20120328-Giles Format U

Defence Research Paper
Spiritual Intelligence: is it relevant to ethical leadership

education at the strategic level of defence?
Amanda Giles

i

Spiritual Intelligence: is it relevant to
ethical leadership education at the
strategic level of UK defence?

Amanda Giles

ii

UK Student Disclaimer

The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily
represent those of the UK Ministry of Defence, or any other department of Her
Britannic Majestys Government of the United Kingdom. Further, such views should
not be considered as constituting an official endorsement of factual accuracy, opinion,
conclusion or recommendation of the UK Ministry of Defence, or any other
department of Her Britannic Majestys Government of the United Kingdom.

Crown Copyright 2012

iii

Abstract

This study has been sponsored by the Leadership and Management Division (LMD), a
component part of the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, with the intention of utilising
the research findings to inform strategic leadership development and education interventions,
such as the Defence Strategic Leadership Programme (DSLP). The aim of the study is to
conduct exploratory research in to the possible value of the concept of Spiritual Intelligence
(commonly abbreviated as SQ) within a Defence leadership education context, with the aim
of utilising the research findings to inform strategic-level ethical leadership development and
education interventions, such as the Defence Strategic Leadership Programme (DSLP), and
as a foundation for further research. The research strategy for this exploratory study
comprised a search and review of pertinent literature and a primary research to obtain
qualitative data in response to the following research objectives:

RO1 Conduct a Literature Search and a Literature Review of the relevant literature.
RO2 From this, identify a conceptual framework for SQ to inform the study.
RO3 Conduct primary research to:
a. test the conceptual framework for relevance within a UK Defence
strategic leadership context.
b. identify the potential utility of the SQ framework for strategic-level
ethical leadership education and development within UK Defence.
c. state the limitations of the research.
RO4 Draw conclusions.
RO5 Make recommendations, including directions for further research.

A research survey was conducted by face-to-face interview with nine senior leaders within
UK Defence utilising Kings (2008) model of SQ and Flanagans (1954) Critical Incident
Technique. Results were recorded, collated and analysed for thematic content. Limitations
of the research were stated and recommendations made, including proposing directions for
further research. The Literature Review identified reported benefits associated with a
spiritually intelligent workplace. The suggested need for an ethical culture within UK Defence
was supported by the research survey findings. However, the concept of SQ was found to
be only partially relevant to the practice of ethical strategic leadership. The study proposed
that further research is required in the areas of the development of moral self-awareness and
ethical decision-making skills within officer education programmes; a practical evaluation of
the utility of the concept of SQ within the DSLP; the identification and evaluation of suitable
alternative tools to enable ethical development; and an assessment of the ethical behaviour
of leaders at all levels of UK Defence to establish a base line against which future ethical
leadership development can be measured.

iv

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my appreciation for the support and guidance given me by my primary
supervisor, Dr Mike Dunn. He was far more patient with me than I deserved. I would also
like to thank my other academic advisor, Professor Keith Grint, for his wise words and
unfailing sense of humour. I am very grateful to the support and encouragement afforded me
by my superiors at the Leadership and Management Division of the Defence Academy of the
UK (formerly known as the Defence Leadership and Management Centre): Air Commodore
(Retired) Peter Gray, for his inspiration, confidence in me and sponsorship which allowed me
to embark on this learning journey; and Air Commodore (Retired) Nick Randle, who
sustained and cajoled me through the process. And finally, many thanks are due to Dr Bryan
Watters for his particular help with a major work project which was absorbing all the time I
should have been devoting to this study.

v

Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1: Background 1
1.2: Research Focus 3
1.3: Overall Research Aim and Individual Research Objectives 4
1.4: Value of this Research 5
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature 6
2.1: Introduction 6
2.2: The Nature of Intelligence 7
2.3: The Concept of Spirituality 8
2.4: What is Strategic Leadership in a UK Defence Context? 8
2.5: Theoretical Models of SQ 10
2.6: Spiritually Intelligent Leaders Helpful or Harmful? 30
2.7: A Conceptual Framework of SQ 31
2.8: Review of Ancillary Literature 34
2.9: Outcome of the Literature Review 38
Chapter 3: Research Methods 41
3.1: Introduction 41
3.2: Research Strategy 41
3.3: Data Collection 43
3.4: Framework for Data Analysis 46
3.5: Limitations and Potential Problems 53
3.6: Next Steps 55
Chapter 4: Research Findings 56
4.2: Literature Review Summary of Findings 56
4.3: Research Survey Findings 57
4.4: Research Findings - Conclusions 68
4.5: Limitations of the Research 69
Chapter 5: Conclusion 71
5.2: Research Objectives Summary of Findings and
Conclusions
72
5.3: Recommendations 73
5.4: Self-reflection Personal Learning Journey 74
References 76

vi

List of figures

Figure
Number
Figure Title Page
Number
1 Framework for Data Analysis 47
2 Framework for Data Analysis, with Six Key Themes Identified
from Literature Review
50
3 Creswells (2007) Data Analysis Spiral 51
4 Framework for Data Analysis, Depicting Cyclic Nature of Data
Collection and Analysis Process
52

List of tables

Table
Number
Table Title Page
Number
1 SQ Model Comparison Emmons 13
2 SQ Model Comparison Emmons, Zohar and Marshall 15
3 SQ Model Comparison Emmons, Zohar and Marshall, Noble 18
4 SQ Model Comparison Emmons, Zohar and Marshall,
Noble, Wolman
20
Noble, Wolman, Vaughan
23
Noble, Wolman, Vaughan, Amram
25
Noble, Wolman, Vaughan, Amram, King.
28
8 SQ Model Comparison Identification of Common Content 32
9 Comparison of Values and Standards UK Navy, Army, RAF
and Civil Service
35
10 Study Model of SQ 39
11 Six Key Themes which Inform Data Collection and Analysis 49

List of appendices

Appendix
Letter
Appendix Title Page
Number
A Pre-Interview Brief 85
B Data Analysis Extracts 87
C Interview Data Summary Table 89
D Main Study Interview Framework 91

1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1: Background

This study has been sponsored by the Leadership and Management Division (LMD), a
component part of the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, with the intention of
utilising the research findings to inform strategic leadership development and education
interventions, such as the Defence Strategic Leadership Programme (DSLP). In order
to provide background and context, an explanation of the DSLP is necessary. The
DSLP is a key leadership education programme for leaders in UK Ministry of Defence
(MOD) on reaching the strategic level of the organisation. An explanation of what is
meant by strategic leadership within a Defence context will be provided later in Section
2 the Literature Review. The DSLP comprises a five day residential foundation
course followed by optional further coaching and personal development opportunities.
Attendance on the programme is mandatory for military officers on promotion to 1-star
rank (Commodore, Brigadier, or Air Commodore) and deemed highly desirable for
equivalent MOD Senior Civil Service (SCS) grades.

The programme aims to provide the tools, techniques and vocabulary in order to
enhance strategic leadership at the corporate and strategic level across Defence
1
. It is
built around the twin themes of self-awareness and reflection, which together provide a
golden thread which runs through the programme. To promote a high level of
personal insight and understanding, various psychometric tools (Myers Briggs Type
Indicator; WAVE, 360-degree appraisal
2
) are used to engender self-awareness of
participants personal attitudes, perceptions, preferred behaviours, emotional drivers,
and how they influence an individuals leadership style. During the course, the
psychology of leadership is explored, which includes the acknowledgement that
successful leaders require an adequate level of cognitive intelligence (IQ), which
Professor Adrian Furnham refers to as the need to be bright enough (Furnham,
2008).

To enable participants to understand how they relate emotionally to situations, how
their emotions affect others, and how to manage the emotions of self and others, the
theory of Emotional Intelligence (EQ) (Goleman, 1996; Mayer et al, 2000) is introduced,
explored and debated. A review of the programme has been instigated to ensure that
the content meets the current requirements of the Defence leadership context within a
wider world environment of changing social developments, political and economic
drivers, and take account of recent academic thought with regard to leadership theory
and practice.

One aspect of the course content that is under review is that of the moral and ethical
dimensions of leadership. Since the inception of the programme in 2002, this has

1
Further details of the programme can be found within the Defence Academy of the UK on-line course
prospectus: http://www.da.mod.uk/prospectus/cmt/dslp/?searchterm=dslp [Accessed 29 January 2012)
2
The 360-degree appraisal was specially designed by the Defence Leadership Centre (DLC) for use on
the DSLP to assess leadership behaviour from the perspective of the subjects superiors, peers and
subordinates. Assessments focuses on the eight leadership attributes of the DLC Helix model of
leadership: integrity; vision; communication; decision taking; professional knowledge; innovation;
developmental focus; and humility (Defence Leadership Centre, 2004, p.24).

2

focussed largely on the ethics of armed combat with debate on the complexity of a
leaders morality in war. It has been proposed (by alumni and directing staff) that these
questions may be better debated in more operationally-focussed staff training
programmes and that strategic leadership education should concentrate on wider
ethical/moral issues faced by the whole of society. It should be noted that although
opinions vary as to the difference between the precise meanings of the terms moral
and ethical, the debate lies outside the confines of this paper. The Oxford Concise
Dictionary defines moral as concerned with the principles of right or wrong (Pearsall,
2001, p.925) and ethical as relating to moral principles (Pearsall, 2001, p.489). For
the purpose of this study, the terms ethical and moral are considered to be
interchangeable.

There is evidence (McGeachey, 2001; Zohar and Marshall, 2004; Howard and
Welbourne, 2004) that over the last decade or more, UK society has shown a turn from
the materialistic obsession of the 1980s and is now highly concerned with more
altruistic matters such as green issues, corporate social responsibility, and the need for
transparency and integrity in government. The uproar over recent political scandals
eg, the abuse of MPs allowances system, cash for questions, etc and the cases of
private sector fraud and misdealing (Enron, Lehman Brothers, etc), may all be
construed as indicators of societys move away from materialistic imperatives towards
a need for greater integrity and accountability both in the public and private sectors.
Reflecting this, recent research has shown an increase in the need for an
acknowledgement of individual personal moral, ethical and spiritual values in the
workplace (McGeachey, 2001; Zohar and Marshall, 2004; Howard and Welbourne,
2004).

