dried meat
and
mixing it with fat to form a doughy substance.
It can be flavoured with herbs, etc.
Smokinq
1102. For preserving food by smoking, the
applies:
following
a. The smoke should always be a blue/grey in
colour and cool in the container.
11-l
Salting
1103.
Brininq
b. The meat or fish should be a uniform yellow to
orange colour, but definitely not black, when
finished. -
C. Smoking will take 24 hours or more.
d. The food, properly cured, will last for a
lengthy period.
e. All large bones and fat should be removed.
f. Cut the flesh into steak size pieces to allow
smoke to cure before it rots.
cl*
For the general working principle of a smoker,
SEE FIG 11-3.
h. For the preparation of
smoking.
fish for drying or
(SEE FIG 11-41 .
Used for fish and vegetables:
a. Fish Remove all bones, the head and the
stomach. If the fish is small, cut the
backbone out and lay fish flat. If it is a
large fish - fillet. Cover both sides with
salt and rub in well. Place pieces of fish one
on top of the other for storing.
b. Veaetables Place a layer of salt in a rust
proof container. Cover with a layer of
vegetables such as beans, peas, cabbage, or
their wild plant equivalent. Place a layer of
salt over the vegetables, then another layer of
vegetables etc. Store away for future use.
1104. Brine is a salt solution and by using this, it is
another way of preserving food.
a. Cover small lumps of meat with highly
concentrated salt solution.
b. Leave in brine for up to five days. Change
brine solution if it turns sour.
C. Remove from brine and store covered liberally
with salt.
d. A brining solution can be obtained by boiling
down sea water until it is highly concentrated.
11-2
cookinq
1105. Meat cooked will last a few days
longer than
P
uncooked meat, especially if covered in fat from cooking and
can be cooked by the
following methods: boiled, fried,
grilled, baked, and steamed.
Picklinq
1106. Mix one-third citrus juice to two-thirds salt water
and soak food in this mixture.
Pinole
1107. This is a grain or seeds dried by a fire, in an
oven, or by the sun. The seeds are crushed until the mixture
resembles dried uncooked porridge. Pinole will last
indefinitely, it is light to carry, contains a maximum of
calories, and is easy to prepare.
/---
NOTE: Remember
bacteriai
Putrefaction and decay are caused by
action. Bacteria needs moisture, so
remove all the fat and moisture and your food will
be preserved.
FIG 11-l Drvina Method bv Fire Heat
11-3
FIG 11-2 Drvina Meat in the Suq
4
300g Dried Meat (Jerky) = lkg Fresh Meat
FIG 11-3 Preservina Food bv Smokinq
-
0
11-4
FIG 11-4 Fish Skewers for Drvina of Smoking
GHAPTER TWELVE
VENOMOUS
AUSTRALIAN CREATURES
VENOMOUS AUSTRALIJU'J CREMW'=S
Introduction
1200. This section deals with the most common of
Australian venomous animals. These have been broken up into
three categories; marine animals, snakes and arthropods
1201. General. These animals which are dangerous to man
fall broadly into two classes - the venomous and the toxic.
Venomous
wide range of 1202. wneral. This
group
covers a
.-
creatures including sea snakes, jellyfish, coral, cone shells,
octopus and various dangerous fish such as the stone fish,
scorpion fish, the Zebra or Lion fish etc. The venom carried
by these creatures is delivered to the victim by varying
methods. The fish as a rule have venom syringes built into the
spines on their backs. The cone shells are fitted with a
series of hollow, glass-like spears, each containing a venom
sac - these spears can be projected with considerable force
either in the water or out. The jaws of the octopus contain
its venom delivering apparatus, while the jellyfish group,
which includes the seawasp, or Box jellyfish have their
stinging mechanism in their many varieties). Coral, although
not venomous, can cause severe septic wounds, unless the cuts
are cleaned and bandaged as soon as possible.
(spiders and scorpions).
Marine Animals
Nearly all of these creatures, with the exception of
the fish are easily recognisable. Venomous fish are generally
found close to shore and as a general rule do not look like a
normal fish, for instance the deadly stone fish prefers to lie
,.-
in shallow pools in coral reefs or in the muddy water of river
estuaries and resembles less irregular-shaped chunks of
weathered or eroded rock or coral.
Avoid contact with any of these creatures as their
venom can cause severe pain, paralysis or even death, and the
chances are that the expert medical treatment needed will not
be available in the survival situation.
1203. Sea Snakes. A number of species of this kind of
reptile inhabit the warmer water off the coast of tropical
Australia and the northern islands. Very occasionally one may
be caught in a South bound current and brought into the colder
water of temperate Australia. Despite their quite extensive
range, deaths in Australia from sea snake bites are rare. By
all accounts, the venom of at least some of them is highly
toxic and a bite from one can be fatal. The treatment for a
bite is the same as for land snakes.
/--
12-1
1204. Sea Wasp The first recorded death was in Townsville
in 1883. Since then,
in Australia alone.
there have been over 80 deaths reported
F---x
1205. Not every Chironex sting is lethal, some just cause
intense pain and skin damage. Hairy legs can prevent more
serious stings. Females who shave their legs and the
relatively hairless skins of children cau::e the sting to be
more severe. The majority of deaths are of children with women
the next largest group.
Stings
1206. Skin Damaae. Severe skin destruction can occur.
The damage and the pain
hot irons.
felt is like being branded with red
long
The skin reaction is so severe that healing with
term scaring usually occurs. The damage may be
equivalent to second and third degree burns and blistering of
the skin occurs within 8 hours. See FIG 12-1, 12-2.
Vineaar
1207. Household vinegar (4.6% Acetic Acid) is cheap and
n
easily obtained. It is very effective in the treatment of
fresh Chironex stings when there are adherent tentacles
present only. The vinegar causes dehydration of the tentacles
so that no further stinging occurs. It must be used for a
minimum of 30 seconds to be completely effective.
Note: Vinegar dose not relieve pain or reverse venom
effects.
Sians and Svmotoms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Wheals which occur promptly and massively.
Respiratory distress and failures.
Cardiac Arrest
Treatment
1.
2.
3.
Retrieve and Restrain.
Flood the tentacles with vinegar.
Do not rub or try to wipe off, unless unfired
stings have been deactivated.
4. Apply compression bandage.
Immediate Pain - increasing in waves.
Areas of contact are liner and multiple,
showing purple or brown lines like those of a
whip.
12-2
5. Observe airway, breathing and circulation.
6. Carry out resuscitation procedures if required.
7. Evacuate.
Note: In hot still tropical weather, Chironex enter very
shallow water to feed;
without fear of any rough water which
may cause their tentacles to be damaged.
FIG 12-l Se
a[ ws
Bell can be as large as a mans head. Tentacles can grow up to
10 metres in length.
FIG 12-2 Diaaram to Illustrate action of Nematocvst of Sea
Wasn
P
Box Jellyfish Sting
How a typical nematocyst
discharges when it is
triggered by the touch of
other living organisms.
An internal tube turns
itself inside out,
injecting a tube through
which the capsule's load
of venom is forced.
-
12-3
1208. Because a cone's stinging snout
narrow end of the shell,
emerges at the
it is sometimes suggested that the -
shell can be handled safely at the other end. That is, not
true, because suddenly extended, the snouts of most species
can reach back to any part of the shell.
1209.
thick,
Live cones should never be handled without tongs or
strong gloves. They can sting through clothing, so a
collected specimen should never be placed in a pocket. Cones
found among the coral structures of the Great Barrier Reef,
where people are most likely to see them, are protected under
marine park laws. Without a permit, issued for scientific
purposes, they cannot be collected at all.
FIG 12-3 Cone Shellfish
. . .
Q
2. ,
NO SAFE PLACE TO TOUCH IT
Live cones should never be picked up with bare hands
PIG 12-4 Venom APDaratus of Cone Shellfish
12-4
1210. There are approximately 70
species found in
Australian waters.
The Geographer
cone shell so far is the
only proven killer
in Australian waters.
But all cone shells
n
are venomous and can inflict a nasty sting.
Sians and Svmntoms
1. Pain or stinging sensation at site of sting.
2. Numbness at site.
3. Numbness spreading from mouth.
4. Slurred Speech.
5. Blurred/double vision.
6. Possible respiratory failure.
Treatment
r-
1.
2.
3.
4.
As for snake bite (pressure immobilisation).
Rest.
Reassurance.
Evacuate.
Blue Rinaed CktODUS
1211. It is the most lethal octopus in the world with two
species found in Australian waters. One species is f;~~do~~
southern waters, which grows only to about 12 cm,
found in Northern Waters, which grows to about 20 cm.
FIG 12-5 Anatomv of Blue Rinaed OCtODuS
PAIRED POSTKBIOB RALWORY CLAMM
I
I
RAUIVORY DlJlX
PASSES THROUGH
THB BRAIN
ZNTO THE
12-5
1212. There are two ducts that pass right through the
brain, one carries food up to the crop and stomach the other
brings the venom down to its mouth from the venom glands,
f--l
These two glands are equal in size to its brain.
1213. Warnina Sims. While the octopus is at peace it is
usually a dull yellow ochre in colour ard can range to a
greyish colour. The rings or bands are normally a dull colour
and not prominent in poor light. When threatened or picked up
the rings or bands become iridescent and as the danger passes
they go back to a dull blue.
1214. The venom in blue ring octopus has a component that
is found only in the tissues of pufferfishes. This is
tetrodotoxin a paralysing poison. Victims are
unaware of this bite,
normally
the site of the bite.
the only sign may be a drop of blood at
The area starts to swell and darken in
about 15 minutes, but before this a person whom has been
envenomed will feel numbness and tingling of the mouth.
Sian8 and Svmotoms
1.
2. Respiratory difficulty.
3. Vomiting.
4. Vision Distorted.
5. Swallowing becomes difficult/ceases.
6. Speech becomes difficult/ceases.
7. Respiratory Failure.
Treatment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Venomous Fish
Abnormal sensations around the mouth this
slowly spreads to the rest of the face and
neck.
Pressure immobilisation (as per snake bite).
Rest Victim.
Observe A.B.C.
Carry out resuscitation if required.
Evacuate ASAP.
1215. There are two species
found in Australian waters.
They are found between the Houtman Abrollius
Island off
Geraldton W.A. and far Northern N.S.W., as well as the Great
Barrier Reef.
12-6
1216. If something large disturbs
the sea bed or water
where the stone fish is resting,
it simply erects a row of 13
spines that lie along its back fin. Anything meeting the
,/---
spines with enough force to be deeply pierced is injected with
toxins. The potency makes this one of the most venomous fish
in the world. See FIG 12-6.
FIG 12-6 Stone Fish
FIG 12-7 Deliverv of Venom
ARTlCULAR
SURFACE
WIN ENOIU GLANDS
H/0/, .
VENOM DUCTS;_
EACH SIDE OF SPINE
tkz2
VENOM RECEASkD
.
- SKBN OF VICTIM SFWli
1217. When a Stonefish Delivers its Venom, the Victim does
all the work.
1218. A Stonefish's
13 stinging spines are encased in
~ thick, warty sheaths.
A pair of bulbous venom glands towards
the base of each spine have narrow extensions leading up along
grooves that reach almost to the sharp tip.
12-7
1219. The gland extensions
fibrous material.
are normally sealed off wtth
If something pushes down on an erect spine
with sufficient force to make it penetrate deeply, the sheath ,-,
is stripped back and the blockage is removed. At the same
time glands are tightly compressed. With explosive force the
venom shoots up the spine grooves and into the wound.
1220. The glands are emptied in a siagle burst and
destroyed. Much of their cellular material enters the wound,
along with the liquid venom. The glands regenerate and are
recharged with venom in a few weeks.
1221. The stinging spines of other fish work on the same
principles. They may use muscles to direct their spines
towards the enemy, but no other effort is involved. The spines
function only when injured by an outside force.
1222. Foot Punctures make up more than two thirds of
serious
stonefish envenomation. If people tread gently and wear shoes
it removes most of the risk of envenomation. But if people
run or jump into the water the spines can penetrate sandshoes, ,-
thongs and flippers.
Sians and Svmotoms
1. Severe pain locally.
2. Muscle paralysis.
3. Respiratory failure.
4. Possible cardiac arrest.
Treatment.
1. Immerse in hot water.
2. Observe A.B.C'S.
3. Evacuate to hospital.
4. Do not use pressure immobilisation.method.
Poisonous Fish
1224.
cowfish,
Puffer fish and their relatives porcupine fish,
box fish and ocean sunfish, contain a lethal toxin.
Less than a tenth of a gram is enough to kill anyone.
In an
overseas case a victim died in 17 minutes. The danger is
virtually world wide but mainly in temperate and warm waters,
and out of the hundreds of fish species implicated there are
about 30 species found in Australian waters.
12-8
Description
1225.
The fish vary widely in body form and colOur.
What
/h*
they have in common
is a lack of true separated scales.
They
are covered instead by a defensive plating that may be
abrasive bumpy, something like a sharks skin or spiny.
1226. They are slow swimmers, usually seen alone and
shaped like avocados.
This is true for the main group of
puffer fish. Their teeth are unmistakable. On both jaws, they
are fused together with one cleft in the middle. A toadfish
appears to have just four wide beak like teeth.
Puffer fish
range in size from under 5 cm up to 75 cm for the silver
cheeked toadfish. The toxin in puffer
fish is tetrodotoxin;
the same toxin of the Blue Ringed Octopus.
/--
Tetrodotoxiq
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1227. In a serious poisoning, symptoms develop within 10
-- _ -_
to 45 minutes of eating the fish. The sooner they start the
worse the case. No anti venom or antidote is available yet.
(TTX) is:
Neurotoxin - Blocks electrical impulses.
Normal responses of feeling and movement fail.
Muscle activity and heart pumping are reduced.
Blood pressure fails.
Victims cannot move, speak, see or swallow.
They may remain conscious and lucid.
The main life threatening effect is breathing
failure.
Earlv Sians
1.
2.
3.
4.
Treatment
1.
2.
3.
4.
Tingling numbness around the mouth.
Stiffness.
Poor co-ordination.
Slurred speech.
Induce vomiting (only if paralysis or weakness
has not set in)
Observe airway, breathing circulation.
Carry out mouth to mouth or CPR if required.
Evacuate ASAP.
12-9
1228. Build UD of Ciauatoxin. It is believed that small
organisms on the reef called dinoflagellates produce
ciguatoxin. The amount of toxin in these organisms is -
infinitesimal. Other small creatures eat them and in turn, are
eaten by something larger and so the food chain goes on.
1229. Most of the toxin is held in the internal organs
including the muscles of the fish. The amount of toxin builds
up according to the age and size of the fish. This occurs
because the fish may take in many doses in a lifetime.
1230. Area. In Australia fish capable of causing
ciguatera can be caught from Grafton, N.S.W., around to
Geraldton, W.A. Poisoning mainly occurs between Hervy Bay,
OLD, and Darwin NT.
Sians and SvmDtoms
1. Early Signs:
a. Weakness;
b. Dizziness;
C. Dull Aches in Limbs, Head;
d. Prickling of Hands;
e. Numbness;
f. Muscle pains/cramps; and
Q*
Reversal of temperature sense.
Treatment
1. Induce vomiting.
2. Observe airway, breathing, circulation.
3. Commence resuscitation if required.
4. Obtain Medical Aid.
5. Evacuate.
12-10
SNAKES
n
Introduction
1231. Australia has less than 140 species of snake
recorded. Twenty-one of them are perfectly harmless burrowing
worm snakes or blind snakes which look more lJ.ke polished and
scaly worms than snakes and they are rarely more than 30cm or
so long. There is another group comprising ten non-venomous
constrictors in the family commonly called 'pythons'.
These
pythons have no venom glands but have an array of 19 long
sharp teeth set in two parallel rows. The large python can
grow from 4 to 6 meters and are
capable of swallowing a whole
wallaby. What this chapter is more related to are the
venomous species of Australian Snakes and the following
information applies.
Venomous Snakes
1232. General. Although it is perfectly true that there
are plenty of highly venomous reptiles in every state of
F--
Australia they are all shy and solitary animals who prefer to
dwell only in places where they can expect to find the kind of
food they need and the concealment so essential
to their
survival. They are limited to a maximum speed in pursuit or
escape, about 6 to 7km per hour on flat ground, hardly more
than marching pace.
1233. Venom Delivers System. Their paired salivary glands
have assumed a very significant function. They secrete venom,
a powerful multi-purpose enzymic fluid which is associated
with a pair of enlarged channelled or grooved teeth. When a
venomous snake bites its venom is expressed from the glands
and is squeezed under pressure, along a duct to the base of
each fang, thence down the groove or canal into the tissues or
blood stream.
1234. The Australian Tiger Snake bites and then releases
its grip on the prey until it is dead. Most of our other
venomous species hold on tenaciously. The common brown snake
/h. bites and then tends to twist its head and neck over or around
the prey to constrict it until the venom has taken effect.
This same snake has a habl+, of striking sideways so that the
object of its attention is rarely caught squarely by the front
of the snakes mouth. SEE FIG 12-11.
1235. Properties of Venom. More than half of the common
deadly species possess a venom containing an overwhelming
proportion of a neurotoxin which acts on the peripheral
nerves. The first obvious effect is a peripheral neuromuscular
block. As the effect extends, flaccid muscle paralysis becomes
evident in the jaw,
lip,
tongue and eyelids and then in the
chest and diaphragm. Breathing becomes more and more difficult
and, as it is likely to be hindered by an accumulation of
secretions in the air passages, the victim may collapse and
die of asphyxia. One of the early signs of snake poisoning is
enlargement of the regional lymph glands.
12-11
1236. Many of these snake venoms have been subjected to
scientific study which has shown that they have four main
constituents:
a.
b.
C.
d.
TABLE 12-1
_-__----------------------------------------------------------
Neurotoxic, which blocks communication of
nerve-ends with muscle fibrils. This leads to
muscular paralysis and c'insequently to
respiratory failure.
Haemorrhaging, an enzyme which breaks down
tissue, especially blood vessels and visceral
organs.
Haemolysin, which destroys red blood cells and
probably other types of body cells.
Thrombase, a blood coagulin which plays but a
small part in the damage caused by the venomous
snakes but may play some part in the initial
killing of the victim. (See the following
table):
NAME OF SNAKE Average Neurotoxic Haemolytic Coagulant
Venom Component 61 Cytotoxic Component
Yield Components
(Dry Weight)
in mg
--------------------------------------------------------------
Brown snake, 2 xxx X xxx
Dugite etc.
Copperhead 25
Tiger Snake 35
Black Snake 40
Death Adder 80
xxx
xxx
X
xxx
xxx
X
xxx
X
xx
xx
Taipan 120 xxx X X
Mulga or 180 xx X X
King Brown
Snake
_____-------------_------------ -------------------------------
12-12
1237.
Distribution and Identification
a. Tiuer Snake. Characteristics are as follows:
c
/-
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Broad head with no marked distinction between it and
neck.
Pupil is round.
Thick body.
Colour is any shade of tan, brown, grey or olive
with creamy yellow bands.
Belly scales are creamy white without blotches.
'Banded' or 'Mainland' snake length is about 130cm.
Tasmanian black exceeds two metres.
He is inoffensive unless aroused but when alarmed he
then becomes aggressive and strikes at the first
opportunity.
He has moderately long fangs and delivers a liberal
quantity of a very powerful neurotoxic venom.
He must be regarded as one of the most dangerous of
Australian snakes.
b. Coooerhead. Characteristics are as follows:
(1) Length of the largest can be 150cm.
(2) The largest species is regarded deadly but the
smaller members have a potent venom.
(3) Its colour varies from a light coppery brown,
through dark reddish brown to black (it is often
mistaken for a black or brown snake). A
distinguishing feature is the cream edging of the
lip scales giving a striped appearance and some
specimens have a dark collar bordered by yellow and
an obscure dark stripe down the back (this stripe is
more evident in young snakes). The scales joining
the ventrals are either yellow or salmon red (the
latter causing it to be mistaken for a red-bellied
black snake), and the belly may be yellow, grey or
dark.
(4)
The pupil is round.
(5) The body thickset.
(6) The fangs are small but the venom is comparable with
that of the Tiger Snake.
12-13
_----~.-.- ---
C. Death Adder. Characteristics are as follows:
(1)
It has a short thick set body, up to 1 metre in ,--.
length.
(2)
It has a wide triangular head, slender neck and
short tail which terminates in a very characteristic
spine.
(3)
(4)
(5)
Its colour is generally greyish to reddish with
irregular darker bands, and the belly lighter in
colour, with dark blotches.
The eye pupil is vertically elliptical.
It has long, wide, special fangs with large venom
glands which are charged with a powerful neurotoxic
venom, making it one of Australia's most dangerous
reptiles.
(6)
It is mainly nocturnal and seldom moves out of the
way of an intruder and therein lies its great danger f--x
to man.
(7)
It strikes very,rapidly over a short distance.
d. The TaiDan. Characteristics are as follows:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
It is Australia's largest venomous snake, the
maximum length recorded being 3.3 metres. A 2.5
metre specimen is regarded as large.
It has long fangs and a large output of highly
potent neurotoxic venom making it one of the world's
deadliest snakes.
It is shy and nervous but when provoked it defends
itself with a ferocity that is unequalled.
It has a large head which is distinct from the neck
and a notably slender fore body.
The pupil is round.
The colour of most is dark brown above, with creamy
yellow bellies spotted with orange, but the dorsal
scales of some species are brassy brown and of
others, almost black.