It has been proposed that many people are no longer content merely to do a days
work in exchange for a days pay; they also want to feel that their efforts have made a
valid and positive contribution, and be assured that what they do makes a difference
(McGeachey, 2001; Zohar and Marshall, 2004.). This search for personal meaning at
work is illustrated by the extent of studies, research projects, conferences and
seminars, and organisations focussed on spiritual leadership and spirit at work that
have emerged over the past two decades
3
. These activities can be divided into three
main areas: SQ; spiritual leadership; and spirit at work movements. A simple
explanation of the difference between these categories is offered as follows. SQ theory
provides models which purport to describe the mental abilities which underlie many
components of spirituality (King, 2008). These abilities are required to enable the
performance of spiritual leadership, which is defined by Fry as comprising the values,
attitudes, and behaviours that are necessary to intrinsically motivate ones self and
others so that they have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and membership
(Fry, 2003, pp.694-695). The enactment of Spiritual Leadership in organisations can
engender a culture which allows for and encourages individuals to work in such a way
that it aligns with and supports their spiritual beliefs. This has become commonly
known as the Spirit at Work (SAW) movement (Howard and Welbourne, 2004;
Tipping, 2004).

3
Examples of websites concerning spiritual leadership and spirit at work can be accessed as follows:
International Centre for Spirit at Work http://www.spiritatwork.org/ ; The Centre for Spirit at Work
http://www.thecenterforspiritatwork.com/ ; International Institute for Spiritual Leadership
http://www.iispiritualleadership.com/spiritual/theory.php .

3

The weight of research and debate on the connection between spirituality, leadership
and work has impacted on the review of the DSLP and consideration has been given to
what extent it could, or should, influence the moral/ethical leadership content of the
programme. As has been stated previously, the self-awareness golden thread of
DSLP encourages leaders to understand, and be aware of, the need for cognitive
intelligence (IQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ) as key enablers for successful
leadership. It is suggested that an expansion of course content on self-reflection, to
encompass deeper understanding and evaluation of personal spiritual beliefs and
practices, would provide leaders with a greater awareness of how their personal
spirituality affects their leadership behaviour, with particular emphasis on ethical
decision making. Introducing the study of SQ theory into the course content may
provide such a vehicle, and might complement the insight already afforded by the
inclusion of IQ and EQ theory in the curriculum. It is proposed that the study of the
three intelligences may help leaders to understand the what (IQ), how (EQ) and why
(SQ) questions of their leadership behaviours.

1.2: Research Focus

Whilst a great deal has been written about the link between both IQ and EQ and
leadership effectiveness (Dulewicz et al, 2005; Stein and Book, 2011; Zohar and
Marshall, 2004), the same cannot be said of the relationship (if any) between SQ and
leadership. This is particularly so in the context of military leadership. Research has
been conducted into spiritual leadership within a military environment (Fry et al, 2005)
but none has been found regarding the relevance of SQ to strategic leadership within a
UK Defence context. Without prior relevant research concerning the utility of SQ as a
vehicle for enhancing strategic leader behaviour in this specific context, it was
reasoned that exploratory research was needed to ascertain the degree to which the
introduction of SQ into the curriculum of DSLP, and similar leadership education
programmes, might provide value. Therefore, the aim of this study can be summarised
as follows:

To conduct exploratory research in to the possible value of the concept of SQ
within a Defence leadership education context, with the aim of utilising the
research findings to inform strategic-level ethical leadership development and
education interventions, such as the Defence Strategic Leadership Programme
(DSLP), and as a foundation for further research.

Despite the intentionally narrow focus on the concept of SQ, it should be noted that this
study is not designed to debate whether or not SQ meets to criteria of an intelligence,
nor the merits of one definition of spirituality or intelligence over any other. It intends to
examine models of SQ proffered by various theorists, and select a specific SQ model
judged to best exemplify the many diverse SQ theoretical approaches, and seek
informed opinion as to the potential relevance and utility of SQ as a vehicle for
development of personal self-awareness within a specific leadership context. Whilst
the merits or flaws of foremost SQ theories will be evaluated, the focus of this work is
on opportunities for practical usage rather than extending the already diffuse
arguments over intellectual meanings of the distinct concepts of spirituality and
intelligence.

4

1.3: Overall Research Aim and Individual Research Objectives

The overall research aim of this study has been stated in the previous section. The
aim can be broken down into three primary areas under the headings of possible
value, concept of SQ, and foundation for further research, all within the context of
strategic-level Defence ethical leadership education, as highlighted below:


1.3.1: Concept of SQ. In order understand the concept of SQ, a search and
review of relevant literature is indicated. Theory supporting the necessity of a
Literature Review, and an explanation of its conduct, will be expounded in
greater detail in Chapter 3: Research Methods. From the Literature Review, it
will be possible to identify, from various complementary yet conflicting theories
of SQ, a representative conceptual framework or model which can be utilised to
inform the subsequent qualitative enquiry process. Consequently, the initial
stage of the research will be accomplished through the prosecution of Research
Objectives One (RO1) and Two (RO2):

RO1. Conduct a Literature Search and a Literature Review of the
relevant literature.

RO2. From this, identify a conceptual framework for SQ to inform the
study.

1.3.2: Possible Value.

In order to make an assessment as to the applicability of including SQ theory in
Defence education programmes as a vehicle for enhancing the ethical and
moral self-awareness of strategic leaders, it was decided that primary
qualitative research should be conducted through a series of interviews with a
sample of key stakeholders in Defence leadership education. The interviewees
were specifically selected with a view to offering informed opinion. The
following two research questions, RO3 and RO4, were identified:

RO3. Conduct primary research to:
a. test the conceptual framework for relevance within a UK
Defence strategic leadership context.
b. identify the potential utility of the SQ framework for
strategic-level ethical leadership education and
development within UK Defence.
c. state the limitations of the research

RO4. Draw conclusions.

Full details of the rationale behind this approach, including the choice of
research methodology, criteria utilised for selection of research candidates, and
subsequent execution of the survey and research analysis, is discussed in
Chapter 3: Research Methods.

5

1.3.3: Foundation for Further Research.

As previously stated, the author has been unable to locate previous research
regarding the relevance of SQ to strategic leaders within a Defence context.
Therefore, it is hoped that this study will provide a foundation for further
research into this area of leadership development. Recommendations as to
which specific direction, or directions, such enquiry should follow will depend on
the conclusions drawn at the end of this project. Consequently, the final
research objective of this study, RO5, is to:

RO5. Make recommendations, including directions for further research.

In addition to providing a basis for further research, it is anticipated that this
research will provide value in a number of areas, as outlined in the following
paragraph.

1.4: Value of this Research

It is proposed that this research will add considerably to an area of academic
investigation which has come to the fore in recent years and could have significant
impact on the development of leaders across UK Defence, and within the wider
leadership development environments. In addition to the primary focus of informing
strategic leadership development and education interventions, such as the Defence
Strategic Leadership Programme (DSLP), the research findings may be utilised to
develop leadership education curricula for leader and follower training and education
interventions at the operational and tactical levels of Defence. Such insights may also
be of interest to leadership educators in non-UK military services as well as other UK
and foreign public service organisations, the not-for-profit sector and commercial
companies. Outside, formal education programmes, it is hoped that the findings will
stimulate debate on the subject of self-awareness of personal ethical perspectives, the
use of tools and models to assist ethical decision-making, and the necessity of
producing and maintaining an ethically aligned organisational culture.

Specifically, this research will contribute to understanding the potential utility of SQ as
an aid to enhanced leadership development in three ways: firstly, by means of a
Literature Review, providing critical analysis of existing SQ models and frameworks
(ROs 1 and 2); secondly, by comparing a selected theoretical model of SQ to practise,
as described by a sample group of strategic leaders, and obtaining their views, as
leadership education stakeholders within Defence, as to the applicability of SQ within
the specific Defence strategic leadership education context (ROs 3 a, b and c) and
articulating conclusions derived from the research (RO4); third, and finally, by providing
a foundation for future research into SQ theory development and practical application
(RO5).

The next chapter Review of Related Literature examines literature pertinent to the
concept of SQ, initially focussing on an explanation of the terms spiritual, intelligence,
and leadership.

6

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1: Introduction

In the introductory chapter of this paper, the context and aim of this study were outlined
and suggestions were offered as to the resultant value of the proposed research
project. Of the five, specific research objectives stated, this Literature Review will
focus on objectives one and two:

RO1. Conduct a Literature Search and a Literature Review of the relevant
literature.

RO2. From this, identify a conceptual framework for SQ to inform the study.

Achievement of these two objectives will enable the conduct of primary research in
accordance with RO3:

ethical leadership education and development within UK
Defence.

Subsequently, RO4 and RO5, as indicated below, will be met as a consequence of
examination and analysis of the findings emergent from RO1, 2 and 3:



Before embarking on a Literature Review, it seems sensible to clarify what this activity
comprises why it will add value to this study. Hart (1998) offers the following definition
of a Literature Review:

The selection of available documents (both published and unpublished) on the
topic, which contain information, ideas, data and evidence written from a
particular standpoint to fulfil certain aims or express certain views on the nature
of the topic and how it is to be investigated, and the effective evaluation of
these documents in relation to the research being proposed. (Hart, 1998, p.14)

For this study, to meet the requirements of RO1, a search will be made to identify and
review relevant literature pertaining to the concept of SQ, with particular emphasis on
how SQ may benefit leaders within a Defence strategic-level leadership context. To
achieve this, the concepts of intelligence, spirituality (as opposed to religiosity), and
strategic-level leadership, will be briefly explored and defined in terms pertaining to the
aim of this study. Having gained an understanding of these concepts, the main focus
of this Literature Review will be directed towards an investigation and critique of
prevalent theoretical models of SQ. In addition, possible benefits for organisations of
employing and cultivating spiritually intelligent leaders will be examined. By exploring
these areas of literature it is hoped that a greater understanding of the nature and
potential utility of SQ will be achieved. From the various theoretical models of SQ

7

identified and critiqued, a preferred model will be identified to use as a basis for
subsequent primary research, thus satisfying RO2 (Identify a conceptual framework of
SQ to inform the study).

Before embarking on a review of SQ theory, it is necessary to explore the meaning and
relevance of some of the various terms which will prove fundamental to this Literature
Review. The areas which will be discussed and defined are as follows:

a. The nature of intelligence.
b. The concept of spirituality.
c. Defining strategic leadership within a UK Defence context.

Finally, the Literature Review will cover other ancillary areas of emerging interest,
found to be pertinent to this study. These comprise two areas of interest: the published
values and standards of UK Defence organisations, and suggestions for alternative
ethical leadership development tools.

2.2: The Nature of Intelligence

When examining the concept of SQ it is sensible to start with understanding the
component terms of spiritual and intelligence. Turning first to intelligence, this has
been defined variously as: an ability; a capacity; and a mechanism; to name just a few
(Gregory, 1987). Gardner (1999, pp.33-34), in his conceptualisation of the term,
proposes that intelligence is a biopsychological potential to process information that
can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of
value in a culture. Gardner, is of the school that supports the theory of the existence
of multiple intelligences, whereas some other theorists maintain that intelligence is a
general ability or capacity, as first proposed by Spearman (1904). No definitive and
universally agreed definition of intelligence has emerged and it has been suggested
that there seem to be almost as many definitions of intelligence as there were experts
asked to define it (Gregory, 1987, p.376).

In the face of all these disputed definitions and concepts, the following comprehensive
definition of general intelligence is offered. This definition was endorsed by over fifty
psychology scholars, acclaimed experts in the field of intelligence, and published in the
Wall Street Journal on 13 December 1994. The article was later re-published by its
initiator, Linda Gottfredson, as an editorial in a special edition of Intelligence journal:

Intelligence is a very general mental capability that, among other things,
involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly,
comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not
merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it
reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings-
catching on, making sense of things, or figuring out what to do.
(Gottfredson, 1997, p.13).

This wide definition seems to embrace Gardners (1999) previously stated criteria of
intelligence, which includes potential to process information and to solve problems or
create products, and might be said to be sufficiently comprehensive to satisfy
proponents of both general and multiple intelligence schools of thought. As such,
Gottfredsons definition of general intelligence will be utilised for the purposes of this
study. Having ascertained a workable understanding of what is meant by intelligence,
the next step in this review is to explore the meaning of spiritual; particularly with

8

regard to any perceived similarity or difference between the concepts of spirituality and
religiosity.

2.3: The Concept of Spirituality

There is little agreement between scholars, practitioners and social commentators as to
what is meant by spirituality, nor is there consensus on how it might be related to
religion (Scmidt-Wilk et al, 2000). Australian psychologist Professor David Tacey
(2004), proposes that there is a modern radical split between religion and spirituality
(Tacey, 2004, p.29), where spirit is said to be spontaneous, freely available and
democratically structured, ... holistic and urging us towards wholeness and completion
and religion is perceived to be doctrinal, regulated and authoritarian, ... promoting
perfection, one-sidedness and imbalance. (Tacey, 2004, p.30). Ursula King argues
that such a view is too simplistic and dualist and that, in practical terms, religion and
spirituality are overlapping concepts which cannot be separated and contrasted in
such a clear-cut manner. (King, U., 2009, p.17).

From this confusion it can be seen that the term spiritual may indicate to some an
implicit connection with religion, and therefore might be off-putting to those who do not
follow a formal religious practice. Therefore, to reflect the UK Ministry of Defences
policy of embracing religious and ethnic diversity (MOD, 2011), it is proposed that, for
the purpose of this study, an inclusive, rather than exclusive, definition of spirituality
should be adopted, comprising a term that can be equally relevant to an atheist,
agnostic, or devout follower of any of the worlds religions, be they Christian, Hindu,
Islamic, Jewish, Pagan, Wiccan, or adherent of another belief system. To meet this
stipulation, Koenig et als definition of spirituality will be utilised:

Spirituality is the personal quest for understanding answers to ultimate
questions about life, about meaning, and about relationships to the sacred or
transcendent. (Koenig et al, 2001, p.18)

Having established a study definition of spirituality, the readers may well ask how this is
related to spiritual intelligence (SQ). Through examination of various theories of SQ
(which will be undertaken in depth later in this section), it will be proposed that spiritual
intelligence is a description of the various mental abilities which support and enable
mans eternal quest for meaning encompassed by the concept of spirituality. However,
before investigating SQ theory in detail, it is appropriate to recall the aim of this
research: to conduct exploratory research in to the concept of SQ within a Defence
leadership context, with the aim of utilising the research findings to inform strategic-
level ethical leadership development and education interventions, and to briefly explore
the meaning of strategic leadership within a UK Defence context.

2.4: What is Strategic Leadership in a UK Defence context?

Agreeing a definition of leadership can be even more problematic than reaching
agreement on the meaning of spirituality or intelligence. As Burns famously stated:
Leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth
(1979, p.2). Whilst acknowledging the multiplicity of definitions of leadership, within the
context of the UK MOD the following definition, concerning leadership at the strategic
level, has found favour:

Leadership is visionary; it is the projection of personality and character to
inspire people to achieve the desired outcome. There is no prescription for

9

leadership and no prescribed style of leader. Leadership is a combination of
example, persuasion and compulsion dependant on the situation. It should aim
to transform and be underpinned by individual skills and an enabling
philosophy. The successful leader is an individual who understands
him/herself, the organization, the environment in which they operate and the
people that they are privileged to lead (Defence Leadership Centre, 2004, p.2).

This definition comprises seven key elements, listed below, (Defence Leadership
Centre, 2004, pp. 3-4), and it is to enhance and enable the final element, by expanding
the boundaries of self-awareness debate within Defence strategic leadership education
interventions to include moral awareness, that this study aims to contribute.

a. Vision.
b. Projection of Personality and Character.
c. Inspiring People.
d. Achieving the Desired Outcome.
e. Transforming.
f. An Enabling Philosophy.
g. Self-Awareness.

The strategic element of leadership in Defence must now be examined. Defence
doctrine recognises three levels of leadership endeavour, commonly distinguished by
differing scales of time, means employed, and ultimate effect. These levels are
Tactical (lower level), Operational (middle level) and Strategic (top level). It is generally
true that as the level of leadership endeavour increases, so does the scale of means
employed and the outcome or effect, usually (but not invariably) with a corresponding
increase in the time available for deciding priorities and actions (Defence Leadership
Centre, 2004, p.4). Leadership at the strategic level of Defence, the level at which this
study is primarily focussed, generally involves large-scale action and effect; reduced
direct or hierarchical influence (which increases the need for collaborative working);
and increasingly vague and often conflicting sources of information. Leadership at this
level is characterised by complexity and ambiguity (Defence Leadership Centre,
2004, p.5). Strategic leadership is generally the domain of those within the higher
realms of an organisation. In UK Defence this is said to be military officers, and civil
service equivalents, of 1-star rank or higher
4
.

Having gained an understanding of the concepts of intelligence, spirituality, and
strategic leadership, as they pertain to this study, this Literature Review will now
conduct an investigation and critique of prevalent theoretical models of SQ.

4
In UK Defence, officers of star rank comprise those holding the most senior posts in the organisation.
The term originates from the number of stars originally worn by senior army officers to denote relative
rank (1-star: Brigadier; 2-stars: Major General; 3-stars: Lieutenant General; 4-stars: General. The Royal
Navy and the Royal Air Force also utilise the term star rank for their senior officers even though the
equivalent rank insignia does not utilise star badges. Star rank equivalent grades within the UK Civil
Service are members of the Senior Civil Service cadre.

10

2.5: Theoretical Models of SQ

Seven theoretical models will be presented in turn, before further literature review
concerning the possible utility of SQ is investigated. This in-depth evaluation of
specific SQ models will enable, at the end of this Chapter, a preferred theory to be
proposed as the most appropriate conceptual framework for SQ to inform the study,
thus meeting the requirements of RO2. The proponents of the SQ theories to be
examined, in order of publication, are: Emmons (2000a, 2000b); Zohar and Marshall
(2000); Noble (2001); Wolman (2001); Vaughan (2002); Amram (2007); and King
(2008), and King and DeCicco, (2009). The primary components of each model will be
presented in tabular form to allow comparison with the previous models investigated.

2.5.1: Robert Emmons.

Emmons (2000a), in the lead article of a special edition of the International
Journal for the Psychology of Religion, dedicated to the subject of Spiritual
Intelligence, asked Is spirituality an intelligence?, with the intent of evaluating
the evidence for spirituality as a set of capacities and abilities that enable
people to solve problems and attain goals in their everyday lives (2000a, p.3).
Emmons describes his thesis as twofold: (a) that there exist a set of skills and
abilities associated with spirituality which are relevant to intelligence, and (b)
individual differences in these skills constitute core features of the person
(2000a, p.9).

Drawing on his earlier work concerned with exploring the relationship between
spirituality and personality (1999), the main thrust of Emmons proposal is a
technical assessment as to the degree to which spirituality, per se, can be
termed an intelligence, with less emphasis on a wider (and, for this study,
perhaps more useful) explanation of the integral nature of SQ with regard to
how it might be utilised or developed. Emmons neither proposes or tests a
measure of SQ; indeed, he is critical of attempts to construct a self-report
measure and cautions that a consensus on the scientific validity of the
construct must first be established, although, before measurement efforts are
undertaken (2000a, p.15). Emmons identifies five components of SQ (1999,
pp.164-167), shown in Table 1 SQ Model Comparison Emmons.

In a subsequent response to criticisms of his proposal, Emmons (2000b)
withdrew the latter capacity to engage in virtuous behaviour from his list of
SQ components, on the grounds that such behaviour is not strictly a mental
ability and therefore, cannot be termed an aspect of intelligence. Emmons
concludes that his conceptualisation of SQ meets virtually all the parameters of
Gardners (1993) theory of Multiple Intelligence, yet he refrains from arguing
that the existence of a spiritual intelligence was uncontrovertibly demonstrated
(2000a, p21). Following on from his definition of spirituality as the personal
expression of ultimate concern (2000a, p.4), where ultimate concerns are
bridges linking motivation, spirituality, and intelligence (ibid), Emmons accepts
that his proposed core components for SQ are merely a starting point for
postulating a construct of spiritual intelligence (2000a, p.13) and offers them as
a source of encouragement to engender wider debate as to the nature and
validity of SQ. Without affording a source of specific research into the nature,
validity or utility of SQ, Emmons SQ model serves to inform the debate on the
subject but has limited value for the purposes of this study and is therefore a
poor contender for adoption as the study model of SQ.