The Taipan is sometimes mistaken for a large brown
or mulga snake. (SEE FIGURE 12-8)
12-14
FIG 12-8 Illustratinq the Venom Amatatus of the Taban
VENOM OLAND
e. The Brown Snakes. These include the common Brown Snake,
Gwardar or Collared Brown Snake;
Dugite or Spotted Brown
.Y---
Snake. Their characteristics are as follows:
(1) General. Brown snakes are slender with small, deep
squarish heads hardly distinct from the neck.
All
varieties grow to two metres in length.
i2)
The Common Brown Snake is found in the eastern
states and SE of South Australia. It is
easily aroused and will strike repeatedly. The
powerful venom is in small quantities.
Their colour
may be any shade of brown, and the belly yellow or
creamish with brown, pink or orange blotchesi' Some
are spotted and banded.
(3) The Gwardar is widespread in WA, the NT, Cape York
Peninsula, Western Queensland, SA and north west
Victoria. Its colour is commonly olive to brown
with some dark scales on the neck. In some areas
the head is glossy, black and banded forms occur in
Queensland and NSW. The belly is creamish to yellow
with salmon to grey spots.
(4) The Dugite is found rn the southern parts of WA and
adjacent areas of SA. Its colour is olive to brown
with dark spots irregularly placed on the back. The
belly is olive with salmon spots on each ventral.
f. The Red-Bellied Black Snake. Characteristics are as
follows:
(1)
Its colour is a glossy purplish-back above with pink
to white underneath but the last pair of scales next
to the ventrals may be red or bright orange.
/--- 12-15
(2) The head is relatively small and barely distinct
from the neck, with the pupil round.
(3) It grows to two metres in length.
(4) It is inoffensive,
ShY
and seeks cover when
disturbed but when cornered it trier: to bluff its
way
out by flattening its neck, hissing and
feinting, often without seriously trying to bite.
(5) The venom is not powerful and a bite is unlikely to
prove fatal to an adult but it can cause a serious
illness.
(6)
It is an excellent swimmer.
cl* Mulaa Snake or the Kino Brown Snake. Characteristics are
as follows:
(1) This is the largest of the 'Black' snake clan,
growing to 2.5 metres and longer.
f---Y
(2)
It is never black but is usually brassy to reddish
brown with cream belly blotches with orange.
(3) The head which is broader than that of either the
Taipan or the Brown Snake,
the neck.
is slightly distinct from
(4) It is nocturnal
fairly
and delivers a large quantity of
strong neurotoxic venom. It is
dangerous.
highly
(5) It is not usually aggressive but can become quite
savage when cornered and flattens out its whole
body.
h. The Rouah Scaled Snake or the Clarence River Snake.
Characteristics are as follows:
(1) It is found in NE NSW, SE QLD and from Tulley to
T
Mosman in NE QLD.
(2)
It is olive green to brown, with dark bands and the
belly is yellowish white.
(3) It has a broad head distinct from the neck, the
snout flat and prominent, the pupil round and the
body cylindrical.
(4)
It grows to about a metre in length and is mainly
nocturnal.
(5) The venom is powerfully neurotoxic.
1. Broad Headed Snake. Characteristics are as follows:
(1)
It is a rock and tree climbing snake found in the
central areas and mountains of NSW and Southern QLD.
/7
12-16
(2
It is distinguished by
its broad head which is
distinct from the neck and it grows to 1.5 metres in
length.
(3)
The colouration is black with conspicuous yellow
s-cross markings and grey belly.
It can be mistaken
for a harmless diamond snake.
(4)
The venom contains a potent neurotoxin and is
nocturnal but when disturbed it becomes particularly
aggressive.
Black Whip Snake. Characteristics are as follows:
(1)
(2)
7
(3)
(4)
1238.
It is found along sandy coasts and rivers of the NT
and North QLD as well as in the Kimberleys.
It may be coloured olive to light or rich brown
above with greenish-blue belly. The head may be
speckled and there is a blackish area on the neck.
The posterior part of the body is blackish. Some
specimens are entirely black.
The head is deep and narrow, and only slightly
distinct from the thin cylindrical whip-like body.
The pupil is normal.
Its length can be up to 2 metres, it is a fast
moving snake and little is known of the potency of
its venom.
SPARE.
12-17
SPIDERS MUUXNIDSL
1239. Australia has more than 2000 species that cover
every part of the continent. All spiders are carnivorous and
with scarcely an exception are armed with venom to subdued
their prey.
1240. The spiders covered in this section are wide spread
and they cover most of Australia except the Funnel Web which
is confined to the East Coast of Australia.
1. Redback Spider,
2. Mouse Spider,
3. Barking or Bird Eating Spider, and
4. Funnel Web Spider.
Redback SDider
1241. The Redback Spider is wide spread throughout
Australia. Its varieties occur in New Zealand (Katipo),
North America (American Black Widow), the Mediterranean
Countries and India.
1242. The female spider is brown-black, with a large round
abdomen which has a red strip on top, and 'a red hourglass
patch underneath. Adult body length is 6-llmm. Males are
small (3cm) and have a cream-brown abdomen with red back
stripe flanked by brown streaks. SEE FIG 12-9.
Bioloov
1243. Females are always found in their webs. These
consist of a tangle of threads with a retreat back to a
-~
sheltered position; sticky trap threads are suspended from
the tangle to the ground. Webs are found under stones, logs
or the loose bark of trees. Around houses, spiders are found
in dry sheltered places like wood piles, cavities of brick and
stone walls, under steps and around pot plants. Sheds,
outhouses, old vehicles and farm machinery also provide ideal
shelter for the spiders. Males are small and seldom found;
they are not regarded as dangerous. Females
may
each
construct up to 7 egg sacs in a season - each egg sac contains
200 or more eggs. When destroying the spiders, it is very
important to also destroy the egg sacs.
12-18
Venom and Bite2
1244. A bite from a female redback spider may be
.-
dangerous. In majority of cases not enough venom is infected
by the spider to cause symptoms in the patient.
Children and
elderly adults will usually be affected most,
sick persons
more than the healthy.
1245. The symptoms of Redback Spider bite are severe local
pain which may become generalised, sweating, shivering and
muscular weakness. In the later stages a rash may appear.
1246. An antivenom, produced by Commonwealth Serum
Laboratories, is available through public hospitals free of
charge. There have been no fatalities since its introduction
in 1956.
First Aid
1247. Medical attention should be sought in all cases of
/--
bite:
1. Don't panic, keep movement to a minimum.
2. Redback Spider venom has its main effect locally.
3. Apply ice or cold compress.
4. Observe Airway, Breathing and Circtilation.
5. Most important, keep calm and seek medical
attention.
FIG 12-9 Redback SDider
Mouse SDiders
1248. The thick set Mouse Spiders, which constitute the -,
genus Missulens, have bulbous heads and their eyes are widely
separated along the margin of the cephalothorax (head and
"chest"). Each of the fangs (chelicerae) has a rake
(restellum), and the posterior spinnerets are short, with a
very short terminal joint. SEE FIG 12-10.
1249. Mouse Spiders were among the first spiders to be
recorded from Australia, where they are widely distributed,
but their habits are still not well known. They live in the
ground and are true Trap-door Spiders.
1250. At least 3 species of Mouse Spiders are known to
occur in the Northern Territory, but the common one in the
Darwin area is Missulena Pruinosa. It has an unusual burrow
with a double doored entrance, and a chamber to one side of
the main shaft, which also has a door and is used as a brood
chamber. The male is black, about 12cm long, is easily
identified by a light patch at the base of the upper side of
the abdomen. The female is more robust and has shorter legs
,--..
than the male, is black and lacks the light patch. Food
consists of insects, other spiders and native snails. Males
are most often found wandering in daylight.
1251. There are several reports of bites from Missulena,
none of which produce systemic symptoms.
FIG 12-10 Mouse Spider
12-20
Barking or Bird Eatina SDiderS
1252.
These are the largest spiders in Australia but are
P
generally not aggressive
compared to some other mygalomorph
spiders. They are powerful spiders, with long, strong legs,
and wander away from their burrows
in search of food at night.
The burrow is deep, has no door, although the entrance is
sometimes sealed with silk, this usually being an indication
that the spider is malting or has an egg sac if a female.
Food consists of frogs, small birds, beetles and a wide range
of other insects. SEE FIG 12-11.
1253. There are two common species, Selenocosmia
Crassipes, tropical distribution, often very large with
carapace up to 18cm, dark chocolate brown, with reddish
sternum. First legs have long bushy hairs, and longer and
stouter than fourth pair. Selenocosmia Stirlingi, dry inland
distribution, it is a uniform light dusty brown, first and
fourth legs of equal lengths and stoutness, and first legs
without brushy hairs.
1254. These spiders are capable of killing small birds in
,----~
two minutes and must be considered deadly. No human deaths
are recorded for these spiders. A male spider bit a woman on
the finger at Ingham causing severe nausea and vomiting which
lasted 6 to 8 hrs.
FIG 12-11 Barkina SDider or Bird Eatina SDider
12-21
Funnel Web Snider
/7
1255. Funnel Web spiders were responsible for 14 deaths
from 1927 to 1980 in Australia. They are potentially the most
dangerous spiders in the world and one of the most feared in
Australia. SEE FIG 12-12.
1256. Funnel Web Spiders belong to two genus groups, Atrax
and Hadronyche. Spiders of the genus Atrax, the most used of
the two names, are known only from the Sydney environs.
However, males of the genus Hadronyche have been responsible
for deaths, one as far north as Wauchope, near Port Macquarie
in Northern New South Wales.
Distribution
1257. Funnel Web spiders occur as far north as Toowoomba,
and south to Tasmania and Adelaide. Around Brisbane, they are
known only from the base of Mt Coot-tha, the Daisy Hill Forest
Park and adjacent parts of Springwood. In Queensland, the
n,
spiders tend to be more common in moist, cool rainforests,
where as in Southern States they occur also in drier eucalypt
forests.
Distinauishina Features
1258. Shiny black head, closely grouped eyes, spinnerets
are short but project noticeably past the body like
short
fingers, legs moderately long, body black or dark plum without
any pattern or substantial relief in colour.
well fed females
Often, large
may have a lighter body colour due to
distension and stretching of the skin.
Alone, the head or
body of a female Funnel Web spider can cover a 50 cent coin;
the legs can easily span the width of an adult hand.
Funnel
Web spiders build a number of types of webs. The burrow, for
most of its length, is a long dirty white' sock of tough,
parchment like silk which may be exposed in the crevices of
tree trunks, or concealed within the trunk or soil.
The top
of the burrow is divided into two to four soft openings, each
Y--Y
with several radiating strong strands of web. Entrances may
be held open by silk or may fall limply, concealing the
opening altogether.
1259. Male Funnel Web spiders are encountered during
summer when they wander in search of females.
Females tend to
remain in burrows until disturbed.
suburbs with soil, logs, stag horns,
They may be imported into
and elk horns taken from
rainforests.
12-22
--
The Venom
n
1260. Both males and females of all spices of Funnel Web
spider are
very
aggressive and bites from either sex are
potentially dangerous, even fatal.
The venom of males is
three to five times more toxic than that of females.
The
female of the Toowoomba funnel web has been tested and found
more toxic than that of males of the Sydney Funnel Web.
Hence, males of the Toowoomba Funnel Web are substantially
more dangerous than those of the Sydney Funnel Web.
Deaths
from the bite of Funnel Web spiders have occurred in as little
as 15 minutes. However, no one has died since the development
of the antivenom by Commonwealth Serum Laboratories.
SvmDtoms
1261. In many cases, bites cause no general symptoms and
recovery is uneventful. However, severe pain may be followed
by numbness of the affected area. Vomiting, sweating, and
muscular cramp may also occur. The venom over stimulates the
,---
nerves and hence the heart and lungs cannot operate normally.
First Aid
1262. First, keep calm and move only when needed. The
venom must be
immobilised and medical aid sought. If a limb is bitten apply
a broad bandage (crepe is best) firmly to the bite area and
just below it, then firmly apply the bandage up the length of
the limb towards the heart. Apply a wooden splint to
immobilise the limb. The victim should be taken to medical
aid. The pressure bandage should be removed only under
medical supervision.
FIG 12-12 Male and Female Funnel Web Soicier
Male
Female
12-23
FIG 12-13 Distribution of Atrax Soecies (Funnel Webi
Atrax Robustus
Other Atrax Species
NSW
FIG 12-14 Distribution of Hadronvche Species (Funnel Webl
Tree Dwelling
Toowoomba
Blue Mountains
Other Species
I -- - - - _ _ _ _.
I
I
12-24
SCORPIONS
P 1263.
Australia has about 30 species of scorpions, ranging
in size from approximately 3 cm up to 16 cm, as big as any
found in other parts of the world.
They are found throughout
the country, in all climate conditions.
1264. Their habitat ranges from hot arid, desert, forests,
woodlands and grasslands. Most species are nocturnal, furtive
and sedentary, hiding under leaf litter, logs, stones, bark
and burrowing sometimes up to 2 m in hot arid and desert
areas.
1265. Scorpions sting only in self defence. The signs and
symptoms are:
1. Burning or Throbbing Pain (may last for hours); and
2. Swelling.
Note: Generalised effects are rare.
/---
Treatment
1. Apply Hot or Cold Compress if available;
2. Pain Relief (analgesics);
3. Rest and Observe.
DeSCriDtiOn
1266. Its
palps,
the paired pincer armed claws, are
carried ahead of the eight legs. Its body is segmented, and
has no waist between thorax and abdomen. The abdomen extends
into a narrow flexible tail called a telson which finishes
with the sting. The sting can be swung both sideways and
forward over the back.
.-
FIG 12-15 SCORPION
12-25
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
,.--.
NATURAL
MEDICINE
7-
-. ---,
-_ --
C-R 11
NATURAL MEDICINE
General
1300. This chapter
covers a number of natural treatments
using materials
that are found worldwide.
It does not cover
herbal medicines because specific herbs (plants) are difficult
to identify and some
are found only in specific areas of the
world. This does not mean, however, that they should not be
used. To get information concerning types and uses of herbal
medicines in a particular area,
talk to the natives. But
remember, it is preventive medicine (PM) that must be
stressed. Proper hygiene, care in preparation of food and
drink, waste disposal, insect and rodent control, and a good
immunisation program can greatly reduce the causes and number
of diseases.
1301. All of us patients and doctors alike depend upon
,- wonder drugs, fine laboratories, and modern equipment. We
have lost sight of the "country doctor" type of medicine
determination, common sense, and a few primitive treatments
that can be lifesaving. Many areas of the world still depend
on the practices of the local witch doctor or healer. Many
herbs (plants) and treatments that they use are as effective
as the most modern medications available. Natural medicine has
been practiced worldwide since before recorded history, and
many modern medications come from refined herbs. For example,
pectin can be obtained from the rinds (white stringy part) of
citrus fruits and from apple pomace (the pulp left after the
juice has been pressed out). If either is mixed with ground
chalk, the result will be a primitive form of kaopectate.
1302. Although many natural medicines and exotic
treatments are effective, use them with extreme caution and
only when faced with limited or non-existent medical supplies.
Some are dangerous and, instead of treating the disease or
injury, may cause further damage or even death.
,-
Primitive Treatments
1302. Diarrhoea is a common, debilitating ailment that can
be caused by almost anything. Most cases can be avoided by
following good PM practices. Treatment in many cases is
fluids only for 24 hours. If that does not work and no
antidiarrhoea medication is available, grind chalk, charcoal,
or dried bones into a powder.
Mix one handful of powder with
treated water and administer every 2 hours until diarrhoea has
slowed or stopped. Adding an equal portion of apple pomace or
the rinds of citrus fruit to this mixture makes it more
effective. Tannic acid, which is found in tea, can also help
control diarrhoea.
13-1
1303. Prepare a strong solution of tea, if available, and
administer 1 cup every 2 hours until diarrhoea slows or stops.
The inner bark of hardwood trees also contains tannic acid. ,-
Boil the inner bark for 2 hours or more to release the tannic
acid. The resultant black brew has a vile taste and smell,
but it will stop most cases of diarrhoea.
1304. worms and Intestinal Parasites. Infestations can
usually be avoided by maintaining strict preventive medicine
measures. For example, never go barefooted. The following
home remedies appear to work or at least control the degree of
infestation, but they are not without danger. Most work on
the principle of changing the environment of the
gastrointestinal tract.
1305. Salt Water. Four tablespoons of salt in 1 quart of
water. This should be taken on a one time basis only.
1306. Tobacco. Eat 1 to 1 l/2 cigarettes. The nicotine
in the cigarette kills or stuns the worms long enough for them
to be passed. If the infestation is severe, the treatment can
be repeated in 24 to 48 hours, but no sooner. K---..
1307. Kerosene. Drink 2 tablespoons. Don't drink more.
The treatment can be repeated in 24 to 48 hours, but no
sooner.
1308. Hot Peppers. Put peppers in soups, rice, meat
dishes or eat them raw. This treatment is not effective unless
peppers are made a steady part of the diet.
1309. Sore Throats are common and usually can be taken
care of by gargling with warm salt water.
coated,
If the tongue is
scrape it off with a tooth brush, a clean stick, or
even a clean fingernail; then gargle with warm salt water.
1310. Skin Infections.
a. Funaal Infections. Keep the area clean and
dry,
and expose the area to sunlight as much as
possible.
b. Heat Rash. Keep the area clean, dry and cool.
If powder is available; use it on affected
area.
C. The rule of thumb for all skin diseases is:
"If it is wet, dry it, and if it is dry, wet
it.".
1311. Burns. Soak dressings or clean rags that have been
boiled for 10 minutes in tannic acid (tea or inner bark of
hardwood trees), cool, and
apply
over the burns. This
relieves the pain somewhat, seems to help speed healing, and
offers some protection against infection.
1312. Leaches and Ticks. Apply a lit cigarette or a
flaming match to the back of the leach or tick, and it will
drop off. Covering it with moistened tobacco, grease, or oil
will also make it drop off.
of the head may remain
Do not try to pull it off; part
attached to the skin and cause an
infection.
13-2
,?.
1313. gee D and Hornet StinaS. , Was
Inspect the wound
carefully and remove stinger if present.
Apply baking soda,
cold compress, mud, or coconut meat to the area.
Spider,
/"
scorpion and centipede bites can
be treated the same way.
Maaaot TheraDv for Wound Debridement
1314. Introducing maggots
into a wound can be hazardous
because the wound must be exposed to flies.
Flies, because of
their filthy habits, are likely to introduce bacteria into the
wound, causing additional complications.
Maggots will also
invade live, healthy tissue when the dead tissue is gone or
not readily available. Maggot invasion of healthy tissue
causes extreme pain and haemorrhage, possibly severe enough to
be fatal.
a. Despite the hazards involved, maggot therapy
should be considered a viable alternative when,
in the absence of antibiotics, a wound becomes
severely infected, does not heal, and ordinary
debridement is impossible.
b.
C.
d.
e.
All bandages should be removed so that the
wound is exposed to circulating flies. Flies
are attracted to foul or fetid odours coming
from the infected wound; they will not deposit
eggs on fresh, clean wounds.
In order to limit further contamination of the
wound by disease organisms carried by the
flies, those flies attracted to the wound
should not be permitted to light directly on
the wound surface. Instead, use the skin
surface along the edge of the wound. Live
maggots deposited here and/or maggots hatching
from eggs deposited here will find their way
into the wound with less additional
contamination than if the flies were allowed
free access to the wound.
One exposure to the flies is usually all that
is necessary 'C7
for
insure more than enough maggots
thorough debridement of a wound.
Therefore, after the flies have deposited eggs,
the wound should be covered with a bandage.
The bandage
for maggots.
should be removed daily to check
If no maggots are observed in the
wound within 2 days after exposure to the
flies,
the bandage should be removed and the
wound should be re-exposed.
If the wound is
found to be teeming with maggots when the
bandage is removed,
be
as many as possible should
removed using forceps or some other
sterilised instrument or by with
sterile water.
flushing
Only SO-100 maggots should be
allowed to remain in the wound.
13-3
SUMXARY
f. Once the maggots have become established in the
wound, it should be covered with a bandage
again but the maggot activity should be -
monitored closely each day. A frothy fluid
produced by the maggots will make it difficult
to see them. This fluid should be "sponged
out" of the wound with an absorbent cloth so
that all of the maggots in the wound can be
seen. Care should be taken not .to remove the
maggots with the fluid.
Q*
The period of time necessary for maggot
debridement of a wound depends on a number of
factors including the depth and extent of the
wound, the part of the body affected, the
number of maggots present in the wound, and the
fly species involved. In a survival situation,
an individual will be able to control only one
of these factors, the number, and sometimes not
even that; therefore, the exact time to remove
the maggots cannot be given in specific numbers
of hours or days. However, it can be said with
-<
certainty that the maggots should be removed
immediately they have removed all the dead
tissue and before they have become established
in healthy tissue.
feeding on
When the maggots begin
normal, healthy tissue, the
individual will experience an increased level
of pain at the site of the wound as the maggots
come into contact with "live" nerves. Bright
red blood in the wound also indicates that the
maggots have reached healthy tissue.
h. The maggots should be removed by flushing the
wound repeatedly with sterile water. When all
the maggots have been removed, the wound should
be bandaged. To insure that the wound is free
of maggots, check it every 4 hours or more
often for several days. Any remaining maggots
should be removed with sterilised forceps or by
flushing with sterile water.
-.
.
1. Once all Oi' the maggots have been removed,
bandage the wound and treat it as any other
wound. It should heal normally provided there
are no further complications.
The treatments discussed in this precis are by no
means all of the primitive treatments or home
remedies available for use. Most people have their
own home remedy for various problems. Some work,
some don't. The ones presented here have been used
and do work, although some can be dangerous. The
lack of modern medicine does not rule out medical
treatment. Common sense, determination to succeed,
and advice from the natives in the area on natural
treatments can provide the solution to a medical
problem.