11

Table 1 SQ Model Comparison Emmons

Emmons
(1999, pp.164-167)
S
Q

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

The capacity for transcendence the desire and ability to go beyond or rise above the ordinary limits of physical and material life. This capacity
enables achievement of Emmons second component of SQ.
The ability to enter into heightened spiritual states of consciousness to experience connection with the divine (variously described as a
divine being, energy, life-force or Higher Self) or to gain a heightened awareness of self.
The ability to invest everyday activities, events, and relationships with a sense of the sacred or divine to sanctify everyday experience and
activities and, thereby, assign them significant personal value and meaning. Emmons defines sanctify as to set apart from the ordinary or mundane
and to dedicate to a particular purpose (1999, p.107).
The ability to utilize spiritual resources to solve problems in living. To use spiritual beliefs and experience to analyse situations, evaluate and
prioritise alternative courses of actions and select an appropriate course of action to achieve a desired or preferable outcome. Emmons suggests that,
by assisting in solving life problems, spiritual resources may support an individual to cope more effectively in situations of trauma or extreme personal
stress, and enable the individual to find meaning from the occurrence and experience psychological and emotional growth.
The capacity to engage in virtuous behaviour or to be virtuous (to show forgiveness, to express gratitude, to be humble, to display
compassion) Emmons does not propose that this list of virtues is exhaustive but that they encompass the moral teachings of most major world
religions. Emmons suggests that virtues are sources of human strength which enable people to function effectively in the world (1999, p.167)

12

2.5.2: Danah Zohar and Ian Marshall.

Perhaps as an example of synchronicity
5
rather than deliberate intent, in the
same year, Zohar and Marshall appear to respond to Emmons challenge in
their eminent book on the subject, SQ; Connecting with our Spiritual
Intelligence (2000). Zohar and Marshall, in this, and later publications,
describe SQ as the ultimate intelligence and define it as the intelligence with
which we solve and address problems of meaning and value, the intelligence
with which we can place our actions and our lives in a wider, richer meaning-
giving context, the intelligence with which we can assess that one course of
action or one life path is more meaningful than another (2000, pp.3-4). In
similar manner to Emmons, Zohar and Marshall assert that SQ is as applicable
to humanists and atheists as to those who are devotees of formal religious
practice, claiming that SQ makes religion possible ... but SQ does not depend
on religion (2000, p.10). However, unlike Emmons, Zohar and Marshall
suggest criteria by which to evaluate the degree to which a person or
organisation might be termed spiritually intelligence (2004, pp.79-80). For
comparison of models see Table 2 SQ Model Comparison Emmons,
Zohar & Marshall.

5
Synchronicity is a Jungian psychology concept. Jung defines synchronicity as a meaningful
coincidence of two or more events, where something other than the probability of chance is involved
[Jung, C., G., (1960). Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle, in The Structure and Dynamics of
the Psyche, Vol 8 of The Collected Works of C. G. Jung, trans R. F. C. Hull (Princeton: Princeton University
Press), p.520, cited in Jaworski, J. (2011). Synchronicity: The Inner Path of Leadership. 2
nd
edition.
SanFrancisco: Berrett-Koehier. p.xi]

13

Table 2 SQ Model Comparison Emmons, Zohar & Marshall

Emmons
Zohar & Marshall
(2004, pp.79-80)
S
Q

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

The capacity for transcendence Self-awareness awareness of deepest personal beliefs, values, motivations
and purposes.
The ability to enter into heightened spiritual states of
consciousness
Spontaneity living in and being responsive to the present moment.
Being vision and value led live life according to own deeply held values
and principles.
The ability to invest everyday activities, events, and relationships
with a sense of the sacred or divine
Holism seeing larger patterns, relationships and connections; having a
sense of belonging.
Compassion deep empathy; quality of feeling-with
Celebration of diversity valuing other peoples differences and novel
situations.
The ability to utilize spiritual resources to solve problems in living Field-independence standing by ones own convictions.
Tendency to ask fundamental why? questions readiness to question the
status quo; to seek deeper understanding.
The capacity to engage in virtuous behaviour or to be virtuous (to
show forgiveness, to express gratitude, to be humble, to display
compassion)
Ability to reframe ability to stand back from a situation or problem and
appreciate a wider context.
Positive use of adversity learning and growing from mistakes, setbacks,
and suffering.
Humility having a sense of being a small part of a greater drama;
appreciation of ones true place in the World
Sense of vocation Sense of being called to serve; gratitude for service
received and desire to respond in return.

14

Zohar and Marshall place SQ in an intelligence triad with cognitive intelligence
(IQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ), where IQ is related to rational, logical and
linear thinking and is used in problem solving and planning, and EQ is
concerned with our ability to assess or recognise the situation we are in, to
read other peoples and our own emotions, and to behave appropriately (2004,
p.64). Whilst IQ and EQ operate within set boundaries of logic, rules, cultural
norms and expectations, SQ is a transformational intelligence which shapes
boundaries; is able to go beyond old paradigms and create new ways of
thinking; to change the rules or write new ones (2004, p.67).

Zohar and Marshall cite scientific evidence to support SQ theory, drawing
together four distinct research areas from the diverse areas of neuroscience
(Llinas and Ribary, 1993; Singer, 1999); neuropsychology (Ramachandran and
Blakeslee.2005); and neurobiological anthropology (Deacon, 1997). Arising
from this work, Zohar and Marshall claim that SQ constitutes a third neural
system, which transcends, unifies and integrates the linear neural processes of
IQ and the neural networks of EQ to facilitate a dialogue between reason and
emotion, between mind and body (2000, p.7); to provide meaning to emotion
and action.

Zohar and Marshall also suggest that SQ might alternatively be termed wisdom
intelligence as SQ embraces all that we traditionally mean by wisdom, as
opposed to mere knowledge acquisition or to a rather mechanistic talent for
solving problems (2004, p.64). This idea has parallels in Aristotles theory of
Phronesis (and related concepts of techn and episteme) as outlined in his
work, Nichomachean Ethics (translated 1998). The possibility of links between
SQ theory and Phronesis will be explored later in this literature review in the
section concerning alternative ethical leadership development tools (2.8.2.1).

Zohar and Marshall state that Unlike IQ, which is linear, logical and rational,
spiritual intelligence cannot be quantified (2000, p.276), and their only attempt
at measurement is to provide a series of questions to guide self-reflection.
Consequently, akin to Emmons proposed concept of SQ, Zohar and Marshalls
lack of dedicated research into the nature and validity of SQ undermines the
strength of their model for the purposes of this study.

2.5.3: Katherine Noble.

Noble describes SQ as an innate human potential, ... a dynamic and fluid
process, not a static product (2001, p.46) which is a catalyst for psychological
health and growth. She offers a useful metaphor from ancient Hindu culture to
illustrate the quintessence of her perception of SQ:

Imagine that the conscious or waking self is like a glass in the middle of
the ocean. The ocean symbolizes the Universe, or what some call
God, Creator, or All That Is. The glass represents the psychological
lens through which we perceive both inner and outer worlds. The goal
of spiritual intelligence is to expand the borders of the glass while
simultaneously increasing its translucence and permeability (2001,
pp.45-46).

15

Expanding on Emmons earlier study, Noble conducted research into the nature
and value of SQ by performing a series of semi-structured interviews with nine
adults, each session lasting two to three hours. The interviewees formed a
convenience sample, comprising mixed age and gender, drawn from varied
racial, ethnic, employment and religious backgrounds yet possessing one
common criteria; they had all experienced and survived some form of
emotional, physical or psychological trauma. Each interviewee was asked to
reflect on the role that spirituality played and plays in their lives (2001, p.51).
Subsequently, the data was analysed for content and theme, both individually
and as a group.

As a result of her research, Noble posits that individuals with high SQ possess
inner strength and increased resilience which makes them better able to adapt
to change and overcome adversity. Noble cites Norman Garmezys definition of
resilience as the ability to respond to situations of extreme stress with
extraordinary competence (Garmezy and Tellegen, 1994, cited in Noble, 2001,
p.49). Consequently, Noble proposes that her research largely supports
Emmons five component model of SQ (described earlier in this chapter) and
offers two additional elements or critical abilities (2001, p.46). See Table 3
SQ Model Comparison Emmons, Zohar & Marshall, Noble. Noble
concludes that the point of developing spiritual intelligence is neither perfection
nor loss of self, but a greater sense of wonder and joy in the process and the
progress of being (2001, p.124). However, the size and precise focus of the
research pool utilised in Nobles research (nine persons, who had been subject
to recent trauma) is small and it is proposed that the research has more
relevance as an exploratory study and pre-cursor to further research than a
validation of Emmons SQ model.

16

Table 3 SQ Model Comparison Emmons, Zohar & Marshall, Noble

Emmons Zohar & Marshall
Noble
6

(2001, p.46)
S
Q

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

The capacity for transcendence Self-awareness The capacity for transcendence
The ability to enter into heightened spiritual
states of consciousness
Spontaneity The ability to enter into heightened spiritual
states of consciousness
Being vision and value led
The ability to invest everyday activities, events,
and relationships with a sense of the sacred or
divine
Holism The ability to invest everyday activities, events,
and relationships with a sense of the sacred or
divine
Compassion
Celebration of diversity The ability to utilize spiritual resources to solve
problems of living
The ability to utilize spiritual resources to solve
problems in living
Field-independence The capacity to engage in virtuous behaviour or
to be virtuous
Tendency to ask fundamental why? questions The conscious recognition that physical
reality is embedded within a larger,
multidimensional reality with which we
interact, consciously and unconsciously, on
a moment-to-moment basis
The capacity to engage in virtuous behaviour or
to be virtuous (to show forgiveness, to express
gratitude, to be humble, to display compassion)
Ability to reframe
Positive use of adversity
Humility The conscious pursuit of psychological
health, not only for ourselves but for the
sake of the global community
Sense of vocation

6
\Bold text denotes Nobles two critical abilities which are additional to Emmons original five.

17

2.5.4: Richard Wolman.

Through his work as a clinical psychologist at Harvard Medical School, Wolman
proposes that SQ is the human capacity to ask ultimate questions about the
meaning of life and to simultaneously experience the seamless connection
between each of us and the world in which we live (2001, p.84). Wolman
seeks to provide a shared vocabulary with which to describe and share
personal spiritual experience which can be meaningful, recognisable, and
culturally acceptable, regardless of an individuals religious, humanistic, atheist
or agnostic philosophical belief system.

To enable his research into the nature of spirituality, Wolman devised the
Psycho-Matrix Spirituality Inventory (PSI), and utilised it with a sample group of
over 6000 male and female research subjects to examine the participants
spiritual practice and experience. From this study, Wolman proposes seven
factors that together comprise the spectrum of spiritual experience and
behaviour (2001, p.2). The factors are listed and compared to previous models
in Table 4 SQ Model Comparison Emmons, Zohar & Marshall, Noble,
Wolman.