,?
13-4
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
SURWAL KITS
Introduction
1400. Survival'situations can occur at any time or place.
When they do occur you will be left with what you have
available from your equipment and on your person. In a
survival situation anything you have can be useful and nothing
should be discarded until the full use of its potential has
been made. Anything extra in terms of equipment you have
will be a bonus and to this end a survival kit either on your
person or in your equipment (or both) can help you to survive
until rescue.
General
1401. The four priorities of survival are water, shelter,
warmth and food. If the subject of rescue is included then
the contents of a survival kit can be examined under the
headings shown in Table 2-14. Each of the contents of a
survival kit, should, if possible, have a dual or multi
purpose to reduce the kits size and make best use of available
carrying space. The actual contents of a survival kit will
depend on the users skill and knowledge, the climate, flora
ant! fauna in area and any operational or training restrictions
on its size.
The list of contents at Table 2-14 is very general
and by no means exhaustive. In a survival situation the kit
is an aid, not a crutch. Survival is a 100% effort, you can
only be right or wrong, no-one ever 'nearly' survived. The
most important factor in survival is the mental attitude of
the survivor. Without a positive mental attitude very little
will be accomplished. You will also need a slice of luck!
(See Table 1-14).
Table 1-14
POSITIVE MENTAL +
SKILL AND + LUCK = SURVIVAL
ATTITUDE KNOWLEDGE
(80%) (15%) (5%)
(100%)
14-1
Table 2-14 Survival Kit Contents
Ser Priority Item
Uses
WATER
1.
2.
3. Condom
4.
5.
6.
7.
Sterilising tablets
SHELTER
Half a hacksaw blade
(half size to fit
your kit, carry both
halves if you want)
Survival blanket
8. Strong cord
9.
10.
Strong clear plastic
bags
Rubber surgical
Sponge
Serrated wi,-e :aw
Large needle and
thread
Insect repellent Maintain health
Transpiration;
shelter;
carrying bag
Getting water
from difficult
hose areas;
snares;
improvised weapons
Water bag
(carried inside
a sock);
protect injury
Gather moisture
by soaking;
first aid
Sterilise water
Sawing; striking
sparks from flint
Protection;
signalling
Various (Para cord
has internal
threads that
can be stripped
out) ; snares;
fishing line;
thread; knots
and lashings; etc
Sawing
Repairs; sewing;
making snares
14-2
Ser Priority Item
Uses
12.
First Aid:
;;;-
(a)
I:;
ii;
(5)
w
(=I
w
(e)
14.
15.
16.
Tablets:
headache,
antihistamine
anti diarrhoea
anti
constipation and
antiseptic cream
Band aids/
elastoplast and
Dressing gauze
Cotton wool
Compressed
gauze bandage
Candy's
Crystals:
(1) small amount,
(2) medium amount,
and
(3) large amount.
(f) Alcohol swabs
(g) Scalpel
WARMTH
13. Matches (sealed in
candle wax) and
striking surface
Lighter (RAAF
restrictions)
Candle
Sugar coated
tablets mix
with Candy's
Crystals for
fire lighting
Cover wounds
Tinder; pack out
kit to prevent
rattle8
Tinder (can be
pre soaked in
kerosene)
Mixed with sugar,
glycerine if
scrgar coated
tablets for fire
lighting
sterilise water
antiseptic
disinfectant
Cleanse wounds;
fire lighting
Wounds; knife;
skinning game
Fire lighting
Fire lighting;
illumination
Fire lighting;
illumination
Candy's Crystals and:
("1
sugar,
(b) glycerine,
(=I
sugar coated
tablets (eg.
polaramine)
Fire lighting
Fire lighting;
chapped lips
fire lighting
17. Flint Create spark
18. magnesium block With spark
shavings produces flame
.-- 14-3
CHAPTER FIITEEN
IMPROUISED WEAPONS
AND
EQUIPMENT
,-
CRAPTER 15
IMPROVISED WEAPONS AND EQUIPMENT
General
All primitive
societies developed weapons.
So has
man in survival situations.
They were used for two
main purposes:
1500.
modern
a. to hunt game (food); and
b. to use against an enemy (defence).
1501. These weapons, for whatever purpose, vary only in
degree of sophistication.
That is, they evolved to maim or
kill one species more effectively than another.
1502. There are many examples of primitive weapons and in
the extremes of environment they were limited by the resources
available to the primitive society.
The survivor will also
have this limitation imposed upon him.
However, with his
imagination and education he will make up some of the short
fall in his experience.
1503. Some of these weapons are:
a. Spears. A variety of different points for
different game included:
FIG 15-X
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
barbs, so that the victim couldn't shake
free of the shaft, (SEE FIG 15-l).
multi prongs for catching fish, (SEE FIG
15-2).
stone for stunning fish, birds and ground
animals, _(SEE FIG 15-3).
a pointed tri-faced stone for large game
or man to inflict fatal lacerations, (SEE
FIG lT*.
FIG 15-2 FIG 15-3 FIG 15-4
b.
FIG IS-5
C.
d.
e.
f.
Q*
h.
.
1.
j*
k.
1.
m.
n.
club or he.The head can be bound to the handle
by hide, gut,
sinews or vines.
[SEE FIG 15-51.
---.
Bow and Arrow.
Arrow points can be similar to p
spear points, and the bow-string can be
manufactured from animal hide or gut.
Slinashot
Boles
Shana-hi
Throwina Dart
Blow Pioe
Flint Knife.
Boomerana/Throwinu Stick The hunting
boomerang of the Austra'lian aboriginal is
heavier and larger than the returning boomerang
-
and was not designed to return.
It was thrown
into flocks of birds on the wing.
The spinning
action strikes and stuns birds, causing them to
fall to the ground.
Solinterstone ImDlements. These can be
manufactured by the shattering of rock flakes
and as the Australian aboriginal found the
small sharp flakes make ideal cutting or
scraping tools.
Coolamons. Are used as a bowl
manufactured from the bark of trees.
Sewinu Needles. These can be made
bones of animals, infinite patience is
in boring the eye into the end.
and are
from the
required
Fish Hooks. These can be manufactured from /1
sea shells or wood. The wooden one is baited as
in FIG 15-6.
15-2
FIG 15-6
0. Fish TraDS. These can
. .
be woven from grass,
reeds or brancnes ana weighed down with stones.
Funnel/opening is faced downstream when trap is
laid in stream. [SEE FIG 15-71.
FIG 15-7
P*
Adze. Adze or wooden plane used to shave
wood. Can be made by sticking a sharp flake of
rock in to a wooden handle and binding it into
place with gum. (SEE FIG 15-8L.
FIG 15-q
GUM
15-3
q*
Strinq. This can be manufactured from the
inner bark fibre of some tre:r, or from
bulrushes and reeds. The material that has
been selected should be pliable and not break
,---.
if a knot is tied in it. It must be strong and
of reasonable and workable length.
1504. The material can either be spun, plaited or laid.
If it is to be spun it is spun between the finc,ers in the same
direction and at a constant thickness ensuring that new
material is added evenly so as to avoid lumpy and wet string.
Once you have a good supply of string you can increase its
breaking strength by increasing its diameter; to do this you
simply plait several thicknesses of string together, or
interlay (3) three strands together.
15-4
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
TRAPS
AND
SNARES
CHAPTER16
TRAPSARDSNAR.RS
Introduction
1600. Trapping or snaring is
an efficient way to catch
?I=@;
in particular it is a silent and relatively effortless
method. Snares are light to carry and simple to set.
Traps
and snares should be kept simple but strong.
Time spent in
making a strong effective trap is not wasted.
It is usual to
set traps after making a camp but before dark.
Check them at
night or at first light as they should not be left unattended
for more than a few hours. This strategy allows you to rest
while the set traps are catching food for you.
wneral Princinles
/---
1601. There are three main types of traps:
a. Mangle,
b. Strangle, and
C. Hold.
1602. The trap must be constructed for the particular
animal it is intended to capture and snares must be set at the
right height to catch the animal for which the noose is set.
A bird snare will not usually hold a kangaroo or wallaby.
Patience and "fine - tuning" of the trap or snare is necessary
to ensure success. Release mechanisms must be very finely set
and baits and lures attached firmly so that if the trap is
sprung the animal will be caught. Fasten or anchor snares
close to the loop so that it sets around the neck as soon as
the snare is struck. If the resistance is several feet away,
the animal has to move a long way from the point of set before
- it is caught. If it feels the resistance, the animal may
stop,
move backwards and slip out of the trap or snare.
The use of Baits
1603. In a lot of cases there is no need to use bait to
catch game. For instance, the trap or snare is set in a
position where the game is expected to be roving. On the
other hand if the game has to be enticed to a certain spot,
then bait is a must.
16-1
1604. The following is a list of what may be used for
bait:
a. Roots and insects for earth digging animals.
b. Flesh for carnivorous animals or birds.
C. Insects seeds or fruit for birds or tree
animals.
d. Herbage for grazing animals.
e. Worms, grubs or insects for fish.
f. Small portions of chocolate, sweets or sugar.
1605. Remember that most animals have a keen sense of
smell which as well as informing them about food,
can warn
them of danger. In fact their noses can alert them to
dangerous circumstances before their eyes have spotted the
cause. Traps and snares are far more effective if all trace
of human scent can be removed. Fire can be an effective scent
neutralizer and passing the parts of a trap through a small A
fire will remove traces of human scent. Nylon cords and wires
should be rubbed with leaves or other vegetation or perhaps
washed down with water after setting. Blood from previous
catches must be removed from snares if you wish to continue
catching animals with the same equipment.
Where to set the Trax, or Snare
1606. For the trap to be successful the site must be
carefully chosen. Some of the signs to look for are:
a. Along game trails and pads where there are
signs of recent use such as tracks, droppings.
b. In trees with recent droppings, scratch marks,
or gnawed bark.
n
C. On trails to water or around water holes.
d. In the mout, of recently used burrows.
e. Where there ar,. signs of recent digging.
f. Where there are signs of recently eaten herbage
or partially eaten fruit.
16-2
1607. Use small fences of brushwood, branches and twigs to
arrow the trail and guide the animals towards your traps and
P
snares. It is also possible to herd, drive or shepherd game
towards the areas where your sets lie.
When pursued, animals
tend to be less cautious than they are normally and they may
blunder onto less carefully set traps.
Collect all the
material necessary to make your traps and snares well away
from the trapping area.
Approach the trail L1nd area to be
trapped from the side. In order to disturb the area as little
as possible you should work from the side or straddle the
trail.
Tide of TraD
1608. The game to be trapped or snared plus the materials
available will decide the type of trap to be set.
Conclusion
a.
Triaoer or release mechanism.
To be a success a trap or snare must have
a reliable trigger or release mechanism.
A sharp knife is a must and aScorerat$
cutting and fitting essential.
the common types of
mechanisms are:
(1) Figure four dead fall release.
(2) Toggled spring release.
(3) Slip release bait stick.
b. Remember - some traps can kill man. Post
signs on all approaches if necessary.
1609. The setting of traps and snares requires a lot of
practice. Without this and application of bush craft skills
p your traps could fail. A knowledge of animal habits is
necessary to make you proficient in trapping, it is up to you
to gain this experience.
Trao information and construction methods
1610. Dead Fall (Manale). This is a simple trap with
only one man-made object to construct - a knife. Release is
affected by a figure four mechanism.
1611. For this release three straight, strong sticks are
required, the thickness and length will be dictated by the
target animal and the size of the rock or deadfall.
ster> 1: The upright is sharpened to a chisel
point at the top. A squared surface
is cut 20 centimetres from the top
with the faces aligned as shown in
the diagram.
16-3
SteD 2:
step 3:
To set the TraD
The bait stick has a nick cut out
five centimetres from the end of the
stick. A squared cut is made to mate -
with that on the upright stick. See
the diagram.
The release stick is sharpened to a
chisel point on both ends with a nick
cut in the underside to mate with the
upright.
1612. Raise the rock/deadfall, place the release stick on
the upright, rest the rock on the release stick. Fit the
bait stick into the upright and connect to the release stick.
The weight of the rock/deadfall holds the mechanism together.
1613. Movement of the bait will release the trap.
1See
Fia 16-11.
X--X
FIG 16-1
.
tllrOlJWD01RIDFtRYLT
Simple Snares
1614. Snares are easy to make silent in action and
effective in use. All that is required is a piece of fine
wire, cord or strong vine and a suitable anchor point.
16-4
For Tree Dwellina Animals (Stranalel
1615. Animals such as possums are easily snared.
First
P
locate a tree with scratch marks on the bark.
Lean a stick
about 8 cm in diameter against the tree and attach to it one
or more nooses large enough to hold the animal.
The possum
chooses the easy way down the tree, uses the leaning stick and
is caught by the snare. In struggling to free itself it falls
off the stick and is hung.
,-
For Ground Animals
1616. For animals such as rabbits or wombats, the snare
can be set at the entrance to the burrow or on the tracks to
the burrow. For wallabies and kangaroos, the snare is usually
set on the track as follows:
a. Select site for snare.
b. Drive in stake near track to hold snare.
C. Set snare across track propping the loop with
light sticks. Adjust the height of the snare
to the animal to be snared.
d. You may require a small fence to guide the
animal into the snare. (See Fig 16-2).
FIG 16-2
16-5
LOU Fall (SliD release bait stickL
1617. This log fall is suitable for ground living animals,
T
and its action depends upon the turning or twisting of a
forked bait stick,
one end of which is sharpened to a point
which in turn supports the smoothly cut face of the cross bar
on which the logs are lying.
Select a site where the animals
feed. (See Fig 16-3).
FIG 16-3
To set the TraD
1618. Cut a stick with a widely forked prong, one arm will
hold the trap, the other will hold the bait. The lower end
should be roughly sharpened and the top brought to a sharp
point. A stout stick is sharpened and levelled at the head
so that it is nearly flat. This stake is driven securely into
the ground. Select two or three heavy logs for the fall.
These logs should be trimmed to lie flat on the cross bar.
The cross bar is cut with a squared side at one end and the
other is trimmed off with a smoothly inclined face. The
squared side is laid on top of the levelled stake. The logs
are laid on the cross bar, and the sharpened point of the bait
stick is put under the inclined cut on the end of the cross
?
bar, at such an angle that it will slip off if the bait stick
is twisted. The lower end of the bait stick rests on a chip
of bark or a smooth flat stne so that it will not sink into
the ground. Sensitivity is adjusted by the angle of the bait
stick on the cross bar.
Canadian Pendulum Snare
1619. This is a simple snare to set and may be used for
any sized animal so long as the snare keeps the animal off the
ground. To achieve this effect, the counter-weight must be
heavier than the animal. (See Fig 16-4).
16-6
FIG 16-4
Procedure
1620. a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
Set To
1621. a.
b.
POUTABLI
TBIGGIR
Y8CBANI8Y
Select site for snare
Cut pendulum stick and attach weight to the
end. (This trap will also work with a cord
thrown over a branch. A stone or piece of log
provides the weight to lift the animal).
Tie the pendulum stick to a tree or stake so
that it will lift any animal which dislodges
the trigger.
The cord with trigger is attached to the
pendulum and a stout stake driven in where the
trigger will be located. Or you can use a
beveled stick tied to the same tree.
Lash the sear to this stake.
Cut bait stick so that it is held at about 45
degrees to the ground by the trigger. Attach
snare loop to trigger cord.
Build a cage around the trigger assembly
leaving a gap across which the snare is set.
Pull down trigger cord, fit bait stick to
chisel point of sear, then fit trigger into
bait stick and latch it against the sear.
Position snare loop across the gap.
16-7
Ground Snare (With toaale and Bait Stick Release1
1622. This snare will take an animal of any size.
Procedure
1623. a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
Set To
1624.
FIG 16-5
Select a site where a sapling will suit the
purpose.
Lop the top branches off, bend the top over and
mark the spot below on the ground.
Cut two branching sticks and drive them into
the ground about 30 cm apart and, 10 cm above
the ground. These will hold the cross bar.
Drive an anchor peg into the ground about 30 cm
from the cross bar assembly.
Cut the toggle about 10 cm long and attach to
toggle cord.
--Y
Cut the bait stick so that it will fit between
toggle and anchor peg.
Then fit snare.
a. Pull down sapling, lift cross bar, fit toggle
around cross bar.
b. Adjust toggle, fit bait stick between toggle
and anchor peg.
C. Fit snare over bait stick. (See Fig 16-5).
16-8
Net Trap for catchinu animals alive ITooaled sorino release1
.
P
1625. Procedure:
a. Select springy tree at trap site, and lash the
net to a square frame of poles.
b. Construct a toggle release mechanism with a
bait stick longer than the net.
C. Join the net corners by cord to main cord and
attach to the springy sapling.
1626. To Set:
a. Lay out net under bait stick.
b. Pull down sapling and set toggle release.
(See Fig 16-6).
FIG 16-6
/--
TBNBION
TLWBION
1
16-9
Horse Hair Bird Snare
1627. This is a good snare
for birds up to parrot size.
I
Two strands of hair doubled is strong enough and a noose 3 or
4 cm in diameter is ample.
Horse hair can often be found on
barbed wire fences. If horse hair is unobtainable, fine nylon
fishing line of about 5 kilo breaking strain will do.
Procedure
1628. a.
b.
C.
d.
Set To
1629. a.
b.
C.
d.
FIG 16-7
Select two horse hairs about 25 cm long.
Hook the centre of the hair over a nail.
Plait the hair and tie off with a thumb knot.
After the required number of snares have been
made (i.e. at least ten) they are tied to a
stick about one metre long.
Select site where birds feed or have a habit of
resting.
If after parrots, tie bait on bottom of stick
and slope stick about 45 degrees, as parrots
always side step down sticks.
Once one bird is caught, its alarm call will
attract others which will be caught in other
snares. The birds must be removed as soon as
possible as parrots bite through snares.
If possible, keep one bird alive as a caller
for a later date. (See Fig 16-7).
16-10
Indian Bird Snare (Slio release bait stick1
1630.
A good snare
for any perching birds or any bird that
r--
can be decoyed by bait.
Procedure
1631.
a. Cut a
square hole in a stick the required
height.
Secure stick in ground.
b. Cut release
stick with square end to fit in
hole.
C. Tie a thumb knot in the cord 6 inches to 1 foot
from stone; make a snare out of remaining cord.
See Fig 16-8).
FIG 16-8
Set To
- 1632. a. Pull cord through square hole till knot is on
bait side of the stick.
b. Push release stick into square hole - the
release stick should hold the knot in place.
C. Spread snare on release stick around bait.
1633. a. Select site where birds feed or have a habit of
resting.
b. If after parrots, tie bait on bottom of stick
and slope stick about 45 degrees, as parrots
always side step down sticks.
16-11
C. Once one bird is caught, its alarm call
will attract others which will be caught
in other snares. The birds milzt be
removed as soon as possible as parrots
-
bite through snares.
d. If possible, keep one bird alive as a
caller for a later date.
General
1634. In a survival situation it is imperative that body
energy and fluid levels be maintained.
Therefore it is
essential that energy is not wasted in the chasing or
following up of animals that have been injured in traps or
snares.
Blood Trails
1635. This precis gives an accurate outline and detail of
blood trails - the area of injury to the animal and whether it
-
is worthwhile to follow the blood trail:
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
g*
Very bright red trail - arterial bleeding -
animal likely to bleed to death - worthwhile to
follow.
Very dark rich red trail - venous blood -
depending upon amount lost - if a great amount
- follow - if not - unlikely you will catch
your prey.
Spattered as if from a waving paint brush
indicates that the animal has been injured in a
limb and would most likely be well out of the
area.
Heavy globular drops mean that the animal has
suffered a wound to the torso and will die
within 100 m of first indication.
,--.
Very pink frothy or 8Bbubbly1g blood means that
the animal has a lung wound and would probably
expire very shortly after injury.
Rich - dark almost black blood with an
unsavoury odour indicates that the animal has a
stomach wound - a very crippling injury which
would mean that it would still be in the
general area.
A very heavy - gelatine blood trail is a
definite indication that the injury was caused
by a head wound as the gelatine effect is
caused by brain fluid - the animal will
definitely be in the very near vicinity.
16-12
Instructors Notes
1636. The above blood trail indicators can be effectively
,fl
demonstrated
w a
visual demonstration using either
artificial blood available from theatrical agencies or chilled
animal blood if ordered from abattoirs.
Demonstrations
1637. Arterial Bleedina. Blood placed in plastic bottle
and "spurted" out.
1638. Venous Bleedina. Remove top from above plastic
bottle and pour liberal amount
onto one spot.
1639. Limb Wound. Dip 1" paint brush into blood
container and splatter.
1640. Torso Wound. As per demo 2.
/--
1641. Luna Wound. Mix blood with ENO'S or other
effervescent product.
1642. Stomach/Bowel Wound. Best demonstrated by mixing
blood with Worcestershire
sauce.
1643. Brain Iniurv. Mix blood with glycerin.
1644. The indicators listed above are accurate and proven
and will save the hunter or survivalist the unnecessary waste
of energy in attempting to track down wounded game that may be
"long gone".
16-13
,-
CHAPTER SNENTEEN
EMERGENCY SIGNALS
BROENCY SIC3NALB
General,
1700. It has been shown through experience that one man Or
even an aircraft is not easy to spot from the air.
The object
of emergency signals is to make the best possible use of what YOU
have with you or what is available around you to make yourself
more noticeable to search parties.
1701. You will more likely than not be carrying something to
signal with. Here are some examples:
a.
Mirror.
Be it a shaving mirror, a helio-graph or
the lid of a food tin, a flash can be seen from
an aircraft many miles off. Everyone should
practice using a mirror for signalling to develop
the skill required for aiming and sighting. A
piece of tin or a shaving Eirror can be sighted
as shown in Fig 17-1.
FIG 17-L
b. Marker Panel. Brightly coloured cloth can be laid
out in an open clearing to attract a pilot's
attention. Cloth or a flag tied to a pole can be
lashed to a treetop and
may
also attract
attention. The International Ground/Air Panel
code is at Table 1-17, Page 17-4.
C. R&Q. A working radio, if you have one is the
best rescue aid, because you can direct search
and rescue parties to your position. The
distress signal is MAYDAY or in Morse code,
S.O.S. Care must be taken to conserve battery
life. Flat batteries will make your radio
useless.
17-1
d. Flashliaht.
Signal with a flashlight by pointing
the beam directly at the aircraft.
e. Matches. Flares and Smoke Grenades.
Signal fires
?
can be lit to provide smoke during the day or
illumination at night. White smoke is easiest
seen in jungle or heavy bush and can be made by
putting green leaves, moss or water soaked rags
on the fire. Black smoke is easiest seen in
desert environment and can be made by adding rags
soaked in oil or rubber products to the fire.
Signal fires are laid out as shown in Fig 17-2.
FIG 17-2
1702. All these items, matches, flares and smoke generators
are diminishing resources and should be used carefully to see
they are not wasted.
f. Whistle. There is an international distress
signal for whistles. It is six whistle blasts
over a period of one minute, to be answered by
three whistle blasts over a period of one minute.
It can be supplemented at night with torch
flashes, thus stimulating two senses and giving
directional sic.
1703. There are many things a person can use for signalling.
They are only limited by the imagination of the survivor. Some
examples are:
a. Torch Trees. If you cannot collect firewood
(e.g. because of injury) to light fires as shown
inF=, then why not light the tree?
-
b. Panel Code. Many things can be used to lay-out
the international panel code. If you don't have
panels or coloured cloth, you could use:
17-2
(1)
(2)
(3)
FIG 17-3
Shadow, as in a trench, Pia 17-3, or piles
of rocks, brush or dirt; and
Contrast in colour by laying out green grass
or branches over dead grass. By cutting or
burning grass or low scrub; and
ShaDe. For example by mak.-?q an unnatural
shape in your surroundings e.g. cutting a 30
metre diameter circular path 3 - 4 metres
wide.
1704. Aircraft to Ground. There are international signals
for a pilot to use to show he understands your plight.
They are:
a. Messaae Understood:
(1) BY day,
the aircraft will circle anti-
clockwise and rock its wings; and
(2) By night, the aircraft will flash a series
of green lights.
b. Messaae not Uderstood:
(1) BY day,
the aircraft will circle clockwise,
see Fia 17-4; and
(2) By night, the aircraft will flash a series
of red flashes.
17-3
FIG 17-4
(Itollfng wing@ up rnd down)
Yeasage received and undwstood.
Mwgr rmcaivmd, but NOT undmhm~---- - - - --
GROUND/AIR EMERGENCY CODE FOR USE IN AIR/LAND RESCUE SEARCH
TABLE 17-1
Ground-air visual code for use bv survivors
Message Code
Symbol
Message Code
Symbol
Require doctor serious
V
Probably safe to land
injuries here A
Require medical supplies
II
Require fuel and oil
Unable to proceed
x
All Well
Require food and water No
N
Indicate direction to
proceed
Am proceeding in this
direction
Yes
Not understood
Y
JL
Ground-air visual code for use bv around search oarties.
Message Code Symbol
Operation completed
We have found all personnel
IL
We have found only some personnel
We are not able to continue. Returning to base.
xx
Have divided into two groups each proceeding in
direction indicated.
Information received that-aircraft is in this
I
44
direction.
Nothing found. Will continue search.
I
NN
A space of ten feet between elements wherever possible
17-4
Visual Location Aids
1705. Survivors are expected to use all available location
/--
aids to help the
search and rescue forces find them without
delay. It is difficult to see survivors from the air, so the
visual location aids provided in survival equipment are designed
to attract with only slight effort on the part of the user.
This
chapter describes the equipment
carried in aircraft to help
locate survivors quickly by visual means.
Pyrotechnics
1706. Signal Post. Where the aircraft pistol can be removed
from the aircraft stowage, it should be taken into the life raft,
or away from the aircraft in the event of a crash landing,
together with a supply of red cartridges.
Sianal Distress Dav/Niaht No 1 Mk 1 and Mk 2
/--
1707. The Signal, Distress Day/Night, No 1 Mk 1 and Mk 2 is
included in most aircraft survival equipment and was introduced
to replace the two star red distress signal. It provides two
pyrotechnics in one casing - orange smoke for use by day, and a
red flare for use at night. These can be operated independently.
The smoke signal is visible by day 9 km from the air and 5 km
at sea. At night, the flare can be seen from about 48 Ian in the
air and 9 km at sea. The main details of the signal are:
a. DeSCriDtiOn. The signal has a tubular body, 5
and one eighth inch long and 1 and five eighths
inches in diameter. At each end, a plastic cap
covers the firing mechanism, which is a folded
ring. The night flare end has a cap with eight
projections to aid identification in the dark,
whereas the smoke end has a smooth cap.
The two
pyrotechnic units are entirely independent and
are separated internally by a spacer.
b. Operatina Instruction. Unscrew the end cap and
unfold the firing ring.
Pull the firing ring at
right angles to the length of the signal, holding
the signal firmly and well away from the face and
the body (See FIG 17-5).
C. General Characteristics.
(1)
Each end of the pyrotechnic burns for about
20 seconds. The flare burns at 18000 candle
power, when it has died down,
the signal
should be quenched by dipping in the sea, or
into earth.
17-5
(2)
(3)
(4)
FIG 17-5
The smoke (day signal) may ignite itself
spontaneously;
should it do 53, the flame
can be extinguished by dipping into the
----Y
sea, or by a vigorous shaking.
It should
then continue to generate smoke.
Conversely, the smoke may be ignited by a
match or flame to provide a further flare
signal at night.
The smoke adheres well to snow and it may
be used to mark out a ground signal in
Arctic regions.
Unless a suitable clearing can be found in
wooded regions, the day smoke signal will
not be readily apparent from the air, as the
smoke diffuses among the trees. Where this
is likely to be the case, the signal may be
hoisted to the top of a tree by means of a
length of line passed over a branch;
another length, attached to the ring, can
be pulled to ignite the signal. ,--l
Rocket Sianal Distress No 1 Mk 1
1708. The Rocket, Signal, Distress, is a cordite motor
?
propelled pyrotechnic signal for the use of a distressed air
crew, particularly in jungle country.
It is packed in several
types of survival packs car:ied by aircraft which operate over
jungle areas.
a. DescriDtion. The rocket signal is 8.5 inches in
length and 1.5 inches in diameter and weighs 8
oz. It consists of a cylindrical metal
container, housing a rocket head secured to a
cordite rocket motor. A pull-percussion igniter
assembly, to which is attached an ignition cord
about 30 inches in length, is fitted below the
motor. The container is externally threaded at
both ends, and each end is closed with a
waterproof cover. The performance of the rocket
is as follows:
(1) height of ejection (star) - 800 ft;
17-6
Note:
FIG 17-G
(2) duration of burning (star) - 3 sets;
(3)
candle power - 1,000; and
(4)
colour of star - Red.
b. Oneratina Instructions.
Instructions for firing
the rocket signal, including ar arrow indicating
the firing direction,
are printed on a red
background on the container and are as follows:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Very hot gases will be discharged from the lower end
Grasp the middle of the rocket in the left
hand.
Remove BOTH covers and unwind the ignition
cord, without pulling.
Keep the left arm outstretched horizontally.
Point the rocket in the required firing
direction. (Do not point the axis of the
rocket towards your body).
Fire by giving a steady pull on the ignition
cord at a slight angle to the axis of the
rocket, so that the hand is out of line with
the jet (See FIG 17-6).
of the rocket; it is important, when pulling ignition
cord, that this end should be directed away from both
the hand and the body.
Sianal Miniflare
1709. The Signal Miniflare is designed to give the survivor
eight separate pyrotechnic cartridges (and a means of discharging
them) in one small package.
17-7
FIG 17-7
a. Descrintion. A pen-size discharger, with 8
separate cartridges, is contained in a plastic
case measuring 6 x 1.5 x .75 inches.
The -,
discharger is 4.75 inches long with a diameter of
. 5 inch. The cartridge measures 1.25 x S/8
inches and when fired reaches a height of approx
100 feet, burning for 5 to 7 seconds (See FIG
17-7).
b. Ooeratina Instructions.
(1) Remove the plastic strip from the top of the
container; this covers the base of the eight
cartridges. Remove the firing mechanism
(discharger) from the base of the container.
Both the discharger and the cartridges are
threaded; screw on the discharger to one of
the cartridges. When securely fixed,
withdraw the discharger with the cartridge
attached.
(2) To fire, hold the discharger well above the
head with the arm fully extended. pull down
on the &;.ring trigger to its full extent
with thz rkunb, then release.
Note: When at sea, both the plastic container and the
discharger should be secured to the life raft by a
nylon line to prevent loss.
Electricallv Ooerated Liahts
1710. McMurdo Liaht. The McMurdo Light is fitted to Life
jackets Mk 4, Mk 4A and Mk 7. It is also fitted to flotation
equipment included in pressure jerkins and Flying Suits, Mk 5,
as well as to multi-seat life rafts.
17-8
a. DeSCriDtiOn.
The McMurdo Light consists Of a
battery (McMurdo L12),
a cable and a bulb mounted
on a plastic holder.
Four watertight plastic
plugs,
linked by a nylon cord, are incorporated
in the side of the battery. The entire equipment
can be carried in a small pocket on a life
jacket. The battery is approximately 4.25 x 1.25
x 7/8 inches. It has a minimum endurance of 10
hours at full brilliance. On multi-seat life
rafts, the battery is stowed under the lower
buoyancy chamber, and the bulb and holder on the
canopy. In this case it is stowed with the
plastic plugs removed so that the battery is
activated as soon as the life raft is in the
water. The batteries on life rafts and life
jackets are interchangeable.
b. Ooeratina Instructions.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Remove the battery and bulb from the pocket.
Mount the bulb on the rubber button on the
stole of the life jacket
(or
other
floatation equipment) or on the hood of the
single seat life raft.
Remove the plastic plugs from the battery by
pulling the nylon cord; if in a life raft,
place over the side. If in the sea, replace
the battery in the pocket of the life
jacket.
If the battery is required to replace a used
one on the multi-seat life raft, the plug
attached to the bulb unit lead should be
removed. The battery can then be inserted
in the life raft battery pocket
and a
connection made to the life raft
lead.
light
Once the battery is wet, chemical activity
continues, but some power can be conserved
when the light is not needed by removing the
battery from the water, and by shaking it
dry*
17-9
MISCELIANEOUS EQUIP=NT
Matches, Waterproof. Safetv No 1 Mk 1
1711. Matches, Waterproof, Safety No 1 Mk 1 are contained in
many of the aircraft scales of survival equipment.
The term
'waterproof' in the nomenclature refers only to the containers
in which the matches are packed. The matches themselves are not
waterproof. They are contained in a plastic cylinder, which is
sealed to prevent the ingress of moisture.
Each match has a
combustion composition extending about half the length of the
stem to give a longer burning time than ordinary matches.
The
method of packing prevents movement of the matches and minimises
any possibility of self-ignition. They should be kept dry and
used to light the candle, from which a fire can be started.
Matches, Wateroroof, Safetv. Waxed Tvne
1712. Matches, Waterproof, Safety, Waxed type are contained
in the Mk 6 Emergency Rations. They are Italian type miniature
waxed matched and are completely enclosed in a watertight
aluminium foil container. They are only waterproof when wrapped;
when once exposed, care must be taken to prevent the matches
becoming damp. They should be used in conjunction with a candle
for lighting fires. The small size of these matches makes them
difficult to handle when gloves are worn and care must be taken
if they are not to be dropped.
Helioaraoh
1713. This item consists of a 2 inch square stainless steel
mirror and a foresight; the foresight is attached to the mirror
by a short length of cord. In clear weather it is used to flash
signals during the hours of sunshine and its range is limited
only by the curvature of the earth; for these reasons the
heliograph has some advantage over other aids to recognition, but
its usefulness is limited to hours of sunshine.
f--x
1714. The apparatus is contained in a fabric envelope which
protects the mirror from scratches and other similar damage; it
is normally stowed in sue' a way that mechanical damage is
unlikely to be sustained.
1715. To use the heliograph to attract attention, proceed as
follows:
a. Hold the foresight in the left hand about 6
inches in front of the eye, and in line with the
target.
b. Place the back of the mirror immediately in front
of the eye with the right hand, and align the
hole in the centre, and that in the foresight on
the target.
17-10
C. Move the mirror until cross
foresiyht and a black spot
foresight hole; the yam is
the target _ISee FIG 1 -8).
FIG 17-8
. . . .
--._
/
. _
-3-b
I \
lines appear on the
centralises on the
then directed on to
Note: The mirror need not be rocked deliberately, as the
hand does this inadvertently.
Instructions for use
are printed on the reverse side of the mirror.
Ground/Air Emeraencv Code Label and Razor Blade
1716. A copy of the International Ground/Air Emergency Code
is stowed in a pocket of life jackets and in personal survival
and emergency packs. The package in life jackets also contains
a razor blade (in the same stowage) for cutting parachute or life
raft material. The code instructions are self-explanatory and
are printed on hard plastic. The signals required may be formed
by strips of parachute, life raft fabric or any material which
will form a good contrast when viewed from the air.
:-
Sea Dve Marker IFluoresceinl
1717. A sea dye maricer (fluorescein) pack is stowed on life
jackets and other flotation equipment. It consists of a
yellow/green dye powder in a fabric container which is enclosed
in a waterproof rubber pack. It produces a coloration of the
water which can be seen for comparatively short ranges only (up
to 5 kms). It lasts for approximately.2 hours if left in the
water continuously, but it takes about 15 minutes to form a
signal of sufficient size to be seen from the air. The dye can
be used to stain snow, or to dye pools or lakes inland, but the
survivor's water procurement should not be endangered as it is
toxic in large doses. The instructions for use in the sea are:
a. Pull the canvas handle to open the pocket.
17-11
b. Remove the dye marker pack from the life jacket.
C. Attach the marker to the life raft; open the
rubber pack; check that the marker rides on top
-
of the water to ensure a good dye spread. Dye
will be discharged on contact with the water.
After immersion, do not withdraw the pack, hoping
to use it again; it will not be effective a
second time.
Summarv
. 1718. A wide range of equipment is provided for a survivor
to use for emergency signalling. Some of the items described
above require knowledge and practice if they are to be used
effectively and quickly. All air crew should take every
opportunity to practice using visual location aids so that a
satisfactory level of skill can be built up before an emergency
situation develops. The equipment described in this chapter
provides the tools to enable the survivor to make himself
conspicuous. The initiative must come from himself. He is
m
expected to use the matches to provide fires for warmth and for
signalling purposes in the manner outlined in the chapters on
survival in Section 1. The principle of the heliograph is also
extended in that section to the use of the reverse side of engine
cowlings and aircraft panels from a crashed aircraft. The sea
dye marker pack can also be used for marking pools of water and
snow. This chapter should be read in conjunction with the
contents of Section 1 to obtain the full benefit.
The Sianals Area
1719. a. Should be part of the survival campsite.
b. Should be as distinct as possible.
C. Should have maximum contrast with its background.
d. Should make full use of sunlight; remember that
/I
the shadows of tall trees move considerably
during the day (See FIG 17-91.
FIG 17-9
17-12
DISTRESS RADIO FREOUENC.IES
1. The frequencies below are designated as distress
frequencies and are monitored by the various agencies as noted.
Some frequencies may be used for both Morse (keyed) and voice
transmissions and some are for Morse transmissions only.
2. As most agencies are responsible for aircraft and
shipping traffic the normal frequency band is HF with limited VHF
access.
3. FWAF. All military aircraft and RAAF operational
communications systems (AOCS) ground bases monitor one universal
distress frequency and three general purpose nets. A;; nets are
in the HF band.
,- a. Distress Frequency:
(1) 5695 KHz - 24 Hrs
b. General Purpose Frequencies:
(1)
8976 KHz - 21002-09002
(2)
11236 KHz - 21002-09002
(3) 13207 KHz - 21OOz-09OOz
(4) 3032 KHz - 09ooz-21002
(5) 5688 KHz - 09002-21002
(6) 9876 KHz - 09ooz-21002
C. Callsigns:
(1) RAAF Sydney - Airforce Sydney
(2) RAAF Townsville - Airforce Townsville
(3) RAAF Darwin - Airforce Darwin
(4) RAAF Perth - Airforce Perth
4. OTC Coastal Radio Service. Each frequency listens for
distress calls for three (3) minutes on the hour each hour and
on the half hour each half hour.
Radio Silence other than
distress calls is imposed for the duration of the listening
watch.
a. 2182 KHz - AM and SSB (RT and Voice)
b. 4125 KHz - USB (Voice)
17-13
-.
C. 6215.5 KHz - USB (Voice)
d. 156.80 KHz - Channel 16 AM or SSB (Voice) (Marine
'I,
VHF)
5. Aircraft Distress Frequencies:
a. 121.5 MHz (VHF) ) - International and Military
243.0 MHz (VHF) ) - Emergency Frequencies
b. 5695 KHz
(u-1
- RAAF AOCS Distress Frequency
(see para 3 above)
C. 8364 KHz - International Shipping Distress and
Emergency.
d. 4125 KHz
(USB) 3
- Australian Coastal and
Shipping 6215.5 ) - (See OTC para 4 above)
e. 3023.5 KHz ) - World Wide Air-Ground - 5680 KHz
3
- Frequencies
-
f. 2182 KHz - International Small Ships Emergency
Frequency
6. AFtMY. Most RASIGS units monitor local guard and
safety radio circuits for local activities.
The frequencies and
listening times change to accommodate differing circumstances.
Details may be obtained from the responsible area HQ.
7. NAVY. RAN Shipping utilise international distress radio
frequencies.
17-14
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
SURUIUAL
AT
SEA
SURVIVALATSEA
Introduction
1800. Disaster at sea seldom strikes in the same way twice.
The circumstances and consequences of catastrophe are so variable
that no hard and fast rules can be formulated to cope with the
unknown factors of the situation.
The sea is not man's
hereditary environment, but the proper use of equipment and the
application of techniques of survival have enabled him to live
for long periods when cast adrift on the sea.
1801. If faced with the problem of survival, the survivor
needs not only equipment and knowledge of how to use it but also
/--
knowledge of how to counter the hazards he is likely to meet.
Disaster at sea both in peace and war could largely depend on
self-resourcefulness until help arrives.
Psvcholow of Survival
1802. Training teaches men how to have the best chance in any
survival situation and must therefore be encouraged. Men adrift
will naturally look to you as a leader for guidance. It is very
important therefore that you should be fully acquainted with
lifesaving equipment and techniques and be aware of the mental
and emotional disturbances which arise in men under stress.
1803. In the stress of survival the man, his equipment and
the techniques he employs form a unity, but the most important
single factor is the survivor's "will power". Deaths have
occurred where equipment was adequate and when rescue was known
to be imminent but will power was lacking. Strength of mind is
p more important than strength of body, although obviously a
measure of physical stamina is necessary.
1804. The solitary survivor is in the worst position. He is
a tiny speck, alone, lost in the big sea. He will hang in for
a time, but as the days pass .he may become despondent and even
contemplate suicide. He may be tempted to consume all his food
and water at one time instead of eking them out. To survive he
must have faith in being found and remembering the rules of
survival adhere to them, settle down and await rescue. Pray if
he is religious. Prayer relieves stress and liberates energy.
1805. Survivors in a group closely congregated in a craft are
subject to group reactions. Good leadership is essential for the
maintenance of morale and for the initiation of sound action in
the event of emotional disturbances within the group, or any
other emergencies.
18-1
1806. The good leader will assume many duties, some of which
are as follows:
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
Q-
h.
.
I.
assess the situation, and ensure that all have a
good understanding of requiremc.nts for survival;
detail duties, such as lookouts etc;
determine the rations and times of issue, and
ensure that rations are equal and are seen to be
equal;
set an example of cheerfulness and steadfastness;
watch for
any
indications of anti-social
behaviour and settle disputes quickly and firmly;
take firm steps to prevent the drinking of
seawater;
-.
insist on good hygiene;
take personal charge of all lethal weapons and of
any article which may damage the raft or be used
in a quarrel; and
lead the survivors in prayer and hymns.
The Hazards - Causes of Death
1807. prownina. The most common cause of death at sea and
needs no further description.
If you cannot stay afloat or get
to the surface to breath you will not survive.
Hvnothermia
1808. The maintenance of internal
necessary for survival.
body temperature is
The normal temperature of man is 37OC
and this temperature can be maintained if heat production in the
body equals heat loss. When exposed to air heat loss depends on
air temperature and wind Lqeed over the body.
Protection from
wind chill is essential for men exposed to weather.
Immersion
in water gives some protection from wind but heat loss is
increased on account of the conductivity and specific heat of
water being greater than air.