18

Table 4 SQ Model Comparison Emmons, Zohar & Marshall, Noble, Wolman

Emmons
Zohar &
Marshall
Noble
Wolman
(2001, pp.157-247)
S
Q

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

The capacity for
transcendence
Self-awareness The capacity for
transcendence
Divinity an awareness or sense of connection to a divine source of energy, God
figure, Higher Being or the wonder of nature. (2001, p.157-158)
The ability to
enter into
heightened
spiritual states
of
consciousness
Spontaneity The ability to enter
into heightened
spiritual states of
consciousness
Mindfulness an awareness and cultivation of the connection between mind and
body, including the conduct of practices which enhance focused reflection and quiet
contemplation, such as meditation, prayer, individual exercise (eg running, yoga, tai-chi).
(2001, p.171-183)
Being vision and
value led
The ability to
invest everyday
activities,
events, and
relationships
with a sense of
the sacred or
divine
Holism The ability to invest
everyday activities,
events, and
relationships with a
sense of the
sacred or divine
Intellectuality a cognitive, intellectual exploration of spirituality, including reflecting
on, studying and discussing with others, sacred or spiritual matters. (2001, p. 215-225)
Compassion
Celebration of
diversity
The ability to utilize
spiritual resources
to solve problems
of living
Community engagement in community activities through a sense of compassion,
connectedness and service. These may include voluntary work, politics, group (as
opposed to individual) worship and caring activities, where the individual is conscious of
the concerns and needs of others and is willing to respond in a selfless and benevolent
manner. (2001, p.201-214) The ability to
utilize spiritual
resources to
solve problems
in living
Field-
independence
The capacity to
engage in virtuous
behaviour or to be
virtuous
Tendency to ask
fundamental
why? questions
The conscious
recognition that
physical reality is
embedded within a
Extrasensory perception an awareness and experience of alternative or non-
rational ways of knowing. These can range from minor incidences of intuitive knowledge
(which might be termed a sixth sense) to prophetic dreams, out-of-body or near-death
experiences. (2001, p.185-199) The capacity to Ability to

19

engage in
virtuous
behaviour or to
be virtuous (to
show
forgiveness, to
express
gratitude, to be
humble, to
display
compassion)
reframe larger,
multidimensional
reality with which
we interact,
consciously and
unconsciously, on
a moment-to-
moment basis
Positive use of
adversity
Childhood spirituality a personal memory or perception of spirituality, which can be
either positive or negative, influenced by childhood experience of family spiritual
traditions, allegiances and beliefs, religious instruction and the establishment of
associated rituals. (2001, p.237-247)
Humility The conscious
pursuit of
psychological
health, not only for
ourselves but for
the sake of the
global community
Trauma a consideration or appreciation of spiritual matters stimulated by experience
of an emotional or physical trauma to self or a loved one, such as serious illness or
injury, death of a family member or friend, a major life upheaval (eg, divorce,
redundancy, personal bankruptcy) or survival of a traumatic situation (eg, terrorist attack,
natural disaster). (2001, p.227-236)
Sense of
vocation

20

Wolman proposes that self-awareness of personal spiritual strengths and
limitations, together with reflection on the meaning and content of individual
action and interpersonal relationships, enables conscious choices, rather than
enslaving us to respond reflexively to lifes demands (2001, p.3) and thereby
improve the quality of relationships. Wolman, in agreement with other SQ
theorists (Emmons, 1999; Zohar and Marshall, 2004; McGeachy, 2001; Levin,
2000; Noble, 2001), suggests that SQ is not invariably linked to religiosity but
may support both religious and non-religious belief systems. Wolman intends
to unite the apparently separate disciplines of science and spirituality by
attempting to undertake empirically based investigation in order to objectively
and reliably measure subjective experience of the sacred.

2.5.5: Francis Vaughan.

Clinical psychologist and author, Francis Vaughan (2002) supports Nobles view
that SQ is linked to the increased resilience, associated with adaption to
stressful life events; stating that: Spiritual intelligence is necessary for
discernment in making spiritual choices that contribute to psychological
wellbeing and overall healthy human development (2002, p.16). Rather than
offering a single definition, Vaughan suggests any definition of SQ should
embrace the four aspects shown in Table 5 SQ Model Comparison
Emmons, Zohar & Marshall, Noble, Wolman, Vaughan.

Vaughan posits that spiritual maturity
7
is an expression of developed SQ and
implies ethical behaviour, self-awareness, moral and emotional maturity.
Qualities and behaviours associated with spiritual maturity include: tolerance,
open-mindedness and wisdom; kindness and compassion; personal sacrifice
and service to others; reverence, respect for, and a sense of connection with,
all life: and inner-peace or equanimity in the face of lifes existential challenges
(2002, p.20). Vaughan challenges that attainment of spiritual knowledge is not
enough to be regarded as the presence of spiritual intelligence or the
achievement of spiritual maturity, unless it is reflected and integrated
authentically, through thought and deed, in all aspects of a persons life.

Vaughans evaluation of SQ is based primarily on reflection on her professional
clinical practice and many years working at the interface of psychology and
spirituality (2002, p.18). She states that her aim is to stimulate investigation
into the topic and admits that her explanation of SQ offers some perspectives
(ibid) on the nature of SQ and its utility, rather than providing scientific evidence
of its existence as a distinct intelligence. Indeed, in her conclusion, Vaughan
admits that many questions remain to be explored (2002, p.25).

7
Vaughan defines spiritual maturity as exercising wisdom and compassion in relationship to other
people, regardless of gender, creed, age, or ethnic origin, as well as reverence and respect for all forms
of life. Spiritual maturity also suggests a subjective sense of insight and understanding based on the
willingness to recognise illusions, to love in the face of impermanence, and to come to terms with
existential freedom and mortality. It implies a depth and breadth of vision that encompasses a whole
spectrum of perspectives and multiple modes of knowing. Furthermore, spiritual maturity implies
connecting the inner life of mind and spirit with the outer life of action and service in the world (2002,
p.19)

21

Table 5 SQ Model Comparison Emmons, Zohar & Marshall, Noble, Wolman, Vaughan

Emmons Zohar & Marshall Noble Wolman
Vaughan
(2002)
S
Q

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

The capacity for
transcendence
transcendence
Divinity A capacity to explore existential meaning
to be aware of multiple levels of consciousness
and ways of knowing; to ask questions
pertaining to ultimate concerns, such as who
am I? or why am I here?
The ability to enter into
heightened spiritual
states of
consciousness
Spontaneity The ability to enter
into heightened
spiritual states of
consciousness
Mindfulness
Being vision and
value led
The ability to invest
events, and
sense of the sacred or
divine
events, and
divine
Intellectuality An all pervading awareness of spirit as a
creative life force and essence of evolution and
being.
Compassion
Celebration of
diversity
spiritual resources to
solve problems of
living
Community
solve problems in living
Field-independence The capacity to
engage in virtuous
behaviour or to be
virtuous
A sense of transcendent connection an
awareness of connection of self with spirit, earth
and all beings.
Tendency to ask
fundamental why?
questions
The conscious
recognition that
physical reality is
embedded within a
Extrasensory
perception
The capacity to engage Ability to reframe

22

in virtuous behaviour or
to be virtuous (to show
forgiveness, to express
gratitude, to be humble,
to display compassion)
Positive use of
adversity
larger,
multidimensional
reality with which we
interact, consciously
and unconsciously, on
a moment-to-moment
basis
Childhood spirituality An innate potential which can be cultivated
through training, focussed enquiry, and practice.
Humility The conscious pursuit
of psychological
health, not only for
ourselves but for the
sake of the global
community
Trauma
Sense of vocation

23

2.5.6: Yosi Amram.

Yosi Amrams 2007 research project involved analysis of interviews conducted
with 71 subjects, drawn from a wide variety of major spiritual traditions.
Selection of interviewees was by snow-ball sampling, where each interviewee
was deemed by their peers to display spiritual intelligence, in accordance with
Amrams definition of SQ, which is the ability to: apply and embody spiritual
resources and qualities to enhance daily functioning and well being (2007, p.2).

As a result of his research, Amram identified seven major themes of SQ which
were almost universal across participants and spiritual traditions. The themes
are: Consciousness; Grace; Meaning; Transcendence; Truth; Peaceful
Surrender; and Inner-Directedness. In a subsequent collaborative research
project (Amram and Dryer, 2008), to develop and conduct preliminary validation
of the Integrated Spiritual Intelligence Scale (ISIS), as a measurement tool for
SQ, the seven themes of Amrams earlier model of SQ were re-classified into
the following five inter-related categories and sub-capabilities (2008, pp. 29-34),
as shown in Table 6 SQ Model Comparisons - Emmons, Zohar &
Marshall, Noble, Wolman, Vaughan, Amram.

In conceiving the ISIS, Amram and Dryer do not claim generality and warn that,
as a first of its kind, the study results must be considered preliminary and that
future studies would be required to validate, develop and refine a measurement
scale for SQ. However, of particular interest is Amram and Dryers suggestion
that SQ can be applied to enhance problem solving skills, and to enable
individuals to experience increased wellbeing and a greater meaning in
everyday life. This supposition seems to support both Vaughan and Nobles
views that individuals who evidence higher levels of SQ are likely to display
increased resilience and adaptive capabilities when faced with challenges and
difficulties; qualities which would be of significant benefit to strategic leaders.

24

Table 6 SQ Model Comparison Emmons, Zohar & Marshall, Noble, Wolman, Vaughan, Amram

Emmons
Zohar &
Marshall
Noble Wolman Vaughan
Amram
(2008, pp. 29-34)
S
Q

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

The capacity for
transcendence
transcendence
Divinity A capacity to
explore
existential
meaning
Consciousness to live with enhanced
self-awareness and understanding. Related
sub-capabilities include: intuition, mindfulness,
and synthesis.
The ability to
enter into
heightened
spiritual states of
consciousness
Spontaneity The ability to enter into
heightened spiritual states
of consciousness
Mindfulness
Being vision and
value led
Grace to live in harmonious alignment with
a sense of the sacred, love and trust. Related
sub-capabilities include: beauty, discernment,
freedom, gratitude, immanence, and joy.
The ability to
invest everyday
activities, events,
and relationships
with a sense of
the sacred or
divine
events, and relationships
with a sense of the sacred
or divine
Intellectuality An all
pervading
awareness of
spirit
Compassion Meaning to experience a sense of
rationale and underlying reason in life, even
when faced with difficulties or personal trauma.
Related sub-capabilities include: purpose and
service.
Celebration of
diversity
spiritual resources to solve
problems of living
Community
The ability to
utilize spiritual
resources to
solve problems in
living
Field-
independence
The capacity to engage in
virtuous behaviour or to be
virtuous
A sense of
transcendent
connection
Transcendence the ability to go beyond
the notion of Self as a separate entity; to know
and experience connection at all levels of life
and the universe. Related sub-capabilities
include: higher-self, holism, practice,
relatedness, and sacredness.
Tendency to ask
fundamental
why? questions
The conscious recognition
that physical reality is
embedded within a larger,
multidimensional reality
with which we interact,
Extrasensory
perception
The capacity to
engage in
Ability to
reframe

25

virtuous
behaviour or to
be virtuous (to
show
forgiveness, to
express
gratitude, to be
humble, to
display
compassion)
Positive use of
adversity
consciously and
unconsciously, on a
moment-to-moment basis
Childhood
spirituality
An innate
potential
Truth openness, curiosity, acceptance of
diversity and the ability to live in harmony with
and respect all creation. Related sub-
capabilities include: lack of ego, equanimity,
inner-wholeness, openness, presence, and
trust.
Humility The conscious pursuit of
psychological health, not
only for ourselves but for
the sake of the global
community
Trauma
Sense of
vocation

26

2.5.7: David King.