Water in contact with the body does
not warm appreciably before it is carried away and replaced by
colder water. Survivors should therefore remain still and not
swim in order to reduce heat loss.Provided one can float safely
it should be a general rule to keep still and not swim except in
warmer waters as physical exertion increases the loss of body
heat. The critical temperature of water for human survival is
68 OF or 20 oC. Below this,
with heat loss.
heat production cannot keep pace
18-2
/
1809. The following table based on casualty reports, gives
the expected time for survival at various temperatures:
TABLE l-18
Sea Surface ("C) Maximum time of Immersion for Survival
0 15 minutes
2.5" 30 minutes
5" 1 hour
10" 3 hours
,';I ii - - 7 16 hours hours
25" 3 days or more
Dehvdration.
P 1810. The body consists of about 60% by weight of water and
the maintenance of this percentage is essential for good health.
The average man at rest loses approximately 1 litre a day by way
of skin, lungs, kidneys and bowels. Apart from discomfort,
sleepiness and nausea a man can tolerate a loss of water
equivalent to 5% of body weight. After a 10% loss, mental
deterioration sets in accompanied by dizziness, headaches and
indistinct speech. Death occurs when the loss is about 25% in
cold temperatures, 20% in temperate conditions and 15% in high
temperatures, ie, death will take place in about 10 days in
temperate conditions unless special precautions are taken.
Factors increasing water loss are:
a. vomiting caused by seasickness;
b. diarrhoea caused by eating unusual foods;
C. greater evaporation when exposed to hot sunshine
and when in a state of activity;
d. reduced water gain due to reduced diet, no water
gains in ab ence of suitable diet; and
e. drinking alcoh-1, blood, urine and most important
sea water.
Note: Sea water is about 3.3% sodium chloride and the kidney
can excrete up to 2% only. Drinking sea water, even
if mixed with fresh water, hastens dehydration.
Experience in survival shows that the mortality rate
of shipwrecked men who drink seawater is 10 times
greater than men who abstain. Don't drink sea water
- don't be tempted to gargle on seawater - your will
power may deteriorate to an extent where you cannot
resist drinking sea water.
18-3
Sea sickness
1811. Man is fundamentally conditioned to existence in a two
dimensional plane. He maintains the upright posture by three
simple mechanisms. Firstly, situated in the skull near each ear
are three horseshoe shaped fluid-filled canals in three different
planes. Any movement causes fluid flow and granule movement
within them to signal the direction of that movement to the
brain. Secondly, the muscles and joints responsible for
locomotion and position are sensitive to the pull of gravity.
This constant downward pull enables them to 'fix' the body.
Thirdly, in a world of stationary objects, of vertical and
horizontal, the eyes are well able to play an active part in the
maintenance of balance. Of these three factors, the first is by
far the most important; but all of them are sending continuous
reports on the situation of the body in its environment to the
balance centre in the lower part of the brain. Where the
environment is disturbed, as in motion, and the anchors of
stability are lost, various signals flood into the brain centres,
-?
necessitating counter measures.
1812. The disturbances caused in the control centre may
effect neighbouring centres, one of which is responsible for the
initiation of vomiting. This, sensing a state of alarm sets the
vomiting mechanism in motion. Furthermore, the unusual motion
may also cause the contents of the stomach, which are largely
fluid, to swill around, whilst adjacent organs may exert undue
pressure upon it. Such activity also sends signals of alarm to
the vomiting centre. This together with a general feeling of
apprehension or fear, will most probably result in a rapid and
repeated emptying of the stomach. Much of this process is a
physical one, but there is no doubt that in seasickness there is
also an important emotional factor. The feeling of nausea and
vomiting is not an unusual reaction to fear, and many are very
frightened by bad weather, though they may control and conceal
their alarm.
1813. The complexity of man's response (which is the q
combination of physical and psychological reaction), the fact
that individuals vary so much in their sensitivity (some being
immune to the fiercest gait and other prostrate at the though of
a sea voyage) and many other factors make it difficult to give
a rational explanation of the sickness in man. At the extremes
are those who are completely unaffected and some who are fully
incapacitated. The commoner manifestations are yawning,
lassitude, discomfort, dizziness, nausea, headache, loss of
appetite and ultimately vomiting.
1814. To study the condition, and for practical convenience,
it is possible to divide individuals into four groups:
a. Those who are unaffected and can eat anything
whatever the conditions.
b. Those who feel unwell but do not vomit.
18-4
C. Those who vomit but are able to show interest in
their surroundings and carry on with whatever
they may have to do.
d. Those who are completely immobilised.
1815. Of course, these groups are not inflexible and the
distribution therein will be influenced by the severity of the
condition and individual susceptibility. There are also a
limited number of others who may feel quite well at sea, but
become ill on stepping ashore.
1816. There are many circumstances which may well increase
the susceptibility of an individual to seasickness. Among these
may be listed:
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
Q*
h.
.
I.
5
the very thought of it;
age (apart from young babies, children tend to be
more susceptible than adults);
excessive consumption of alcohol and food or
feeling 'off colour' from any cause;
hot and stuffy surroundings;
the sight of other sufferers;
lack of something interesting to do;
watching the sea or a swaying mast;
inexperience;
lack of sleep; and
fear.
1817. Other conditions may lesson the chances of being sick,
eg experience of sea conditions; experience of the particular
type of motion; temperance in food and drink; activity; plenty
of fresh air; the need to cope with an emergency; and physical
fitness.
1818. Apart from a wide variety of drugs and routines, there
is much sound advice that can be given to the potential sufferer.
Reassurance can go a long way. Anxiety to avoid the humiliation
of vomiting, may in itself induce it. There is no doubt whatever
that most people, sooner or later, gain their 'sea-legs' and
settle down. They may be helped in this, when nausea assails
them, if they are advised to rest quietly, lying down in a
darkened area. Should this be impossible, relief may be obtained
by sitting with the head down between the knees. When their
symptoms lessen they should, if conditions permit, get into the
-
18-5
fresh air and keep looking at the horizon, which is the one sure
thing which may give them a 'postural fix' in the turbulent
surroundings. Food and drink should be taken in small quantities
and fatty foods should be avoided.
As adaptation to the motion
occurs, the diet can be gradually built tp.
Those with a
responsible job may be luckier,
but it is preferable if they can
put if aside and take avoiding action
if nausea seems to be
getting the upper hand.
1819. It must be admitted that there is no treatment for
panacea at present. Many hardened sea dogs will swear by their
own special routines, which vary from sequences of strange
powders taken with ritualistic thoroughness, raw eggs, brandy,
lime juice, stupefying quantities of alcohol, pep pills, purges
and private potions, to prayer. So great is the psychological
factor, that it must be admitted that where there is faith, there
is likely to be success.
1820. There are some standard remedies, of which the
,---i
compounds containing hyoscine hydrobromide give the best results.
All these have their side effects, which must be balanced against
their efficiency, and they may decrease personal efficiency.
Once vomiting has started, they are useless when given by mouth
and consideration is being given to alternative routes of
administration. Drugs of the anti-histamine series are
frequently advocated. However, they tend to cause drowsiness and
if taken in conjunction with alcohol, may be dangerous. The
ideal drug still awaits discovery.
1821. The survivor who is unluckily prone to seasickness is
at a disadvantage. Efficiency is reduced and dehydration is
accelerated. Nothing is to be gained by being too apprehensive
of his condition. It should be accepted for what it is. By
taking up as comfortable a position as possible, keeping warm,
and either lying down with eyes closed, or sitting in the fresh
air and looking at the horizon, the effects can be minimised.
Immersion Foot
1822. Immersion foot ras known as 'trench foot' in World War
I or as 'footrot' in World War II when it affected the Chindits
in the Burma Campaigns. It is caused by exposure of legs and
feet to cold water for some time, resulting in damage to tissues.
The affected part becomes red and painful and difficult to move.
This is followed by swelling, the appearance of red blisters and
dark patches, and breaks in the skin. Prevention lies in keeping
the feet as warm and dry as possible, and in ensuring that the
floor of the life raft is dry. The toes and feet should be moved
frequently to assist blood circulation and tightly fitting boots
should be discarded. Remedial action is to remove footwear, wrap
feet in loose, dry articles of clothing or strips of parachute,
raise the feet clear of any water, and keep the body warm. The
affected parts should not be rubbed.
18-6
P
1823. Salt water sores are caused by prolonged exposure to
salt water. Prevention is by keeping the body as dry as
possible. The sores should be gently cleaned (but not squeezed)
and antiseptic cream should be applied. Large sores should be
covered with a dressing.
Sore Eves
1824. The problem of sore eyes is related to light
reflection. Sore eyes result from excessive exposure to glare
from the sky and water, and should be treated by applying
antiseptic cream to the eyelids and bandaging lightly. Relief
may
also be obtained by the use of damp bandages alone.
Prevention, by sheltering from the glare and wearing survival or
improvised eye shields, is easier than the cure.
Parched Lies and Cracked Skin
'- 1825. Parched lips and cracked skin are discomforts whichmay
be remedied by the application of sun screen cream.
Constioation
1826. Constipation and difficult urination should not give
cause for alarm, as they are to be expected with a shortage of
food and fresh water.
Summarv
1827. Add to the good basic protection the life raft affords
by wringing out and replacing wet clothing in cold weather.
Cut
down exposure to the sun in the tropics. Encourage the wind to
flow through the entrances when it is hot (by repositioning the
drogue) and damp your clothing to keep you cool.
At all times,
you must try and find what you should do to help, and get on with
it. A steady output of effort, based on a clear plan of action,
will lessen the chances of seasickness and the onset of lethargy,
which can so easily lec~d to despair.
Hunaer
1828. Man in a temperate climate can survive at least a month
without food if he has sufficient drinking water.
time to plan your survival,
If you have
supplies of drinking water.
give your priority to getting
Some food is desirable and food
rations should be based on the following:
a. effect of water balance on the body,
b. keeping quality,
18-7
C.
acceptability under survival conditions, and
d. energy production.
1829. The most important consideration is water balance.
Protein and salted foods can cause a drain on water.
Fish and
seabirds which may be caught should not be eaten unless a good
supply of water is available. Energy foods are burnt up in the
body with the production of water.
A small daily ration of
carbohydrates is worth more than its weight in water,
carbohydrates keep better than fats.
Fats are more palatable
then carbohydrates, fats produce more energy.
Attack bv Voracious Fish
1830. Studies of the behaviour of dangerous fish continue
throughout the world but as yet there is much to learn.
The
shark, perhaps is the most feared fish, is unpredictable and is
more likely to be met in warm water. Statistically you have
more to fear from a road accident than a shark at sea.
,---A
Nevertheless it is to be remembered the shark has very fine
senses. It responds to vibrations at great distances, has a keen
sense of smell and sound. The movements of a struggling fish (or
man) will attract him from a long way off. Some have learned
that the sound and vibration of an underwater explosion means an
easy feed. Their keen sense of smell attracts them to any foul
matter, blood
precautions to
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
g*
h.
or urine. However, there are certain basic
take:
retain all clothing particular on legs and feet;
keep quiet and as stationary as possible, move
only to keep the shark in sight;
if in a group, form a tight circle and face
outwards;
get on some flotsam, if available, but do not
trail anything from it;
h\
get into an oil patch, if available;
if it is necessary to swim use regular strokes,
strong or lazy, fast or slow, but always
rhythmic;
bind bleeding wounds; and
do not urinate if shark is near.
1831. Death can be accelerated bv:
a. Chokina followincr Vomitina. Death to man in the
water may arise from asphyxia caused by food
articles or vomit blocking the air passages.
18-8
When faced with a fit of coughing or choking, the
temptation to try and keep the head as high out
of the water as possible must be resisted, as
this can be very exhausting. Try not to lift the
head clear of the water, but keep it low, and let
the coughing pressure escape through tightly
closed lips.
b. Nervous Shock. Particularly in very cold water.
C. Exhaustion. Leading to failure of heat
production and hence rapid unconsciousness from
body cooling.
d. Oil fire on the surface.
e. Giving up the 'Will Power' to remain alive.
f. Exposure.
1832. Swimmina for Survival
a. Immersion Effects. Panic and exhaustion are the
primary causes of drowning. Surveys indicate
that 98% of men have a natural buoyancy which is
sufficient to keep at least the top of the head
clear of the water. Attempts generated by panic
to keep the head continually above the water will
rapidly induce exhaustion.
It should be noted that no man can hold his head
above water while remaining totally motionless.
b. Floatation. "Back floating" is the method
strongly recommended as it involves the least
drain of energy. It involves lying relaxed in the
water, face up, but with the head partially
submerged. Controlled breathing is not necessary
as the face is continuously out of the water.
"Sculling" is an alternative method of remaining
afloat. It is achieved by remaining upright in
the water and alternately lowering the head
underwater on the chest, and by propelling the
head clear. To effect this, use an easy scissor
kick and gently sweep down with the arms. These
two methods of floating should be practiced
often.
C. Relative merits of swimming methods. There are
five popular swimming strokes of which one is not
recommended for a survival situation. Three are
advocated as "Relief Strokes" and one to achieve
maximum distance:
18-9
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
1833. Swimming
n
"The Crawl". The most tiring particularly
when clothed or wearing a life jacket. It
should never be used except where speed is
the most important factor.
"Dog Paddle". Although slow it requires
little energy. An excellent stroke when
clothed or wearing a life jacket.
"Side Stroke". A good relief stroke with
the advantage that only one arm is required
to maintain momentum and buoyancy.
"Back Stroke". An excellent relief stroke.
It relieves muscles for other strokes. It
should be used if an underwater explosion is
considered likely.
"Breast Stroke". Probably the best for
---l
long range swimming as it conserves energy
while reasonable speed can be maintained.
Should be used for swimming underwater,
through oil or debris or in rough seas.
in Oil. In the event of a swimmer being in
an area of burning surface oil, the procedure below should be
followed:
a.
b.
C.
d.
e. Submerge feet first and continue as above until
clear.
Notes: When oil is present on the surface but is not burning,
Discard shoes and inherently buoyant life jacket,
however- retain a CO2 life jacket if deflated.
To enter the water, cover nose, mouth and eyes.
Remain underwater and swim as far as possible.
When each successive breath is necessary, force
the upper part of the body above the surface.
When breaking surface
,---x
make wide sweeping
movements with hands to splash the water to
disperse t.he flames. Attempt to face downwind
before inhlling.
the head should be held high, using the life preserver as a raft.
Ensure the life preserver is attached to the wrist. Should oil
enter the eyes vision will be impaired for a few hours.
1834. Cramps. The pain of cramp may be severe, but it is not
dangerous provided the swimmer does not panic.
The majority of
cramps occur in the lower limbs. The treatment is to stretch and
massage the muscle concerned.
stomach cramps.
The same principles apply for
18-10
-
1835. Remember:
a. Don't panic,
b. Don't give up hope of rescue, and
C. Don't lose the will to live.
18-11
CHAPTER NINETEEN
I---
/--
FISHING
AND
FISHING TECHNIQUES
CHARTER 15
FISHING AND FISHING TECHNIOUES
General
1900. Fish are a valuable food source, containing protein,
vitamins and fats. All freshwater fish are edible but some
tropical ones can be dangerous. It takes skill to catch fish
by conventional angling methods but, by considering their
feeding habits and following the simple methods given here,
you can be successful.
Where to Fish
1901. Fish choose the places in the water where they are
most comfortable and where they most easily find their prey.
7
This will be affected by the temperature of the day.
1902. If it is hot and the water is low, fish in shaded
water and where there are deep pools. In a lake fish retreat
to the coolness of deep water in hot weather.
1903. In cold weather choose a shallow place where the sun
warms the water.
which are warmer.
Lake fish will tend to keep to the edges
1904. If the river is in flood, fish where the water is
slack - on the inside of a bend for example, or in a small
tributary feeding the mainstream its flow is different - quite
possible that the flood may not be due to local rainfall.
1905. Fish like to shelter under banks or below rocks and
submerged logs.
When to Fish
r
1906. As a general rule leave lines out overnight and
check them just before fist light.
during a full moon.
Some fish feed at night
1907. If a storm is imminent fish before it breaks.
Fishing is poor in a river after heavy rain.
Indications of Fish Feedinq
1908. Signs that fish are feeding, and therefore likely to
take a bait, are when they jump out of the water, or you see
frequent clear ring ripples breaking out where fish are taking
flies on the surface. Where lots of little fish are darting
about they may well be being pursued by a larger predatory
fish.
19-1
Imaae Refraction
1909. Water refracts light so
that the fish sees things
above the water at a slightly different angle - and can
probably see more on the bank than you think.
It is always
better to fish from a sitting or kneeling position than
standing up so that you are less likely to bc
in vision. Keep
back from the edge. Always try to keep your shadow off the
water where you are fishing.
Analinq
1910. Fishing with a hook and line is the popular way of
fishing (though others are usually more effective) and they
are part of your survival kit. Hooks can also be improvised
from wire, pins, bones, wood and even thorns.
1911. Large hooks will catch large fish but small ones
will catch both large and small. Near the end of the line you
will probably need to attach another short length with a --A
weight to take the hook down and stop the line being carried
along the surface of the water, especially if fishing deep. -
If it is a long line you also need another length with a float
which will be pulled down when you get a bite. A rod is not
essential ( you can fish effectively with a hand line) but
makes it easier to land fish and to cast away from the bank.
1912. You can improvise hooks from all kinds of materials.
Here (from left to right) a pin, a thorn, a bunch of thorns,
nails, bone and wood have been used (See Fiq 19-l).
FIG 19-1
Usinq Floats and Weiuhts
1913. Along the line attach a small floating object,
easily visible from the bank, and you will be able to see when
you have a bite. Its position will help control where the
line descends.
1914. Some weights between the float and the hook will
stop the line from trailing along the water or at too near the
surface in a current, still leaving the hook itself in
movement. You have small split lead shot in your survival
kit. Slip the groove along the line and squeeze in to fit
closely.
19-2
1915.
A deeper hook position can be ensured by extending
the line to a weight below the hook.
/---
,
Analinq without Hooks
1916. You do not even have to use a hook to fish with a
line. To catch eels and catfish tie a blob of worms on a
line.
a. These fish swallow without biting but swallow
the bait with line attached. Pull them out as
soon as the bait is taken.
Instead of a hook use a small sharp piece of
wood tied on the end of the line and held flat
along it by the bait
b. When the bait is swallowed the wood will open
out and lodge across the gullet of the fish (c)
(See Fia 19-2).
/-
FIG 19-2 Bone hook encased bv bait
Bait
1917. Bait native to the fishes'
to be taken:
own water is most likely
berries that overhang it, insects that breed in
and near it. Scavenger
r-
fish,
fish will take pieces of meat, raw
ants and other insects. Once you have a catch examine
the stomach contents of the fish and eliminate the guesswork
as to diet. If one bait is unsuccessful, change to another.
Ground Bait
1918. Bait scattered in the area you want to fish, will
attract fish to it. A termites' or ants' nest suspended over
a river is one excellent method.
As the insects fall into the
river the fish will take them.
well and success is sure.
Bait your hook with them as
Any suitable bait, scattered on the
water, can be used to draw fish but it is always best to put
the same bait on your hook.
19-3
Soinninq
1919. Curious fish will attack a shiny object drawn
T
through the water:
try
coins, buttons, pieces of tin can,
buckles - anything that glitters. Make a propeller shape to
thread on to a piece of wire and it will spin with the
current. Attach a hook to the end of the spindle fSee Fiq
19-3).
FIG 19-3
Artificial Bait
1920. Can be made from brightly coloured cloth, feathers
and shiny metal. Try to make them look like real bait. A few
feathers tied to a hook with thread can simulate a fly, or
carve a small fish out of wood and decorate it with colour or
glitter (if you make it jointed it will move more naturally).
Try to make lures move in the water like live bait.
Live Bait
1921. Worms, maggots, insects and small fish can be used
as live bait. Cover the hook completely with the bait. You
can place the hook through the meaty part of small fish
without killing them, or through the body of a grasshopper.
Their distressed movement in the water will attract the fish
(See Fia 19-4).
-
FIG 19-4
Niqht Lines
1922. Weight one end of a length of line and attach hooks 4%
at intervals along it. Bait them with worms. Lowered into
the water this gives you the chance of catching surface, mid
and bottom feeders. Anchor the free end securely on the bank.
r7
19-4
1923. You can put this out at night and leave it until the
morning - use it in daytime too - but chanqe the worms at
intervals, even if you haven't got a catch, because fresh
/----
wriggling worms will attract more attention (See Fiq 19-51.
FIG 19-s
C Jiaaina or Snaaaing
1924.
body.
This is the art of hooking a fish anywhere on its
It is a good method to use when you can see fish but
they are not taking bait.
and lower it into the water.
Tie a number of hooks from a pole
Suspend a bright object about 20
cm (8 in) above the last hook and when fish go to inspect the
glitter pull the hooks up sharply so that they catch on the
fish fSee Fia 19-6).
FIG 19-C
-
Fish Traos
1925. You can make a wide variety of traps,
from ones
across an entire stream, which you can drive fish into, to
bottle traps to capture tiddlers in.
Arrows indicate current
_ISee Fis 19-71.
19-5
FIG 19-7 Permanent stream - Fish TraD
Bottle TraD
1926. If you have a plastic bottle you can make an
efficient trap for small fish by cutting it off just below the
neck and then inverting the neck inside the bottle.
Fish swim
in but cannot find their way out again. Bait the trap to
entice them in _ISee Fia 19-81.
FIG 19-e
1927. You can make 3 similar trap for larger fish using a
hollow log. Make a latt-c, cone of twigs for the entrance and
block the other end of the l?g (See Fia 19-91.
FIG 19-9
LOG
ENTRANOE CONE
19-6
Wickerwork Traps
1928. Use pliant twigs
- bamboo bends better if you warm
it - to make a trap into which fish can swim but from which
they can find no way out.