David King defines SQ as a set of mental capacities which contribute to the
awareness, integration, and adaptive application of the nonmaterial and
transcendent aspects of ones existence, leading to such outcomes as deep
existential reflection, enhancement of meaning, recognition of a transcendent
self, and mastery of spiritual states (2008, p.56). Kings SQ model comprises
four components, as depicted in Table 7 SQ Model Comparisons -
Emmons, Zohar & Marshall, Noble, Wolman, Vaughan, Amram, King.

King (2008) conducted two research studies to validate his four component
theoretical model of SQ and to construct and test a self-report measure for SQ.
The first study, which was primarily exploratory in nature, was to test an initial
design of Kings Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory (SISRI). The
research method comprised a multiple choice questionnaire administered to
631 undergraduate psychology students at a Canadian university. The survey
participants (134 males and 497 females, with a mean age of 22.38 years) were
self-selected in response online and in-class advertisements, and email
invitations. Through factor analysis of the responses, the findings provided
support for Kings theoretical model of SQ as well as serving to better define the
structure and design of the SISRI.

Kings second study, which sought to validate the re-defined draft of the SISRI,
comprised a revised version of the SISRI questionnaire administered to 321 (78
male and 243 female) undergraduate psychology students at the same
university. The mean age of the group was 25.4 years with participants
recruited in a similar manner to the first study. King claims that the revised
SISRI proved both valid and reliable for the sample utilised. Despite this ,
criticisms can be made of the appropriateness of the study design, in terms of
generality, in that the participant pool was restricted exclusively to Canadian
university students and was not representative of a wider population in terms of
gender, ethnicity, age or occupation. King acknowledges these limitations and
does not claim generality, due to the limited sample group; nor does he claim
universality, suggesting that further cross-cultural research is required. Full
details of the study were published the following year (King and DeCicco,
2009).

As the purpose of this research study is not to measure SQ but to identify and
subsequently test a conceptual framework for SQ for possible relevance within
a specific context, it is not appropriate to focus too deeply on measurement
tools at this time. Nonetheless, Kings research and identification of a four-
factor model of SQ serves as a unifying concept for various other theories and
can be used, later in this chapter, as an aid to comparison and analysis of
similarities and differences between SQ models.

27

Table 7 SQ Model Comparison Emmons, Zohar & Marshall, Noble, Wolman, Vaughan, Amram, King

Emmons
Zohar &
Marshall
Noble Wolman Vaughan Amram
King
(King, 2008, King &
DeCicco, 2009, pp70-71)
S
Q

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

The capacity for
transcendence
Self-
awareness
The capacity for
transcendence
explore
existential
meaning
Consciousness Critical Existential Thinking
(CET) the capacity to
critically contemplate
meaning, purpose, and other
existential or metaphysical
issues (e.g., reality, the
universe, space, time, death).
Also, the capacity to
contemplate non-existential
issues from an existential
perspective; such as moral
problem solving - the ability
to resolve ethical dilemmas
through the application of
critical thinking in conjunction
with awareness of one's own
moral convictions &/or
spiritual beliefs.
The ability to enter
into heightened
spiritual states of
consciousness
of consciousness
Mindfulness
Being vision
and value led
Grace
events, and
divine
or divine
pervading
awareness of
spirit
Compassion Meaning
Celebration of
diversity
problems of living
Community Personal Meaning
Production (PMP) the
ability to construct personal
meaning and purpose in all
physical and mental
experiences, including the
capacity to create and master
solve problems in
Field-
independence
virtuous
A sense of
transcendent
connection
Transcendence

28

living a life purpose. May include a
sense of higher purpose, or
reason for existence,
associated with a personal
belief in or sense of the
sacred or divine.
Tendency to
ask
fundamental
why?
questions
consciously and
unconsciously, on a
Extrasensory
perception
Transcendental Awareness
(TA) the capacity to
perceive transcendent
dimensions of the self (e.g., a
transcendent self), of others,
and of the physical world
(e.g., non-materialism,
interconnectedness) during
the normal, waking state of
consciousness. Also, the
ability to sense a spiritual
dimension of life. Self-
realization achieved through
self-awareness & reflection.
The ability to perceive
beyond the physical senses -
intuition, gut-feeling, inner
knowing.
The capacity to
engage in virtuous
behaviour or to be
virtuous (to show
forgiveness, to
express gratitude, to
be humble, to display
compassion)
Ability to
reframe
Positive use of
adversity
Childhood
spirituality
An innate
potential
Truth
community
Trauma Conscious State Expansion
(CSE) the ability to enter
spiritual states of
consciousness (e.g., pure
consciousness, cosmic
consciousness, oneness) at
ones own discretion; often
through deliberate practice
(e.g., prayer, meditation,
relaxation, or rhythmic
physical activity).
Sense of
vocation

29

In this section, seven theoretical models of SQ have been described and examined.
Prior to identifying which theory, or combination of models, is the most appropriate
conceptual framework for SQ to inform the study (RO2), it will be necessary to review
literature related to the possible organisational benefits of employing and cultivating
spiritually intelligent leaders.

2.6: Spiritually Intelligent Leaders Helpful or Harmful?

From the SQ theories examined, several benefits of high levels of spiritual intelligence
have been suggested. Wolman (2001) proposes that people with high SQ are more
self-aware and are therefore better able to make ethically conscious choices with a
consequent improvement in the quality of their relationships with others. This view is
supported by Amram and Dryer (2008). Amram (2007), in addition to Vaughan(2002)
and Noble (2001), suggests that there is a link between individuals with high SQ and
the ability to respond positively to situations of extreme stress. All these proposed
benefits of SQ are undoubtedly advantageous to those operating in the ambiguous and
complex realm of strategic leadership.

Although it has been stated that this study will on focus SQ in its strictest sense, rather
than expanding into the wider areas of Spiritual Leadership and the Spirit at Work
debate, it is necessary to briefly investigate those areas in order to judge the merits or
otherwise of leadership practiced by spiritually intelligent individuals or within
workplaces where a culture of spiritual intelligence prevails. In her work on spirituality
in the workplace, Catherine McGeachy (2001) proposes that a culture of mutual trust
evoked by a spiritually intelligent workforce increases open and honest communication
between colleagues, and supports innovation and creativity. This may be true but her
suggestion that trust arises specifically as a result of spiritual intelligence lacks
supporting evidence. However, she goes on to cite numerous examples of commercial
organisations whose encouragement of spiritually intelligent practices have served to
increase profits. Reaves (2005) review of in excess of 150 studies shows a clear link
between effective leadership and spiritual practices and values.

Claims regarding the benefits of ethically led organisations are supported by Zohar and
Marshalls (2004) reporting of the UK Cooperative Banks increased annual pre-tax
profits of 15-18% and a 500% increase in customer deposits over a ten year period
being due to ethical investment policies. Another example of spirituality having a
positive impact on commerce can be seen in the moral foundation for Islamic Finance,
where commerce is enacted through a moral filter of property stewardship, social
justice and ecological sensitivity aligned with Islamic spiritual values (Asultay, 2012).

Clear parallels can be seen between SQ and Louis Frys (2003) concept of Spiritual
Leadership. Frys work on spiritual leadership with the United States army focuses on
the practice of spiritually aligned leadership as opposed to the more precise concept of
SQ as an inherent or developed ability. In their study concerning spiritual leadership
and army transformation, Fry et al, suggest that spiritual leadership, for both leaders
and followers, is apparent when they experience meaning in their lives, have a sense
of making a difference, and feel understood and appreciated (Fry et al, 2005, p.836).
Such feelings are akin to the Personal Meaning Production (PMP) and Transcendental
Awareness (TA) elements of the Kings (2008) Viable Model of SQ. Fry concludes that
there are clear links between the practice of spiritual leadership in increased motivation
and commitment to the organisation together with reduced absenteeism and staff
turnover.

30

Wolman suggests that SQ provides a language to describe sacred experience with the
ineffable, but which is not burdened with religious or ideological overtones ... a
methodology for studying, learning about, and understanding our spiritual selves..
(2001, p.1). This factor can be considered of significant import with regard to
leadership education where a shared vocabulary is essential for facilitating debate and
supporting understanding and self-discovery. However, Kakabadse et al (2007) caution
that the advantages of a spiritually tolerant workplace can be undermined and even
reversed into detriment where imposed religious ideology causes friction and division
amongst the workforce. Hence the insistence that the meaning of spirituality in this
study may encompass religious activity but is not subordinate to any form of religious
doctrine.

From the examples discussed, it is proposed that in an organisation which supports
freedom of spiritual belief and religious tolerance, an ethos of ethical and value-driven
leadership can only be of benefit to operational effectiveness, output and staff morale,
resilience and motivation. However, the danger of exclusion of those who do not follow
a defined spiritual path promoted by an influential leader or group within the workforce
could lead to division, exclusion and even unrest. Therefore, to maximise the benefits
of a spiritually intelligent workplace, care should be taken to ensure a culture of spiritual
acceptance and tolerance prevails, rather than one of enforced religious obedience.

2.7: A Conceptual Framework of SQ

Having examined prevalent academic theories of SQ, and the possible benefits of
spiritually intelligent leadership, it is now appropriate to identify a conceptual framework
for SQ to inform the study (RO2). Through comparison of the seven SQ models
discussed earlier in this chapter it is intended to select a single model which most
comprehensively represents the common approaches and aspects of all seven
theories.

Using Kings definitions of four aspects of SQ as the lowest available denominator,
Table 7 (SQ Model Comparisons - Emmons, Zohar & Marshall, Noble, Wolman,
Vaughan, Amram, King) was assessed for similarity of content. Areas of commonality
were designated by annotation of colour-coded tags to identify consistency of content.
The following colour codes were allocated:

Critical Existential Thinking (CET) YELLOW

Personal Meaning Production (PMP) TURQUOISE

Transcendental Awareness (TA) PINK

Conscious State Expansion (CSE) GREEN

The results of this analysis are shown in Table 8 SQ Model Comparison
Identification of Common Content.

31

Table 8 SQ Model Comparison Identification of Common Content

Emmons
Zohar &
Marshall
Noble Wolman Vaughan Amram
King
(King, 2008; King & DeCicco,
2009, pp70-71)
S
Q

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s

The capacity for
transcendence
Self-
awareness
The capacity for
transcendence
explore
existential
meaning
Consciousness Critical Existential Thinking
(CET) the capacity to
critically contemplate meaning,
purpose, and other existential
or metaphysical issues (e.g.,
reality, the universe, space,
time, death). Also, the
capacity to contemplate non-
existential issues from an
existential perspective; such as
moral problem solving - the
ability to resolve ethical
dilemmas through the
application of critical thinking in
conjunction with awareness of
one's own moral convictions
&/or spiritual beliefs.
The ability to enter
into heightened
spiritual states of
consciousness
of consciousness
Mindfulness
Being vision
and value led
Grace
events, and
divine
or divine
pervading
awareness of
spirit
Compassion Meaning
Celebration of
diversity
problems of living
Community Personal Meaning
Production (PMP) the ability
to construct personal meaning
and purpose in all physical and
mental experiences, including
the capacity to create and
master a life purpose. May
include a sense of higher
purpose, or reason for
solve problems in
living
Field-
independence
virtuous
A sense of
transcendent
connection
Transcendence

32

existence, associated with a
personal belief in or sense of
the sacred or divine.
Tendency to
ask
fundamental
why?
questions
consciously and
unconsciously, on a
Extrasensory
perception
Transcendental Awareness
(TA) the capacity to perceive
transcendent dimensions of
the self (e.g., a transcendent
self), of others, and of the
physical world (e.g., non-
materialism,
interconnectedness) during the
normal, waking state of
consciousness. Also, the
ability to sense a spiritual
dimension of life. Self-
realization achieved through
self-awareness & reflection.
The ability to perceive beyond
the physical senses - intuition,
gut-feeling, inner knowing.
The capacity to
engage in virtuous
behaviour or to be
virtuous (to show
forgiveness, to
express gratitude, to
be humble, to display
compassion)
Ability to
reframe
Positive use of
adversity
Childhood
spirituality
An innate
potential
Truth
community
Trauma Conscious State Expansion
(CSE) the ability to enter
spiritual states of
consciousness (e.g., pure
consciousness, cosmic
consciousness, oneness) at
ones own discretion; often
through deliberate practice
(e.g., prayer, meditation,
relaxation, or rhythmic physical
activity).
Sense of
vocation

33

From the analysis completed in Table 8, the only other model found to contain all four
aspects (CET, PMP, TA, and CSE) of Kings (2009) SQ model was Nobles (2001)
construct. It has been previously stated in this paper (section 2.5.3) that Nobles
(2001) investigation has more relevance as an exploratory study and pre-cursor to
further research than a validation of her SQ model.
Nobles model largely reflects Emmons theory of SQ and has simplicity of definition of
each of the seven individual aspects. However, the balance of Kings more
comprehensive and holistic sub-category definitions, together with the ease of use of
only four aspects as opposed to seven as a guide for data collection and analysis led to
the selection of Kings (2009) theory as the SQ model of choice. Despite the concerns
with regard to the generality of Kings model (outlined in section 2.5.7), the selection of
Kings model as the study model of SQ is further supported by the potential of utilising
Kings readily available SISRI measurement tool as an aid to further research.

2.8: Review of Ancillary Literature

As will be explained in detail in the chapter concerning research method, data
collection, description, analysis and interpretation is not a linear process, but a cyclic
one which includes the opportunity to re-engage with the literature research stage
where appropriate. Comments made during the interview process suggested certain
sources, which, although outside the parameters of the primary literature review, were
considered germane to this enquiry and merit examination as part of this study. They
fall into two categories: the published values and standards of UK Defence
organisations, and suggestions for alternative ethical leadership development tools.
Each area will be addressed in turn.

2.8.1: UK Defence Values and Standards.

During interviews conducted for the survey element of this study, more than one
participant referred to various publications which outline core values and
standards of behaviour expected of HM Forces personnel and UK civil servants.
The publications were subsequently identified as follows;

a. Naval Service Core Values (MOD, 2007)

b. A British Soldiers Values and Standards (MOD, 2008a)

c. Ethos, Core Values and Standards of the Royal Air Force. AP1,
2
nd
Edition. (MOD, 2008b)

d. Civil Service Code (Great Britain, 2010)

Although known to the researcher, these documents had not formed part of the
original literature review as they were deemed to be outside the strict context of
the research objectives which had focussed solely on the concept of SQ, its
relevance and potential utility in strategic leadership education. However,
having been considered of relevance by some members of the interview group,
it was decided to examine them as part of the literature review as indicators of
the moral, ethical and spiritual culture espoused by the four main MOD
organisations (Royal Navy, Army, RAF and Civil Service).

Each of the uniformed and civilian Services within UK Defence has a stated
code of ethical practice, variously named core values, standards, or code of

34

conduct. Each document describes the minimum standard of moral and ethical
conduct which its membership are required to maintain. Whilst the aims of the
ethical codes are similar, they differ in tone and terminology, which can be seen
from the summary of their contents in Table 9 Comparison of Values and
Standards UK Navy, Army, RAF, and Civil Service.

35

Table 9: Comparison of Values and Standards UK Navy, Army, RAF, and Civil Service

Royal Navy British Army Royal Air Force Civil Service

Six Core Values:

Commitment

Courage

Discipline

Respect for Others

Integrity

Loyalty

Six values:

Selfless Commitment

Courage

Discipline

Integrity

Loyalty

Respect for others

Four Core Values (and sub-sets)

Respect:
Self-Respect
Mutual Respect

Integrity:
Courage
Honesty
Responsibility
Justice

Service:
Loyalty
Commitment
Teamwork

Excellence:
Self-Discipline and Control
Personal Excellence
Excellence in the use of
Resources
Pride

Four Core Values

Integrity

Honesty

Objectivity

Impartiality

36

It can be seen from the comparison that the core values of the Royal Navy and
the British Army are virtually identical, if expressed slightly differently. The
RAFs values are slightly more complicated with thirteen sub-sets corralled
under four core values. The Civil Services core values are expressed more
simply. The common core value, held by all four organisations, is integrity.
Values common to all three uniformed Services are: commitment, discipline,
respect, loyalty, and courage. With regards to the latter, all three Services
stress the importance of moral courage, as much as physical courage. This
emphasis on the need for the courage to act ethically reflects the findings of the
research survey.

Failure to act in accordance with prescribed values and standards may have far
reaching consequences for the individual concerned, and reflect badly on the
organisation he or she represents. Therefore, espoused values and standards
are key components of recruit training across all the uniformed Services and
are part of the initial induction process for civil servants. The acceptance and
maintenance of these common values are intended to support an ethical work
culture within UK Defence, based on self-discipline and mutual benefit.
However, a vulnerability of this system is that the moral standards and ethical
behaviours of followers can only be maintained if similar standards are enacted
by leaders. Where a leader is seen to lack integrity or moral courage, the trust
between leader and follower is likely to be damaged beyond repair with a
consequent negative impact on operational effectiveness as a result.

This concern raises the two questions: Do we do enough to prepare our
leaders to face ethical challenges? and Do we do enough to provide them with
the development opportunities to become aware of and calibrate their own
personal moral compasses? Both questions deserve to be the subject of
dedicated research projects and should be considered for such. However, this
study seeks to contribute to the response to both questions in that it seeks to
assess the relevance and possible utility of just one of many theoretical models
supporting moral and ethical development the concept of SQ for use within
the education programmes for a particular cadre of leaders within Defence. As
the research study has intimated, it is only by ensuring that those who reside
within the upper levels of an organisation act ethically will their example suffuse
and shape the culture of the organisation they head.

2.8.2: Alternative Ethical Leadership Development Tools.

During the research survey, one of the interviewees suggested the use of
phronesis as a tool for enabling ethical development of leaders. He referred to
correspondence he had exchanged with Professor Gillian Stamp on the matter.
To investigate this approach, the researcher also corresponded with Professor
Stamp which resulted in identification of a second additional model for ethical
leadership education the Four Journeys of the Leader (Stamp, 2001). Both
models are very briefly outlined here, purely as possible alternatives to SQ as a
tool for ethical leadership development tools. Their precise suitability for the
task is outside the confines of this paper; however, they are included as a
suggestion for future research.

2.8.2.1: Phronesis. Aristotles (translated 1998) ethical concept of
phronesis and its accompanying character traits of techn and
epistm has been suggested as a suitable tool for ethical leadership

37

development (Grint, 2007). Aristotle proposes that Phronesis is
practical wisdom borne of experience and moral judgement and hence
might be considered similar to Zohar and Marshalls concept of SQ as
wisdom intelligence. Grint (2007) supports this view in his assertion
that Phronesis is more than techn, the possession of a skill
(knowledge acquisition), or epistm, the application of abstract
reasoning (mechanistic problem solving). In what might be considered a
reflection of Zohar and Marshalls SQ or wisdom intelligence, in relation
to the concept of Phronesis, Grint suggests that:

(practical) wisdom is moral knowledge, or rather ethically
practical action, ... it is phronesis which enables an individual to
act upon the world for the common good (2007, p. 237).

2.8.2.2: Four Journeys of the Leader (Stamp, 2001). Gillian Stamp
suggests that each one of us is on four journeys through our lives and
that people with responsibility for leadership need to be particularly
aware of each journey and the work of keeping them in balance
(Stamp, 2001, p.1). These journeys are identifies as follows:

The Underlying Journey the journey of self.
The Public Journey the journey of work.
The Private Journey the journey of family, friends and
community.
The Personal Journey the journey of self-discovery and
actualisation, which supports the other journeys.

Stamp suggests that leaders need to maintain a state of flow or
balance, where all four journeys co-exist in harmony. Only in this state
can a leader act authentically. The reflective nature of this approach to
self-awareness and self-management may prove to be a sound
foundation for ethical leader development.