A wickerwork trap allows the
current to flow through it, and since it is made of natural
materials may seem like a tangle
of reeds or stream-bottom
debris (See Fia 19-101.
FIG 19-14
Damminq
1929. Build a dam across a stream, diverting the flow to
one side, and with rocks create a small shallow pool
downstream where fish swimming upstream will be trapped. Fix
a net below the race at the side of the dam to catch any fish
that are carried over it from upstream.
Attractina and Drivina Fish
1930. At night a torch or firebrand held above the water
will attract fish. Nets can then be drawn around the area to
trap the fish which can be speared or clubbed. A mirror or
other shiny material placed on the riverbed will reflect
~ either sun or moonlight and attract fish.
Soearina and Shootina Fi.?h
1931. If you have a fire arm and plenty of ammunition it
is worth trying to shoot fish with a gun but NEVER fire with
the barrel actually in the water - or it will explode.
1932. The water seals the end of the barrel and instead of
the bullet rushing outwards the force of the detonation blows
back at you. It is not just dangerous - it is potentially
lethal. Make very sure that the barrel is clear of the water.
1933. Sharpen a long stick to make a spear, adding barbs
to make it more effective. If you have multiple points, like
Neptune's trident, you give yourself a wider margin of error
since it covers a larger area. Try to get above the fish and
strike down swiftly. A variety of spears are shown in Fiq
P 19-11.
19-7
FIG 19-11
1934. Make sure that you are not casting a shadow over the
fish you are trying to catch. Aim slightly below the fish to
allow for the refraction of its image at the surface.
1935. If you are a good shot use a bow and arrow to shoot
fish (the wooden shaft will float and help to bring your prey
to the surface, though most dead fish will float, anyway).
Muddving
1936. Receding flood water leaves isolated pools which are
,often abundant in fish. Stir up the mud at the bottom of
these pools with a stick, or by stamping in them. If there
are any fish they will try to reach clearer water. Scoop them
out.
Exolosives
1937. Explosives can be used in the water. They will kill
the nearest fish, but by liberating the oxygen in the water
will also cause those further away to surface. Remember: Only
in a Survival Situation.
Fish Narcotics
1938. In many parts of the world fishermen use local
plants to poison or stupefy fish to make them come to the
surface, where they are easy to collect. This works best in a
deep pool where one end can be dammed to contain the fish, but
the method can be effective in any slack water.
1939. Some plants daze or narcotise or intoxicate the fish
but most have the effect of taking oxygen from the water so
that the fish come to the surface in search of aerated water.
Various parts of plants are used but in many cases they are
simply crushed and thrown into the water. Although the
effects are catastrophic for the fish they are not long
lasting - the water soon re-oxygenates itself. Most of these
narcotics take effect more quickly in warmer waters and they
are most widely used in tropical countries.
19-8
1940. If these methods are used in closed pools you will
have cleared out the fish supply and removed a future source
of food. When a river or coastal pool is reopened to the
/--
main water, however, new fish will move in and restock it.
1941. If sea shells, snail shells or coral are burned over
a very hot fire they will produce ,lime which can be thrown
into still water to poison fish which will still be safe for
human consumption.
19-9
,
CHAPTER TWENTY
FISH HOOKS
2000. Possibly the most important component of an anglers
equipment is the hook, which has hardly changed in the
centuries man as angled for fish.
Certainly modern technology
has allowed design to be improved to a point where more fish
are liable to be caught than was the case with Stone Age
versions, but no one has improved on the original concept.
There are thousands of hook patterns designed for every
conceivable
WPe
of fishing and for most species caught
worldwide.
2001. Hook selection comes down to the most elementary
consideration of the right size hook for the chosen target
fish. It is always better to use a hook that is too small
rather than one that is too big. Hook size identification
has been standardised by the Redditch system. Rather than
f-
ordering a hook by it's length in inches, the buyer must order
by hook number.
Hook Sizes
2002. From the accompanying, it can be seen that a No.12
hook is very small, while a 12/O hook is very big. The absence
of the /O indicates a regular hook, a term which means that
the distance from the bend of the hook to the base of the eye
is shorter than 35 mm (1.4 in). The eye is never included in
the length of a hook. The presence of /O following a number
always indicates a regular hook that is at least 35 mm from
bend to eye. With regular hooks the longer the shank the
bigger the-hook. A regular hook is the norm, for assessing
hook sizes. All other hooks are graded relative to the
regular.
2003. A box of hooks may show the hook size by the
- markings 3 * LONG l/O. This does not mean that the hook is
three times larger than the regular l/O size. It means that
the shank is as long as the shank of a regular hook which is
three sizes larger. In other words, a 3 * long l/O hook has
a shank as long as that as a regular 4/O hook, but the same
gape as a l/O. A further example is that a 3 * long No. 1 hook
has a longer shank than that of a regular 3/O hook.
Similarly it follows that a 3 * short 4/O hook has a shorter
shank than that of a regular 4/O hook; in fact, it has the
same length shank as a l/O hook, that is a regular hook three
sizes smaller.
2004. Some manufacturers no longer use this method of
comparison, making hook choice clearer for the inexperienced
by referring to their longer or shorter than regular shanks as
being 6.35 mm (0.25 in) extra long etc.
20-l
2005. Long shanked hooks are
frequently used by fisherman
angling for fish such as tailor and hair tail because their
razor sharp teeth can quickly sever a nylon line.
Under
these circumstances many anglers prefer a
regular hook -
attached to a small length of wire because a 4 * long hook can
be swallowed whole but rarely will a fish get a chance to gulp
a hook and 15 cm (6 in) wire. The argument against wire is
that it may put some species off the bite.
2006. The shanks on many hooks are sliced, that is they
have barbs on them to hold the bait in place.
Usually the
shank of a sliced hook is flattened (forged) or the entire
hook is made from oval wire.
2007. A hook made from ordinary round wire could be
seriously weakened by slicing.
Selectina Hooks
2008. Fishermen should take several details into account
when selecting a hook. The gape must be wide enough to
ensure positive penetration when taken by a fish. A narrow q
gape is harder to drive home and does not have the same hold
on a fish. The bite should be long so the hook can penetrate
deeper and hold the fish more surely. This deeper
penetration makes it more difficult for a fish to throw the
hook. The wide gap and the long bite combine to ensure a
hook will hold a bait well, permitting the use of larger baits
while allowing the point to ride free for quicker penetration.
2009. Avoid hooks with short and stumpy points because a
greater force than usual is required to drive such hooks home.
Along, slender point makes it deeper and quicker bite for the
use of less force. The point must always be needle sharp and
it is a wise fisherman who is constantly honing his hook
points with a file or stone.
2010. Most hooks have the bend/point section offset from
the shank, though the advantage of this is doubtful. Some
argue that such a hook practically hooks itself, but a
moment's reflection shows this to be a fallacy. A point that
-1
is angled to one side is wholly effective on one side only; a
hook that is not offset -as double the hooking potential.
Offset hooks should never be used with lures because they are
likely to induce spin in the lure. Limerick hooks or trebles
are preferred.
2011. Fly fisherman, both salt and fresh water, prefer the
straight bend. One reason why the offset point is avoided
when saltwater fly fishing is the already mentioned tendency
to induce; this imparts an unnatural action to the fly (which
is usually designed to imitate a bait fish) and arouses the
suspicions of the wary fish. Some trout fishermen prefer the
straight bend for dry flies, believing they sit better on the
water. The offset point can cause the fly to tip sideways,
again presenting an unnatural appearance.
20-2
2012.
Next to a sharp point, perhaps the most important
characteristic of a hook is it's strength and durability,
which are dependent upon the material from which it is made.
- This is invariably steel wire, either
stainless or
non-stainless. The majority of hooks are made from
non-stainless steel wire, specially tempered to give strength,
and variously coated for durability.
2013. The tinned hook is most probably the +>st durable Of
those made from ordinary steel, while the nickel-chrome plated
hook is almost as long lasting. Both are more expensive than
the bronze hook which has been given special coatings of a
metal lacquer. There are other finishes, but these are the
most popular.
2014. Stainless steel hooks are increasing in popularity
but are more expensive than those above. They are very
strong and have exceptionally sharp points that rarely need
sharpening before use. The gauge in the wire used in hooks
iS very important because some of the fish have powerful jaws
that can flatten a hook. To cater for those who chase these
"Hook crushersVg the manufacturers use heavier gauge wire than
P
normal and identify these hooks in a similar way used to
distinguish between long, regular and short shanked hooks.
2015. A 2 * strong 4/O hook is made from wire the same
gauge used to make the same gauge as a 6/O hook. At the
opposite end a 2 * fine 4/O hook is made from wire the same
gauge as used to make a regular 2/O hook. This information
is always indicated on the box lid.
2016. Whatever the type of wire used, the hook is stronger
if it has been forged or made from oval wire. A forged hook
is identifiable by it's flattened sides, the flattening
extending from the barb, around the bend to at least the start
of the shank and frequently beyond to the eye.
Book Eves
2017. The eyes of hooks also cause arguments among fishing
- purists as to which is the best pattern.
Saltwater flies are
invariably tied on straight eyed hooks while the trout an
salmon enthusiast generally favours a turned-up eye.
Saltwater bait fishermen differ among themselves, some prefer
the turned down eye, the straight eye or the flattened shank.
Whatever the type check that there is no gap between the shank
and the end of the eye. Any gap should be closed because the
line can work out or be cut at this point, with disastrous
results. Preference for a particular eye pattern usually
depends on the type of knot when tying hook to line.
A half
blood knot is an excellent knot to use with the straight eyed
hook, though many fishermen,
rightly or wrongly, show a
preference for snoozing,
or the hangman's noose, when using a
turned up (or down) eye hook.
20-3
2018. The turned down is preferred by those fishermen who
gang their hooks when using garfish
for bait because the hooks
lie better along the bait.
Ganging is
accomplished by
forcing the point of one hook through the eye of another.
-
2,3,4 or 5 hooks may so be treated,
the set being removed by
straightening with pliers.
Any hook that is not offset (the
Limerick) is excellent for ganging but
on some the eye may
have to be turned down with a set of pliers.
It should be at
an angle of about 45 degrees.
2019. There are numerous types of eye but the hook with a
flattened shank is the only departure from the standard ringed
eye that will be dealt with because rarely are the others
encountered in Australia. Such a hook has the end flattened,
and the line is attached to it by snoozing.
Treble Hooks
2020. These are formed from two lengths of wire,
one
length being folded and bent to form two hooks angled at 120
degrees to each other, with the second length formed into a
hook being welded or braised between the shanks of the other ,q
two. They are almost always attached to lures, especially
Bass, Trout and other fresh water lures. Many salt water
lures also feature them.
2021. From their appearance the impression is often
erroneously gained that they are superior in hooking ability
to the single hook. There are those who will argue that such
is the case, but there are many more fishermen who claim that
a single hook, or two single hooks fixed to a spinner in a
back-to-back fashion, are much more efficient than the treble.
They argue that the penetrating qualities of the treble hook
are poor because each of its three points is trying to enter
at a different place. Strange though it may be, fish
certainly seem to be able to throw trebles more easily than
single or paired hooks.
2022. Where more than one treble is used on a lure those
not taken by the fish frequently lodge in its body as it
fights to escape. These are not easy to dislodge, greatly
affect the fish's fighting ability, rule out returning an
unharmed fish to the water and, because the fish is basically
foul hooked, it is a method of capture giving little
satisfaction to sporting fishermen. Despite this, some lures
are made to match with trebles, and their action would be
destroyed if any other type of hook were used.
Unusual Hooks
2023. Some hooks depart quite markedly from the normal
shape and include such makes as safety pin hooks, hump-shank
hooks, weedless hooks, jig hooks, double hooks and, just
within the classification, squid and gaff hooks.
20-4
2024. The safety pin hook is a
novel and
effective
departure from the standard bait hook.
It can be a single or
double hook to the body or
which is attached a pin and Clip
which can be closed after the fashion of a safety pin.
The
/--
bait is pierced lengthwise by the pin which is then locked to
hold the bait as it rides on top of the hook.
They very
effectively present bait in a natural position.
2025. The hump-shank hook is designed especikliy for the
fisherman who makes his own lures. The hump prevents the
cork, wood or plastic body of the lure from turning around the
shank. If only regular hooks are available, no attempt
should be made to bend a hump into them.
It is far better to
solder a small strip of copper to the shank.
2026. Weedless hooks have a single or double strand of
stainless steel wire securely fastened to the shank just below
the eye, the prongs (or prong) so formed extending upwards and
over the point of the hook.
The wire is stout enough to push
weeds to one side as the hook brushes against them,
but is
light enough to be depressed beneath the point when taken by a
fish. These hooks should not be dismissed as gimmicky
-, because they are very effective, particularly when used on
bass lures.
2027. A jig is a specific type of lure comprising a lead
body moulded around a specially-shaped hook and having
feathers, hair or other fibres bound to it so it resembles a
squid or small bait fish when pulled through the water. A
jig hook differs slightly from the regular turned-down eye
hook in that the shank is bent quite a significant distance
from the eye. This ensures that the eye will remain exposed
when the body has been moulded around the hook shank.
Because of this turned-down bend jigs always ride with the
barb uppermost, a characteristic that renders them snag proof.
2028. Double hooks are formed from the one length of wire,
folded and bent to the required shape. A treble hook
comprises a double hook with a third eyeless hook brazed to
it. Some lures use double hooks rigged to form a quadruple
hook.
J--
2029. A squid hook (also called a squid lure or squid jig)
in no way resembles a regular fish hook, but very effectively
fills its intended role. II consists of a pencil-shaped stem
about 7.6 cm (3 in) long, usually of white or cream plastic,
with a circular flattened base around the periphery of which
is a series of needle-sharp pins.
2030. The squid fisherman casts squid hook and line into
the water, allows it to sink to an appropriate depth and then
retrieves it in a jerky erratic manner. The movement tempts
the squid into seizing the hook with its tentacles which are
pierced by the sharp pins. The trapped animal is them simply
hauled from the water.
20-5
-
Reef Knot;
2100. Also known as the square knot, this is perhaps the
best known of all knots. It is used for tying rope of the
same thickness and will hold firm while under strain, yet may
be fairly easily untied.
2101. It is NOT reliable for ropes of different diameters,
nor should it be used with nylon - it will slip.
2102. Reef knots can be tied in other materials - it is a
good knot to use in first aid. It will lie flat against the
patient (See Fig 21-1).
PIG 21-l
/--
Overhand Knot/Thumb Knot
2103. The simplest of all knots. Make a loop and pass the
running end back through it. It has little purpose on its own
except to make an end-stop on a rope, but it is part of many
other knots (See Fig 21-2).
FIG 21-2
21-1
2104.
A very quickly made knot
for throwing over a
-,
projection.
The loop is fixed and cannot be tightened so the
projection
must point away
from the direction of strain.
Double the end of the rope and tie
an overhand knot with the
loop (See Fig 21-3).
FIG 21-a
FIG 21-4 Fiaure-of-Eiaht
FIG 21-5 Fiaure-of-Eiaht on BiGht
Sheet Bend
2105.
Used for joining ropes of the same or different
thicknesses. It can be more effective than the reef knot with
those of equal thickness.
It is ideal for joining different
materials, especially wet or frozen ropes (See Fig 21-6).
21-2
FIG 21-6
Double Sheet Bend
2106. A knot that is even more secure than the sheet bend.
It is useful with wet ropes, especially if they are of very
different thickness, but provides a good strong -Join in ropes
of even thickness too. It is useful where strain is not
constant and an ordinary sheet bend may slip.
2107.
/-
If not tightened these knots tend to work loose. Do
NOT use with smooth materials such as nylon fishing line (See
Fig 21-7).
FIG 21-7
Fisherman's Knot
./
2108. A useful knot for joining together springy materials
such as vines or wire. I is good for wet or slippery lines
and particularly suitable 1 \r joining gut fishing line - soak
the gut first to make it pl,?ble. Very secure, it will hold
well with thin lines but is very difficult to untie. Use when
you do not trust the reef knot or sheet bend. It is NOT
recommended for bulky ropes or nylon line (See Fig 21-8).
FIG 21-8
21-3
,
JJouble Fisherman 8
2109. This is a stronger version of the fisherman's knot. f--x
It should NOT be used for nylon fishing lines, nylon ropes, or
bulky ropes (See Fig 21-g).
FIG 21-9
Tape Knot
2110. A useful knot for joining flat materials such as
leather or webbing straps, and tape (See Fig 21-10).
FIG 21-10
21-4
LOOP-NAKING
-.
Bowline
2111. This quickly tied knot makes a loop that will
neither tighten nor slip under strain. It is used in the end
of a lifeline or wherever such a fixed loop is r.c:eded (See Fig
21-11).
PIG 21-11
Bowline Runnina
2112. Use in any situation requiring a loop which will
tighten easily. Rake a small bowline and pass the long end of
the rope through the loop (See Fig 21-12).
FIG 21-12 -
TriDle Bowline
2113. Another bowline, made with a double line. Form a
loop,
pass the doubled live end through the loop, behind the
standing part and back through the loop. This produces three
loops which can be used for equipment haulage, or as a
sit-sling or lifting-harness with one loop around each thigh
and the other around the chest (See Fig 21-13).
21-5
FIG 21-13
Bowline-on-the-Biaht
2114. This is useful to support or for lifting anyone from
a crevasse or elsewhere from which they cannot climb out.
Make it with a doubled line, producing two loops which will
neither tighten nor jam. It forms a kind of bosun's chair,
one loop fitting around the buttocks, the other around the
upper body (See Fig 21-14).
FIG 21-14
Manharness Hitch
2115. Also known as the Butterfly knot or Artillery knot,
this makes a non-slip loop. It has the advantage that it can
be made along the length of the rope, but does not require
access to an end. Several loops could be put on a rope for
harnessing people to pull together in haulage or raising a
weight. Also a good way of preparing a rope for climbing.
Toes and wrists can be put into the loops to carry the weight
so that a rest can be taken when tired (See Fig 21-15).
a. Make a loop in the rope - but look closely at
the drawing.
b. Allow the left side of the rope to cross over
the loop.
C. Twist the loop.
d. Pass it over the left of the rope and through
the upper part of the original loop.
e. Pull the knot gently into shape, ease tight and
test it carefully.
Note: If this knot is not eased tight correctly it is
possible to end up with a slipping loop.
21-6
Honda Knot
2116. This is another knot that makes a free-running noose
- but this one gives a clear circular loop suitable for
throwing - it is a lasso (See Fig 21-16).
FIG 21-16
2117. This is the best way to secure a rope to a post.
It
can take strain from almost any direction (See Fig 21-17).
FIG 21-17
Clove Hitch
2118. An effective attachment when strain is perpendicular
to the horizontal. It is not so good when strain comes at an
angle or the direction of strain is erratic - this could
loosen the clove hitch (See Fig 21-18).
P
21-7
FIG 21-18
Timber Hitch
2119. This knot is used mainly as a start knot for
lashings, but can also be used for hoisting and for dragging
or towing heavy logs (See Fig 21-19).
FIG 21-19
Killick Hitch
2120. plso known as the Anchor hitch - use it for securing
a line to an anchoring weight. It can be used to secure an
actual anchor for use in water or to hold back one end of a
throwing line (See Fig 21-20).
FIG 21-20
Marlin SDike Hitch
2121. This is an instant, but temporary knot for securing
a mooring line to a post, or for dragging over the top of any
upright
peg or
pole. It is particularly useful when
tightening lashings. By temporarily attaching a short stout
stick to the line it is possible to gain extra purchase on the
line to administer a firmer pull (See Fig 21-21).
21-a
FIG 21-2&
Quick Release Knot
2122. Highway-man's hitch. This knot is secure but will
come untied with a single sharp tug on thetstanding end. It
is recommended for temporarily anchoring lines while working -
or for situations which need a quick release (See Fig 21-22).
FIG 21-22
/"\,
G 21-23 Dix Knot FI
-
Prussic Knot
2123. A knot that makes a sliding loop, especially useful
when attached along a climbing rope. It will not slip under
tension, but will slide along the rope when tension is
released. Also useful for ropes that need retensioning from
time to time, such as tent guy lines (See Fig 21-24).
21-9
FIG 21-24
Sauare Lashing
2124. This is for lashing spars which cross. Most
effective when they do so at right-angles (See Fig 21-25).
FIG 21-25
Round Lashing
-
2125. This is for lashing spars alongside each other or
extending the length of a spar (See Fig 21-26).
FIG 21-26
Diagonal Lashing
2126. An alternative to square lashing which is more
effective when spars do not cross at right-angles, or more
especially when
the spars are under strain and have to be
pulled towards one another for tying (See Fig 21-27).
f-Y
21-10
FIG 21-27
Shear Lashing
2127. For tying the ends of two spars at an angle, when
making an A-frame for example (See Fig 21-28).
FIG 21-28
-
/---
FIG 21-29 Three Plait
FIG 21-30 Four Plait
CHAPTER TWENTY TWO
-
STRING
MAKING
2201. In a Survival situation there will be 3 need for string
or cordage to be implemented in many varied used;
a. shelter construction,
b. improvised weapons,
C. traps and snares, and
d. almost every aspect of day to day existence.
2202. Many soldiers carry a limited quantity of commercially
manufactured and issued cordage which could be utilised in a
survival situation. It would be a criminal waste of resources
if the commercially manufactured material was utilised for
-. purposes where natural material would suffice thus leaving the
issue item for not only more important, but perhaps life saving
devices such as traps/snares.
2203. Most vegetable matter has a basic construction of fibre
and flesh - the basis of string or cordage is utilising fibres
so therefore the fibres must be separated from the flesh.
Tree Bark
2204. Most trees have an outer trunk covering of soft bark
- whilst the outer bark can be used for lashing and tying, it is
usually too hard and brittle for most purposes that require a
supple string like material.
2205. However in most cases the inner bark - that is the
material between the hard outer shell and the actual wood trunk
of the tree will be made up of fibrous lengths which are ideal
,- for the manufacture of stfing.
2206. It would be eacv now to give a compiled list in Latin
or biological terms of nuri.- nrous trees suitable for string making
but soldiers are not normally scholars of either Latin or
biology, so it would suffice to suggest that a simple test of
tree bark be carried out to gauge its suitability as a string
making source:
22-l
a. As far down the trunk as possible make a cut
approx 3-4 cm wide deep enough to reveal the
wooden trunk of the tree - with a blade of the
knife approx 45 o (up the trunk) continue in a
cutting motion until you have a strip of bark
approx 30 cm long - grasping this strip with both
hands take one or two steps backwards and the
bark will continue to peel away from the trunk.
In some cases it is possible to peel a strip not
only the entire length of the trunk but
continuing into the upper branches.
In order
not to kill the tree only one or two strips of
bark should be removed - however if the sapling
or tree is to be cut .down for shelter
construction it is more economical to remove the
entire bark.
b. Examine the inner bark and gently peel it back
from the tougher outer bark - if it peels off as
a series of flexible fibres it is ideal as string
making material.
Pandanus Leaves
2207. Traditionally Pandanus leaves are the main source of
native produced string. The fibres are extracted from the leaf
of the tree as opposed to the trunk. Care must be taken when
removing the leaves as they have very sharp serrations running
down the spine and edges. After removing the edges and spine you
are left with a series of 2 m long supple leaf strips. If the
thicker base area is examined it will be noticed that within the
leaf are a number of very thin fibres held together by the
vegetable matter. that forms the outer skin of the leaf.
2208. To extract the fibres the outer skin can be removed by
peeling or rubbing it off on both sides using the back of a knife
blade or simply by allowing the leaves to simmer in hot water
until the vegetable matter disintegrates or a combination of both
simmering and rubbing. The result will be a number of long
reasonable strong fibres ideal for string making.
2209. Whilst specific mention is made of tree bark and
pandanus leaves most barks or tropical leaves will yield fibres
as well as vines and grasses.
2210. Also the use of either animal or human hair should not
be ignored.
2211. Some materials may not on initial inspection seem
suitable for string making however the inner core may revel more
supple fibres that are suitable. These fibres may be exposed by:
-.
a. pounding,
b. heating,
22-2
C. soaking, and
r d. chewing.
Selection of Material
2212. To ascertain as to whether fibres or other materials
are suitable for string making they must have four essential
qualities:
a. length,
b. strength,
C. pliability, and
d. adhesion or grip so that fibres will bite into
one another.
/-. Testina of Material
2213. Firstly pull on a length of the material to test it for
strength. If it does not snap, twist it between the fingers and
roll the fibres together; if it still has not broken tie a thumb
knot in the material and slowly tighten it.
2214. If the material does not cut into itself and the knot
can be pulled reasonably tight and does not re,adily slip apart
it is suitable as string-making material.
Construction of Cordaae
2215. Taking the material that has been tested gather the
fibres into loosely held strands of even thickness. Gently twist
the fibres and they will bite and twist into a length of cordage.
2216. Once a length of about 10 cm is achieved tie a thumb
r. knot in the starting end to prevent the material unravelling.
The cordage or string can then be rolled around a stick - rolling
or wrapping progressively as the manufactured string lengthens
(See Fig 22-l).
FIG 22-l
22-3
2217. To lengthen the string more fibrous material is spliced
into the end of the strcng and the twisLing is continued (See Fig
22-2).
FIG 22-2
2218. Never use a knot of any description to join the fibres
as this will weaken the strength of the string.
2219. Even though most people, especially those who are right
handed find it easier to twist the fibres in a clockwise
direction it makes no difference if the twist is clockwise or
anti-clockwise providing that the same direction is used
throughout the construction.
2220. Most materials are more supple and easier to manage
when wet. Fibres should be stored in a container of water to
keep them- supple, excess water will be removed during the
twisting motion and the damp string rolled or wrapped around the
stick to dry.
2221. If a very narrow or thin stick is used the dried string
will be tightly coiled and resemble a spring in both appearance
'7
and manageability. Manageable string can be achieved by using
a fairly stout stick or by w-apping the string around two sticks
tied to form a cross (See Fi-. 22-3).
FIG 22-3
22-4
2223. When twistinrr the fibres it is important to achieve an
even
"lay" -
that is the string has an even diameter along its
0 entire length (See Fig 22-4).
FIG 22-4
.--. 2224. The difference between good and bad laying.
The lay
on the left of the diagram is lumpy and uneven and the string
will be a lot weaker than the even lay on the right.
2225. By following the previous steps good workable string
can be manufactured that would be suitable for most instances in
which string is required - however a stronger more robust result
can be achieved.
2226. Remove the damp/dry string from around the stick,
ascertain and hold its centre allowing the two running ends to
drop. Secure the centre to a stick and take the two lengths of
string and twist them together in the same manner as described
before. However if the original twist was done in a clockwise
manner the strands must now be twisted anti-clockwise (FIG 22-5)
and vice versa (See 22-5).
FIG 22-5
22-5
2227. The result produces a very strong natural fibre string
that can be used for numerous tasks. If the string is for use
in a wet environment or is to be utilised for fishing/boating
activities it should ideally be waterproofed. This can achieved
by smearing and rubbing with bee's wax or animal fat.
2228. A limited water resistant product can be produced by
smoking the string over a fire taking care not to allow it to be
weakened by excessive heat.
22-6
CHAPTER TWENTY THREE
ANIMAL SIGNS
AND
HABITS
- ---__
ANIMAL SIGNS AND HABITS
2301. In a prolonged survival situation after the survivor
has attended to, or addressed his more impor&r,'. priorities
(water etc) he will obviously have a physical need and mental
desire for food. Depending upon the region and time of the year
these needs may be met purely by vegetation alone. However man
is basically a carnivore and to maintain a balanced diet albeit
in a survival situation he will eventually turn to meat or animal
products to sustain life. In certain situations birds and
animals will be the only available food source. Regardless of
the method employed an idea of animal and bird signs and habits
will give the survivor an added advantage over his prey, thus
saving precious energy in the quest for food. In the acronym
"survival" the letter A stands for - "Act Like The Natives", by
this we mean the native inhabitants in the area in which we find
ourselves in a survival situation. This applies to not only
7
indigenous people but to the animal inhabitants as well. By
following the actions and habits of the local wildlife the
survivor can gain valuable knowledge such as location of water
- food sources, locations in which to set traps, types of bait
to use and time best utilised for hunting. The observation of
animal habits may also have more serious implications than the
simple quest for food. For example - the authors of this
publication observed a group of wallabies approaching a
billabong. Even though the billabong contained fresh potable
water the wallabies stopped some meters from the waters edge and
dug until they reached the water table - even then one animal
kept watch on the billabong whilst the others drank from the
soak. The billabong later proved to be the home of a rather
large crocodile! Hence - Act Like The Natives - if they do
something they do it for a purpose,
usually for the maintenance
of their own survival.
Tracks
J'- 2302. The ability to recognise animal signs and habits in the
bush is of enormous benefit to the survivor. Species
identification can lead you to water holes,sources of wild food
and in some instances an easy path to follow over a ridge or
other native obstacles.
2303. Our forefathers developed the skill to track in their
search for food, but centuries of so called civilisation have
taken this skill away. In addition Australia, because of its
aridness is a particularly hard continent to track anything in.
Following and identifying tracks of an animal on a saltbed or
claypan represent a more difficult challenge than snow or marsh
areas of Europe where our ancestors practiced their skills.
23-l
2304. However there are areas where animals can be identified
by their tracks they leave -
a. Along seacoast estuaries or beaches;
b. Edges of billabongs, rivers and soaks;
C. Dry - "Bulldust" areas.
2305. The above listed areas are very easy to spot tracks,
however with practice it is not difficult to track over seemingly
impossible areas - the ability to track is 2% knowledge in what
you are observing and 98% practice.
Bird Tracks
2306. A bird that normally lives and feeds in the trees hops
along the ground. Because of this the marks of both feet are
placed side by side.
2307. The marks of a bird that walks and is therefore a
ground feeder - whether a carrion, seed or grain - has a
distinctly angular or walking gait.
2308. In the marks of a bird that digs for food there is, in
addition to the walking gait, a strong impression of a large hind
claw, usually deeply indented.
2309. In tracks where the centre "toe" is much larger than
others it indicates that the bird scratches for sub surface
insects for food.
2310. Talon - like claw marks indicate a carrion feeder such
as a crow or hawk.
2311. A slight impression of a web in tracks left near water
indicates that the bird is probably a swimmer.
2312. As with all tracks a number of birds in any of the
above mentioned species may deviate, eg: some marsh birds - even
T
though they can swim rarely do.
FIG 23-l
TRACKS OF A HOPPING BIRD INDICATES IT FEEDS IN THE TREES
23-2
FIG 23-Z
TRACKS OF A WALKING BIRD OR GROUND FEEDING BIRD
FIG 23-3
LACK OF A BACK DIGGING CLAW INDICATES THAT THIS BIRD IS A
GRAIN OR FRUIT EATER
FIG 23-4
-
\
IS A DIGGER OR SCRATCHER
23-3
FIG 23-5
t T K F ARIN ATN
ED BY THE WERFUL
GRASPING CLAWS
FIG 23-6
WEB-FOOTED TRACKS MADE BY A WADING BIRD
Animal Tracks
2313. Where the claws of the centre toes are almost prominent
in animal tracks it usually means that the animal is an earth
digger or burrower.
2314. If there is a mark or sign of a prehensile thumb it
indicates that the animal is a climber. Tracks from a climber
can also be detected on tht bark of trees.
2315. Flesh eating animals usually leave tracks that have
pronounced toes. These heavy toe-marks indicate that the animal
uses its legs as a form of springboard when running eg; dog -
cats.
Note: Even though cats sometimes hunt or rest in trees they
are not true climbers but actually claw their way thus
the lack of the prehensile thumb.
23-4
2316. A completely different set
of tracks is made by all
grazing animals. Having neither climbing "thumbs" to escape from
predators nor digging claws to hide by.burrowing their only means
of defense is by running or kicking hence the development of
hooves.
2317. In the Australian bush animals will leave sign other
than footprints - as mentioned earlier,
clin-&i:lg creatures also
leave their mark on tree bark.
2318. Some animals will burrow through grass leaving a
distinct and easy trail to trap or follow.
In areas where there
are rotted stumps or logs digging marks can be detected where
animals have foraged for grubs or termites.
FIG 23-7
TRACKS OF BURROWING ANIMALS ARE INDICATED BY THE ELONGATED
AND STRONG CENTRE TOES
FIG 23-8
-
THE TYPICAL MARKS OF FLESH EATING ANIMALS THE DINGO AND THE
FERAL CAT
/-
23-5
FIG 23-9
THE SIGN OF A PREHENSILE THUMB INDICATES A CLIbfBING ANIMAL
SUCH AS A POSSUY
FIG 23-14
TRACKS LEFT BY GRAZING ANIMALS SUCH AS
1. CATTLE 2. SHEEP 3. GOAT 4. PIG
2319. The previous half of the chapter gave a good indication
of animal and bird tracks that are prevalent in the Australian
bush. Although reasonably accurate they are a generalisation of
all creatures of certain species eg: Carnivores or Herbivores.
The following half of the chapter will give a better profile of
the most common Australian animals the survivalist could utilise
as a food source.
23-6
Bandicoot
2320. Tracks. The tracks of the hind feet of a bandicoot
,- can be confused with those of a small kangaroo-rat but a clear
imprint of the bandicoot's front foot shows only three toes -
The first and the fifth do not leave a mark - While a Kangaroo-
Rat shows five toes.
All species of bandicoot leave similar
tracks. When the animal moves slowly the gait is bound.
The
front legs move alternately while the back legs move forward
together. A faster bound leaves a similar track but the front
footprints are closer together and the stride longer.
2321. Shelters. Bandicoots make a low nest of dry sticks,
leaves and grass on the ground. This material is formed into a
large bundle with no obvious entrance hole; The animal pushes its
way into the nest and then re-arranges the nest material so that
the opening is not visible. It does the same when leaving the
nest, which is usually hidden by undergrowth or grass tussocks.
2322. Habits. The bandicoot is a shy nocturnal animal that
comes out comes out to feed at night - it digs small conical pits
in search of worms or insects larvae.
/---
They have a keen sense of
smell and can be usually enticed into traps or snares with almost
any type of bait other than meat or offal.
FIG 23-12
FRONT FOOT TRACK ONLY THREE TOES LEAVE A MARK
FIG 23-13
b
HIND FOOT TRACK WITH LONG FOURTH & FIFTH TOES
23-7
FIG 23-14
BOUNDING TRACK THUS ABSENCE OF REAR FOOT PAD ON HIND FOOT
Kanaaroos - Wallabies
2323. Tracks. The tracks of animals in this group are
very similar. Regardless of species, the main difference can
assist in distinguishing between the tracks of a large kangaroo
n
and a wallaby.
2324. All kangaroos, wallabies and kangaroo-rats have two
different gaits. When moving slowly over a short distance they
"punt " using all four feet. The front feet are flat on the
ground inside the two hind feet, which are also usually flat on
the grcund but sometimes may be up on the toes.
2325. The front paws are moved forward together then the
hind feet also move up together and are placed either side of the
front feet again.
2326. Shelters. Kangaroos and wallabies do not have
permanent shelters and their resting places are sometimes not
well defined.
2327. Kangaroos will often rest under trees and will choose
a place where their backs are protected but they have an open
view of the other three side. In sandy country, they may scrape
,T
out a resting place in the sand.
2328. Wallabies may regularly use the same resting place.
Patches of well-flattened g--ass in protected situations such as
among ferns or in thick scrub or even under logs, often indicate
where they have been sleeping. Well worn pathways often lead to
the sleeping places.
2329. Rock Wallabies shelter in caves, on rock ledges and in
fissures in the rocks. In these places, the rocks are often worn
smooth by the constant passage of the rock wallabies feet. In
dry caves and ledges their scats take a long time to decompose
and large accumulations may result.
23-8
2330. Kangaroo Rlts shelter
nest of dry grass and leaves on
hollow under the cover of thick
-
i
in dense cover. They build a
the ground, usually in a small
grass or bush debris. The
- _
/ -.
nesting material is carried to the site in the animals curled
tail.
2331. Habits. Kangaroos and Wallabies sre herbivores and
naturally are attracted to lush green pastureiands. However dry
forage is acceptable to them even though they prefer the former.
They obviously require water to assist in digesting and can be
found around most potable water - they can however survive on
"brackish" water near coastal areas and if need be simply on the
morning and evening dew on their forage.
2332. They will rest up during the day and come out to
forage of a night, they will also follow a regular pad or track
to water early morning and on dusk.
2333. They can be easily snared along these pads - in
particular on access pads underneath or though fence lines.
They are strong animals so substantial snare material is
- required. In areas where wallabies are prolific they can be
stunned with throwing sticks or driven into net entanglements.
FIG 23-15
FRONT PAW TRACK
,,-s FIG 23-16
HOPPING TRACKS
PIND FOOT TRACK
PUNTING TRACK
/--
23-9
Possums
2334.
durina
Tracks. Possums often spend time on the ground n
their nightly activities.
Their curious rolling walk,
with <he hind feet turned out at an angle, leaves an unmistakable
track pattern. The hind feet are also turned out in the possums
bounding gait.
2325. Possums have a clawless first toe on the hindfoot this
is in fact a prehensile thumb that gives the possum the ability
to climb.
2336. Shelters. Possums usually shelter in hollow tree
limbs, hollow logs or occasionally in thick undergrowth.
During
the breeding season, bark and leaves are used to line the den.
Scratches on tree trunks often indicate the where abouts of
hollows in use. In rocky areas where there are no tree hollows
possums may also shelter in caves or rock crevices.
2337. The common Ringtail Possum builds a nest or "Dret".
This is a bulky, roughly spherical ball about 30 cm across
composed of twigs, strips of bark, leaves, ferns and grasses. 9
There is an entrance hole 8 - 10 cm in one side of the nest,
which is usually placed in a fork or among branches of trees or
shrubs where they grow close together.
2338. Habits. Possums are nocturnal animals rarely seen
during the day. Even though their tracks may be detected on the
ground they are primarily tree dwellers - both feeding and
nesting are normally in tree tops: the possum will also feed on
the ground if the opportunity arises.
2339. On the upward sides of leaning gum trees scratches of
varying ages may be detected. These scratches mean that the tree
is a " road " for possums. They either live in the dead hollows
or come to the tree nightly to feed on young leaves.
2340. By looking up the tree you will be able to tell whether
it is being used for feeding or nesting. If it is used for
nesting it will have many dead limbs, which will be hollow.
Possums, like people, prefer to take the easy route - by placing ,
a branch leading from the vertical tree trunk at an angle to the
ground thus forming an easier route (which the possum will always
follow) it is easy to snare the animal as per the chapter on
Traps and Snares.
2341. Possums also have a great liking for fresh fruit
especially mangoes which they find irresistible, so are an
obvious choice of bait for traps.
2342. A little known fact about the possum id that if
clutched it can release its fur as a defensive mechanism and thus
escape, much the same as small lizards or skinks have by losing
their tales. Therefore if a possum is to be utilised for
clothing etc, it is best to wait about 12 hrs after killing the
animal before skinning. Obviously if it is also to be utilised
for food it should be hung in a cool dark position.
23-10
FIG 23-17
FRONT FOOT TRACK
FIG 23-18
HIND FOOD TRACK
WALKING TRACK
BOUNDING TRACK
Summarv.
2343. The knowledge that can be attained by the simple act
of observation of wildlife in its natural habitat is endless.
Any usual behaviour pattern should be
,loted and stored away no
matter how seemingly trivial.
2344. Remember we are trying desperately to survive a natural
environment.
- ACT LIKE THE NATIVES I!
23-11
CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR
TRAINING
- CONSIDERATIONS
,--
NING CONSrDERATIOYS
2401. Prior to the commencement of any survival training
the Instructor or Assistant Instructor must consider,
and
where practical, implement safety precautions applicable to
the training required.
2402. These considerations should not in any way detract
from the training, and more importantly, should not place the
student in extreme danger.
2403. You must balance out a common sense approach that,
whilst achieving total isolation of the student groups, there
are in place means of monitoring the students and alternate
means of communications between students and safety parties.
/4.
.
law
2404. In the planning stages of training you, as the
Instructor, must address the following points:
a.
b.
C.
d.
e.
f.
90
h.
.
I.
j*
k.
1.
m.
n.
0.
P*
dates allocated by HQ for training;
total days for training and movement of
students;
total number of personnel to be trained;
allocated training area;
suitable training area;
Land Clearance Form;
vehicle support;
medical support;
air support;
Visiting Lecturer;
stores;
rations;
staff available;
communications/radio;
Live Ammunition;
local purchase;
24-l
/
-.
9*
r.
S.
t.
U.
V.
W.
x.
Y*
live stock;
student accommodation;
Instructor accommodation;
movements;
Allowances;
navex;
Field Brief;
Assessments; and
lesson content.
2405. Dates Allocated. By parent HQ's for training
soldiers as Basic Survivalist, should be 9 days minimum -
consisting of 4 days for instruction, 4 days field training
and 1 day admin/movements. The TMP for this 9 day course, as
at September 1992, is still to be formalised. The training
can be modulised; that is the theory can be taught separately
over several training days/nights. However, the practical
field exercise must be conducted in a set 4 day period, either
inland, coastal or a combination of the two areas.
2406. Total Davs. Allocation for the training is by the
direction of the CO/OC. In negotiation, aim for a 9 day
module as a basic standard time frame to train a good Basic
Survivalist.
2407. Total Number of Personnel to be Trained. Must be
manageable, having a good student Instructor ratio. When
there is a shortage of Survival Instructors allocate NCO's to
assist. For example, 2 Instructors per 20 students is a real
base minimum during the instructional phase.
2408. Allocated Trainina Areas. If your unit has access
to a training area
(army)
that is suitable then use it.
However, if the area is not suitable you must request time
from your CO/OC to conduct a detailed recon for a better
venue.
2409. Suitable Trainina Area. There should be as many of
the following advantages as possible to ensure your training
is a success:
a. Accessibilitv. During both Wet and
Dry
Seasons by foot, vehicle or boat.
b. Isolation. Can it be achieved during the
field phase? There is nothing worse than the
students being able to "walk out" and procure
food etc; from farms, shops and so on. We had
on one occasion a student walk 21 len at night
to conduct a food resupply.
24-2
C.
d.
e.
f.
h.
.
I.
L
Control
Of area by restricting movementZi
throughyour training area, and al80 of control
of your students within your area.
Water.
Sufficient water sources to allow for
water resupply and placement of student groups
on separate water courses/holes.
s
m Again for placement of groups to
enforce wa;er collection from sea/salt water.
Flora and Fauna. Sufficient to allow for
plant identification, animal signs, habits,
traps and snares.
Throughout the area
must be available to
ensure suitable shelters are constructed, ie,
paperbark, grass, etc.
Naviaation. Area devoid of natural features,
if possible large enough to allow movement of
40 personnel 40 different legs by day and
night.
Landina Ground. To allow for troop movements
into area if over large distances. Also to
cater for emergency casualty evacuation.
Communications. Is the training area suitable
to maintain/establish communications using HF,
VHF? Is Telecom available in the area using a
portable phone?
24-10. Land Clearance Form. On all recons for training
areas. Carry Land Clearance Form available from OP's staff.
Ensure the Land Owner signs them prior to your return to your
unit.
2411. Vehicle S Doort.
?/-
limited so plan cazefully,
What is available to you may
a minimum of 2 landrovers and 1
truck may see you through.
2412. wedical SUDDOrt. When possible, a medic should be
in attendance during training to cover injuries such as large
knife cuts, plant poisoning, snake bite and other injuries.
When in close proximity to civilian medical facilities this
requirement could be waived.
2413. Air SUDDOrt . A vital asset that, unless your
training is in a very remote area, may not be available for
troop movements. However, support should be requested
especially for medical casevac.
24-3
2414.
ttaiA&ng
forecast
Visitina Lecturers !VL).
Units have access to
funds to pay for VL's.
These funds should be
for well in advance of the anticipated training.
VII'S can be employed to cover botanical,
entomology
and q%
anthropology subjects to adequately cover subjects not fully
known by the Survival Instructor.
2415. Permits to take Flora and Fauna.
Applications Via
appropriate HQ to:
a.
QLD,
b. VIC,
C. NSW,
d. SA,
e.
NT,
f. WA, and
g*
TAS.
2416. Stores. A copy of the stores list required for a
21 day course teaching 20 students with 7 instructors is at
Annex B. The Survival Instructor should only use this as a
guide.
2417. Rations. Required for any training activity and
needs careful planning. During theory instruction it is
adequate to feed students 10 man rations, however if the
training is over 9 days only, then "thin out" rations from day
1.
2418. staff. Availability will be dictated to you by the
number of other instructors within your unit. If you have no
other instructors try giving Survival Wing a phone call and
even though we may not always be able to assist you we can at
least give you a list of other qualified instructors in your
area.
2419. Communications. For your unit may be limited.
The minimum you should operate with is one radio in the base
camp, one per vehicle, one per isolated student group and one
spare.
2420. Live Ammunition. The carriage and use of live
ammunition can only be used when authorised by a Formation
Commander and should only be issued when there is a likely
chance of a life threatening situation.
2421. Local Purchase. Several Training Aids need to be
organised, ie, for goats, snare wire, magnesium blocks,
fishing tackle, etc.
24-4
2422. Live Stock. Required to be purchased for
slaughtering lessons. Generally 1 goat or sheep between 5 or
I- 6 people is adequate for hands on training.
Live stock can
be purchased through the ration system or local purchase.
Reference: Australian Defence Force Ration Scales and Sales Of
Issue, SUPMAN 4, Para 5109, Annex G.
2423. Student Accommodation. When conducting formal
courses should encompass those days when transiting and
instruction in a barracks environment.
Accommodation in the
field is either shelter individual or improvised.
2424. Instructor Accommodation. When conducting formal
courses should be in barracks during theory instruction and
whilst transiting. Accommodation in the field is either
shelters individual or improvised.
2425. Movements. The instruction staff should be early
enough to enable the establishment of the area and training
aids. Movement of students into the field should be by the
most expedient means.
/---
2426. Allowances. Per course should
.
encompass
incidentals whilst travelling or billeted in barracks, once
deployed to the field then field and separation allowance are
to be paid. BL's are paid on a predetermined scale.
2427. Navex's. Day and night should be DS led initially
followed by students leading over two legs in excess of 500 m
each by day and night as part of a DS controlled group.
Finally, participation should take place in an individual
day/night Navex over several kilometres with 3 or 4 changes of
direction.
2428. A-field brief is detailed as Annex A to Chapter 24.
2429. Assessments for the field phase can be ascertained
by the TMP and utilising the inland/coastal brief at Annex A.
2430. Lesson content can be drawn from this precis and
r
those suggested references material at Annex A to Chapter 1,
Instructors Training Notes.
24-5
FIELD - INLAND/COASTAL PHASE
INSTRUCTOR'S BRIEF TO STUDENT GRQ-
Instruction for OS
1. This briefing is to be conducted prior to deploying
to the area. Ensure that you do
not brief the students before they have segregated and at the
start point.
The DS Start Point is at GR , and
The DS Finish Point is at GR .
Brief to Students
2. Aim. The aim of this exercise is to test the
student's ability to apply survival techniques in a :
a. Coastal environment, or
b. Inland environment.
(Delete a. or b. as required)
Exercise Area
3. The area you are allowed to operate/survive in is as
follows:
a. North (Natural feature or distance)
b. South
C. East
d. West
24-6
4. Out of bounds areas are as follows:
/-
a. any other camp site (student, instructor or
civilian);
b. sacred sites as outlined by DS; and
C. swimming in rivers, waterholes or the sea.
Conduct
5. You are required to establish a base camp in the
general area, you are to determine your shelter location prior
to the DS departure. In this area you are to implement the
following:
a. Build and maintain a suitable water/sun proof
shelter and develop base camp to include:
(1)
slush lamp,
(2) food and water containers,
(3) cooking utensils,
(4)
furniture,
(5) fire reflectors, and
(6) tools and weapons.
b. Set up and maintain 3 different emergency
signals including three fire sets.
C. Apply water gathering techniques to include:
(1) transpirator bags (1 per member);
(2) solar still;
(3) desalination unit; and
(4)
extraction of water from flora.
d. Gather food from plants, roots water courses,
by digging, fishing and trapping.
e. Start and maintain a fire.
24-7
f. Manufacture and set four snare mechanisms per
member on animal
runs/suitable sites,
including:
-?
(1) deadfall (mangle or fall);
(2) platform;
(3)
spring release; and
(4) deadfall activation (fig 4 mechanism).
Q-
Establish a shadow stick and develop to a sun
clock.
h. Preserve meat/food.
.
1. Maintain a daily log to outline the following:
(1) daily water procurement and individual
sources,
(2)
food gathered and methods of obtaining,
(3) general health and attitude of members,
and
(4)
compile a detailed area map showing the
following:
(a)
water and water courses,
w
animal pads,
(cl
vegetation changes,
w
rocky outcrops, and
P=)
prominent navigation features.
6. You will be given 3 days within which all of the
above items are to be produced. Thereafter at any time the
DS will conduct assessments on your work. Remember, if the
work is not produced or up to standard you may fail the
course.
7. Note! for the duration of the field exercise each
trainee is to be assessed on the following:
a. lT3 - maintain body fluids;
b. lT4 - maintain food intake; and
C. 3T - display a positive attitude to survival
training.
Failure to meet the standards stated in the above
terminal objectives will constitute a fail.
24-8
Coord Instructions
8. The safety/DS camp is located
. In
/---
the event of an injury carry out the following steps:
a. carry out basic first aid;
b. initiate a para flare (by day or night);
c. attempt to establish comms with Fl/F3 radio;
and
d. dispatch two runners to the DS
camp
for
assistance.
9. On sighting a white para flare at night, the group
is to recover all its equipment, sterilise the camp and be at
the safety camp by 0700 the following morning.
10. On sighting of red or green flare you are to return
to your campsite. If the flare was initiated by another
r- camp,
you are to establish communications and confirm with DS
that the flare has been sighted.
11. You are to give an estimated distance and bearing
from your location to the sighting and stand by for additional
tasking.
12. If no comms can be established you are to dispatch
two runners to DS location with this information.
Command and Sias
13. Exercise Control is located at GR
I
and Safety Camp is located at GR .
14. Batteries are inside each sealed Fl box. Radios
are located in following locations:
f-
15.
a.
I
b.
I
C. , and
d. .
Call signs:
a. Students - Golf Papa;
b. Exercise Control - Echo Charlie;
C. Safety Camp - Sierra Charlie;
d. Mobile - Delta Sierra, prefaced by Victor; and
e. Medic - Starlight.
24-9
16. Frequencies:
a. Primary -
b. Alternate -
17. On completion of communications ensure
YOU
disconnect the batteries and secure all signals equipment.
18. WARNING: Misuse or the breaking open of a radio box
other than for emergency purposes is forbidden. Misuse will
cause the group to fail this terminal phase, ultimately
failing the course.
24-10
CIUIPTER TWENTY FIVE
- ALTERNATE USES
FOR
MILITARY EQUIPMENT
USES POR m BOUUSNZ
neral.
2501. The equipment carried by soldiers is designed to meet
the specific requirements of an operational situation.
Much of
this equipment is also of value and applicable to a survival
situation where it can be used unchanged.
However in order for
priorities of survival to be met equipment may have to be adapted
or modified to meet other more pressing needs.
In such
situations personnel need to apply initiative and imagination to
the use of their equipment in order to maximise it's benefit to
them.
2502. Where possible military equipment should be used for
the task it was designed. In many cases this will directly
relate to a survival requirements (e.g. hutchies for shelter).
,p.. However when confronted with the need to use equipment outside
of its original function the following guidelines should be
considered:
a. Determine the priority of effort from survival
priorities.
b. Examine availability of existing equipment for
suitability and ease of use.
c. Adopt existing equipment where possible.
d. Modify equipment only if necessary.
2503. If the guidelines above require equipment to be
/--
modified then
principles:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
it should be done based on th6 following
Modifications should be applicable to the
relevant survival priorities.
The damage done to the equipment should be
minimised as much as possible as repairs will be
very difficult.
As much as the original function of the equipment
should be retained as possible. It may be needed
later.
Modifications should be aimed at being as
multi-purpose as can be achieved.
The item should be portable and re-usable in
order to minimise waste of equipment.
25-l
Prenaration
2504.
various items of equipment can be prepared or added to
-
in order to increase their usefulness in a Survival Situation.
This should be done prior to going to
the field and can be
achieved without detriment to the equipment strength or function.
Such additions help prepare a soldier and give hin confidence in
emergencies.
ExmDles.
.-
(1) Frame packs can have survival items secured
inside the frame.
(2) Cups Canteens can be modified as follows:
(a) locking pin for the handle replaced with a
flint,
(b) handle can have one or both edges sharpened
as a knife,
/
(c) End of the handle can be cut of to allow it
to act as a screwdriver or to provide a two
pronged instrument,
w
a shaped lid and attached hose can be added
to form an emergency desalinator.
; A l'c t'o
2505. Soldiers carry many items, some of them disposable,
which can be adopted as useful items in a survival situation.
What is required is the use of imagination and common sense.
The following are some examples:-
(a) Ration Pack. The current one man ration pack is
designed to be consumed and disposed of in 24
hrs. However nearly all of its contents can be
made useful in a survival situation as indicated.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Alfoil - can be used for signalling, fishing
lures, cooking wraps.
Biscuit and Food Wrappings - As these are
lined with alfoil they have similar
application. Can also be used as pouches
for holding and preparing food.
Paper - used for wrappings or as tinder.
Tins - lids can be sharpened and used for
cutting and scraping. Used for cooking in,
as cups, ladles and other implements. Can
also be cut into strips and used as bindings
or fishing lures and hooks.
25-2
-
/-
(5)
Can Opener - a good tool for cutting, prying
and shaping. Can have one of the edges
sharpened and also adopted as a fish lure
(spoon).
(6)
Sugar - combined with condies crystals can
be used for fire making.
(7)
Matches - should be split to extend their
use.
(8)
Food - small quantities can be used as bait
to turn it into larger quantities of food.
(9)
Tea Bags - can be dried and used several
times.
(10)
Milk h Butter Tubes - Cut into strips and
used as bindings, lures and for signalling.
Butter tubes can be turned into slush lamps.
(11)
Plastic Bags - carriage of water and food.
Water procurement (transpiration
bag)
although their small size will limit yield.
(b) Cord & String - Most of the various issued cords
can be broken down to form a number of smaller
cords and thus increasing the amount of available
string. This should be done in situations where
the greater strength of the original cord is not
needed. The synthetic cords available should not
be cut into smaller length unless absolutely
necessary. This is because once cut the string
cannot be rejoined without compromising its
strength. Locally made string (from natural
resources) should be used for fixed or permanent
items in any situation that does not require the
greater strength and adaptability of synthetic
cord.
(c) Uniforms & Field Equipment - Field uniforms and
equipment are designed to meet many of the basic
survival needs of soldier and to enhance his
ability to operate in that environment. Thus
they are of immediate value without modification.
However in emergencies they can have other uses
as indicated:-
(1)
Shirt - helps protect the body and so should
be retained; however strips may be cut off
for bindings without detriment.
(2) Trousers - once again protect the body but
can also be used as a pack or as a water
filter when tied off and filled with a
suitable filtering agent.
25-3
CHAPTER TWENTY SIX
KNIVES
AND
kNfFE SHARPENING
IVES AND KNIFE SHARPENING
Introduction
2601. A good knife is one of the most valuable assets a
survivor can have. As a tool it allows a person to cut,
chop,
whittle and scrape to produce shelter, tools and
firewood. It makes efficient skinning and butchering
possible for field preparation and if the tang is strong a
knife can be used as a light prying tool. As such, knives
need to be maintained and cared for to ensure their maximum
efficiency. Knives should always be kept clean and sharp,
and used in such a way as to preserve the edge. Never dig
with a knife as this is one of the fastest ways of completely
removing an edge from a blade. Remember - you are only as
sharp as your knife.
-
Selection of a Knife
2602. There are many different types and styles of knives
available to suit an egually varied range of tasks. Leaving
aside combat knives, most field blades are single edged, heavy
bladed, and have a full tang. They can be either large or
small, however the larger blades give a better chopping
ability owing to their greater weight and leverage. Smaller
blades are usually easier to manoeuvre and so are simpler to
use for fine work. Again the choice of which to carry is
determined by the perceived need of the user.
2603. The selection of a suitable knife is an important
decision as the wrong knife can be next to useless and it is
too late to change when out in the field. In selecting a
knife the following points need to be considered:
a. Handle. The knife grip should be both
comfortable and non-slipping. It should fit
the contours of the hand so as to avoid
blisters during heavy work. A solid pommel
which can be used as a hammer is also
advantageous.
b. Tana. The tang should be full length and be
fully enclosed by the handle. Stub tangs give
a higher tendency for the blade to snap at the
guard when under heavy pressure or stress.
C. Edae. The blade edges should be both
sharpened easy to hone back up. Unnecessary
curves and serrations are difficult to sharpen
effectively when in the field and have limited
utility.
26-l
d. Steel. The steel in the blade should be hard
enough to hold but not so hard that it is
brittle. As a general rule a hardness between
,TY
57 to 59 on the Rockwell scale is suitable.
Carbon based steels tend to be harder than the
stainless varieties but also rust more easily.
e. Sheath. A good sheath needs to come with the
knife. It should be sturdy, easy to fit tzl;
belt and securely retain thzlsznife at
angles. A sheath that allows the
carrying of a sharpened stone is beneficial.
f. Portabilitv. The knife needs to be of a size
that allows it to be carried easily, yet big
enough to achieve its function.
If a knife is
too large it may cause the survivor to leave it
behind with the result that it is never
available when needed.
2604. Folding blade knives are also a useful option being
compact, easily carried, and free of the requirement for a
sheath. For a sort of field use a folding knife should have
a secure blade lock to hold the blade open when in use. This
avoids risk of closing the blade on the users fingers during
heavy use. Because of their size folding knives are well
suited for fine or close work and make a good companion to a
large sheath knife. A combination of the two should serve to
cover most situations which could arise in the field.
Selection of a folding knife follows the guide lines as for a
fixed blade with the added criteria of a blade lock for heavy
use. All knives should be well maintained and kept cleaned
and oiled as much as possible. Rust is undesirable as it can
lead to weaknesses forming a dull edge on the blade.
2605. Avoid gimmicks when selecting a knife. Items such
as oversized saw teeth, hollow handles and pommel compasses
have limited value and can impair the normal function of a
knife. Pommel compasses can their magnetism after heavy
chopping work and prevent the pommel from being used as a
hammer. Large saw teeth have limited functions as their
restricted blade length reduces their value as a saw and they
have a tendency to snag. Hollow handles allow for limited
survival items to be stored in the knife but can generate a
weakness similar to that of a stub tang. Also if the knife
is lost the other survival items are lost with it where as if
they are carried separately this risk is reduced.
Tvoes of Edcres
2606. Knife edges come in two major styles, the
conventional or angled
edge f
and the rolled edge. A
variation of the conventional edge in profile resembles the
point of a triangle while the rolled edge appears like the
point of a heart. The hollow ground edge is similar at the
tip to the conventional edge but has convex sides further up
26-2
the wall of the blade post the point.
This makes the edge
easier to sharpen as there is less metal to grind away near
/--. the point. Rolled edges hold their edge longer and are
brittle but require experience and practice to sharpen
properly. Conventional edged are easier to sharpen and can
be re-profiled with a lot less effort.
FIG 26-l Conventional Edae
-.
PIG 26-2 Hollow Ground Edue
r-
FIG 26-3 Rolled Edae
26-3
2607.
A major determining factor in the efficiency of an
edge is the angle at which it is ground on its edge profile.
The finer the edge profile the sharper the blade and the more ---,
easily will slice and cut.
However the more fine an edge
profile becomes the more brittle it is which reduces the life
of the edge as it dulls and chips more easily. For heavy
chopping tasks a broader edge profile is more appropriate and
longer lasting. For these sorts of heavy tasks a rolled edge
is usually superior owing to its greater inherent strength and
durability. Conversely for such tasks as skinning a finer
edge profile is preferable to improve the ease of cutting.
Also the conventional angled edge, being quicker and easier to
sharpen, is probably more practical. Most sources seem to
agree that for general, all round work in the field an edge
profile of 22 o to 23 o is probably the best compromise.
This
profile gives a reasonable balance between sharpness and edge
retention.
Sharpenina Devices
2608. There are a verity of mediums that can be used to -
sharpen knives and hone an existing edge. These include
natural stones, synthetic stones, diamond stones and steels.
All of these mediums are effective at producing an edge with
the choice depending on personal preference and the likely
situations perceived by the user. It must be emphasised that
a good sharpening implement is an essential component of a
knife just as much as is a good sheath. Harsh field use has
the capacity to dull a knife very quickly and a blunt knife
can be nearly as useless as no knife at all.
2609. Natural stones are made of novaculite and are
commonly called whetstones. Depending on the density of the
stone they can be either hard (high density) or soft (less
density). Hard stones give a more aggressive grinding
surface while soft stones are not as aggressive as synthetic
or diamond stones and can shatter easily if dropped or bashed.
They also require a lubricant (usually oil) to float metal
particles away from the pores to prevent clogging and a
consequent fading of its grinding ability.
rl
2610. Synthetic stone: are made from either Silicon
Carbide or Aluminium Oxidt with the former being slightly
harder than the latter. Si-icon Carbide works well for the
initial sharpening of badly dulled blades but does not finish
the edge very well. Aluminium Oxide abrasives come in either
flat bench stones or ceramic rods and can vary in degree of
coarseness. Both types of stone are not as fragile as
natural stones but they can be damaged by rough treatment.
They also require lubricants to float metal particles away.
2611. Diamond stones are the hardest sharpening medium
available and provide a
very
aggressive and abrasive
sharpening edge. They do not require lubricants and are
usually lighter than the other sharpening mediums.
These
stones are made of fine diamond crystals bonded to a plastic
26-4
or wooden base. Because of their aggressive grinding surface
these stones produce a rougher,
less polished edge than other
/--- finer abrasives. They are usually more expensive than other
mediums as well.
2612. Sharpening steels are commonly sold as a rod and are
used to hone knives by standing up the edge and are a quick
and efficient method of returning a fine edge without having
to abrade the metal. Steels should not be used on badly
dulled knives as their effect will be extremely limited.
SharDenina the Conventional Edae
2613. There are two basic methods to sharpen a knife free
hand on a stone or sod. The first is to lay the knife on the
stone at the desired angle and then draw it across the stone
from heel to point, as if trying to slice a thin layer of the
stone. At the end of the stroke the knife is turned over and
the procedure is repeated on the reverse side. The same
number of strokes should be given to each side with only
,-- enough applied to produce the desired edge. Any more than
this and all that is achieved is to further wear the blade for
no additional gain.
2614. The second method of free hand knife sharpening is
the circular stroke. Again the knife is placed at a set
angle for both sides of the blade. The blade is then drown
across the stone in a circular motion with the edge leading.
As with the first method a similar number of strokes should be
applied to both sides until the desired edge is achieved.
2617. The most important point with either method is to
maintain the same angle for each stroke on either sides.
Failure to do this or rocking the knife tends to dull an edge
rather than sharpen it.
26-5
CHAPTER, TWEWTY SEUEN
SURUlUAL
DEFINITIONS
Any person who continues to exist through
his own efforts in spite of adverse
conditions.
8-X Any situation that an individual may find
himself in whereby the body is deprived of
the normal requirements necessary to keep
it functional, thereby causing the
individual to forage for those
requirements.
T SURVIVA& Any one, or a combination of, the
inter-related fields of survival evasion,
escape or code of conduct.
Any person who is cut off behind enemy
lines but succeeds, with or without
organised assistance, in eluding physical
capture.
SHORTH Tactics and techniques employed by units,
groups or individuals to avoid capture in
the enemy combat zone.
&QNg I&A&WE m Tactics and techniques employed by units,
groups or individuals to avoid capture
when travelling far behind enemy lines.
WC-E&
,F- .,
Any person who has been physically
captured by the enemy and succeeds in
freeing himself.
PVASION AND ESCAPg The procedures and operations whereby
military and other selected personnel are
able to emerge from enemy held or hostile
areas to areas under friendly control.
CODE OF CONDUCT The standard of behaviour expected by the
Armed Forces of any member who has been
physically captured by the enemy.
27-1

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