2.9: Outcome of the Literature Review

In this chapter a search and review of relevant literature (both primary and ancillary)
has been conducted, in response to RO1, in order to critically examine the concept of
SQ, with particular emphasis on how SQ may benefit leaders within a Defence
leadership context. The concepts of intelligence, spirituality (as opposed to religiosity),
and leadership within a strategic Defence context were explored prior to a deeper
exposition of seven prevalent theories of SQ. Some benefits and drawbacks of
spiritually intelligent leadership were exposed before a SQ study model was selected
from the seven SQ theories examined. In addressing RO2, it was decided, that the
theoretical model most representative of current thinking, whilst also being a simple
enough construct on which to base the qualitative research stage of this study, was
David Kings Viable Model of SQ (King, 2008; King and DeCicco, 2009) as outlined in
Table 10 Study Model of SQ.

As expected, due to the cyclic nature of the research process, additional ancillary
sources of literature were identified and reviewed. A comparison was made between
the published values and standards of the four main MOD organisations and were
found to be similar in aim whilst differing in tone and terminology. The research survey
also prompted a brief examination of two alternative ethical leadership development

38

tools: Aristotles (translated 1998) concept of phronesis; and Stamps (2001) Four
Journeys of a Leader. Both approaches were considered suitable subjects for further
research.

39

Critical Existential Thinking (CET) the capacity to critically contemplate
meaning, purpose, and other existential or metaphysical issues (e.g., reality, the
universe, space, time, death). Also, the capacity to contemplate non-existential
issues from an existential perspective; such as moral problem solving - the ability
to resolve ethical dilemmas through the application of critical thinking in conjunction
with awareness of one's own moral convictions &/or spiritual beliefs.

Personal Meaning Production (PMP) the ability to construct personal meaning
and purpose in all physical and mental experiences, including the capacity to
create and master a life purpose. May include a sense of higher purpose, or reason
for existence, associated with a personal belief in or sense of the sacred or divine.

Transcendental Awareness (TA) the capacity to perceive transcendent
dimensions of the self (e.g., a transcendent self), of others, and of the physical
world (e.g., non-materialism, interconnectedness) during the normal, waking state
of consciousness. Also, the ability to sense a spiritual dimension of life. Self-
realization achieved through self-awareness & reflection. The ability to perceive
beyond the physical senses - intuition, gut-feeling, inner knowing.

Conscious State Expansion (CSE) the ability to enter spiritual states of
consciousness (e.g., pure consciousness, cosmic consciousness, oneness) at
ones own discretion; often through deliberate practice (e.g., prayer, meditation,
relaxation, or rhythmic physical activity).

Table 10 Study Model of SQ
(From King, 2008; King & DeCicco, 2009, pp70-71)

40

The next chapter Research Methods will describe and justify the research strategy
selected for this study, together with outlining data collection and analysis methods
utilised.

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODS

3.1: Introduction

This research study of SQ has five inter-related research objectives (RO) set within the
context of ethical leadership development and education:

literature.
Defence.

In response to RO1, a search and review of relevant literature identified a gap in
existing research in that data regarding the value and applicability of SQ within a UK
Defence context could not be found. Nor was there evidence that SQ had been
considered as an element within education interventions to enhance the performance
of the UK Defence strategic leadership cadre. Furthermore, the literature review
highlighted the benefits of spiritually intelligent leadership.

From the analysis of various SQ models and frameworks considered during the
literature review, a conceptual framework for SQ was identified to inform subsequent
primary research; thus meeting the strictures of RO2. Details of the study model
chosen Kings Viable Model of Spiritual Intelligence (King, 2008) and the reasons
for selection, are discussed in the previous chapter. This chapter Research Methods
will outline the approach to, execution of, and underlying philosophy pertaining to
primary research conducted in response to RO 3. It will provide details of the research
strategy utilised, explain the method of data collection and the framework for data
analysis to be adopted. In addition, potential problems and limitations related to the
selected research strategy and its implementation will be discussed.

3.2: Research Strategy

RO3 is divided into 3 related and successive areas. These reflect the modest size and
scope of the study which are inherent restrictions imposed by the limited time available
to the researcher and the fact that SQ is not (yet) a part of any current leadership
education or development programmes within Defence. It is not possible to gain hard,
quantitative data on the success or failure of a concept that is, as yet, only of potential
utility. Therefore, the research is directed at gaining rich, qualitative data from key
stakeholders, by means of a survey conducted through face-to-face interviews, as a
test of the possible (or otherwise) relevance within a UK Defence strategic leadership
context (RO3a), and its potential utility for strategic-level ethical leadership education

41

and development (RO3b). It is acknowledged that the views of the interview subjects,
by their very nature as key stakeholders (or participants) in leadership development,
will be subjective; however, they have been chosen precisely because of their
understanding of the nature and need for leadership development at the strategic level.
Thus, their opinions carry the weight of practical leadership experience and knowledge
of leadership development policy, methods & concepts. Following a small pilot study, it
was decided to utilise Critical Incident Technique as an interview question method in
order to reduce the risk of interviewees personal prejudices and perspectives
adversely colouring their response. Other limitations of the research (RO3c), and the
lessons learned from the pilot study, will be discussed in greater depth later in this
section.

Critical Incident Technique (CIT) (Flanagan, 1954) was originally developed during
World War II as an aid for research in the USAAFs Aviation Psychology Programme.
Flanagan describes his CIT approach as:

procedure for gathering certain important facts concerning behaviour in
defined situations. (1954, p.335)

Within this context, Flanagan defines the specific terms incident and critical as
follows:

By an incident is meant any observable human activity that is sufficiently
complete in itself to permit inferences and predictions to be made about the
person performing the act. To be critical, an incident must occur in a situation
where the purpose or intent of the act seems fairly clear to the observer and
where its consequences are sufficiently definite to leave little doubt concerning
its effects. (1954, p.327)

Flanagan emphasises that CIT is not a rigid set of rules for data collection and
analysis, to be followed slavishly, but a:

Flexible set of principles which must be modified and adapted to meet the
specific situation at hand . And that: all observations are evaluated by the
observer (interviewer) in terms of an agreed upon statement of the purpose of
the activity. (1954, p.335)

For this study, the statement of purpose of the activity was communicated to each
interviewee prior to the interview taking place in the form of a short written brief (Copy
at Appendix A - Pre-Interview Brief) and comprised the following statement:

During the research interview I will ask you to describe an incident or event
concerning a moral dilemma that you were personally involved in, or a situation
you observed, where you witnessed either exceptional leadership or very poor
leadership.

Each interviewee was reminded of the statement of purpose of the activity at the
commencement of the interview, and verbal agreement sought and confirmed. The
phrase Spiritual Intelligence was deliberately omitted from the statement of purpose in
order minimise any possible assumptions or prejudices on the part of the interviewee.
However, through comparison of reported leadership decision making behaviour and
attitudes when faced with critical incident moral dilemmas with the four elements of
the conceptual framework for SQ, it was intended that the relevance of the SQ

42

framework could be tested and evaluated (in accordance with RO3a). Having identified
and explored one or more critical incident scenarios, the semi-structured interview
format would then allow the researcher to pose appropriate supplementary questions to
elicit further data from the interviewees with regard to the potential utility of the SQ
framework for strategic level education and development within UK Defence (RO3b).
Subsequently, analysis of the data collected in comparison to primary research
objectives 3a and 3b, together with other practical and theoretical research limitations
identified prior to and during the study, will be noted and discussed in order to clearly
state the limitations of the research, in accordance with RO3c.

3.3: Data Collection

As explained in the previous section, CIT methodology, and the use of additional
appropriate supplementary questions, would be employed by the researcher during a
series of interviews, to gain qualitative data in response to ROs 3a and 3b. This
section will describe the approach to research data collection with particular regard to
sample selection, ethical issues mainly comprising the maintenance of confidentiality of
collected data together with anonymity of survey participants, the pilot study, and data
collection techniques utilised during the main study, before moving on to a discussion
of how the collected data would be analysed. However, the areas of data collection
and analysis are inextricably linked and some explanation with regard to the thematic
themes utilised in data collection interviewing and subsequent analysis will form part of
the next section; 3.4: Framework for Data Analysis.

3.3.1: Data Collection Sample Selection

As indicated in the previous paragraph, it was decided to collect research data
by means of interviews with key stakeholders. The primary interviewees
comprised a convenience sample and consisted of nine senior strategic leaders
within UK Defence; all of whom were currently, or had previously been,
concerned with leadership development as policy makers, education deliverers,
or programme participants. They were drawn from across the four uniformed
Services and from the Civil Service and held the rank of two, three, or four-star
military officers or civilian equivalents. All were either serving or recently retired
(within five years) members of the MOD. The group size, from which the
sample was drawn, was assessed to be in the region of 422 persons,
comprising an estimated 290 serving and 132 retired personnel within the two
to four-star rank and equivalent grade range
8
. The sample comprised male and
female representatives although, at the target level within Defence, the
incidence of prospective female interviewees was somewhat limited as there
are no female military personnel above one-star rank and only a very few at a
higher grade within the MOD Senior Civil Service.

The interviewees were also selected for ease of access, in that the researcher
was either directly professionally known to them or was introduced through a
third party. This method was thought (and subsequently proved) to ensure a
high acceptance number of prospective candidates who agreed to be

8
Group size was calculated by means of comparison of military and senior civil service personnel
strength and outflow rates data provided by the Defence Analytical and Advice Services (DASA) website
at http://www.dasa.mod.uk/

43

interviewed, with only one out of ten people approached declining the invitation.
With the limited time available for both the researcher and interviewees, it was
decided that the total of nine interviews was both manageable and reasonable
as a sample size. Due to the parameters used for selection of the research
sample, no claim is made as to the quota representing the wider Defence
community or general public. However, this limitation is believed to be offset by
the rich source of experience and knowledge to be gained from the chosen
sample.

3.3.2: Data Collection Confidentiality and Anonymity issues.

This study has been conducted in accordance with the Economic and Social
Research Council (ESRC) guidelines as laid down in the Framework for
Research Ethics 2010
9
. The research proposal and methodology was also
reviewed by the authors line management in accordance with the guidance
outlined in JSP 536: Ministry of Defence Research Ethics Committee (2006).
Special consideration was paid to confidentiality and anonymity issues. When
invited to take part in the interview process, each candidate was promised that
his/her anonymity would be safeguarded and that data collected would be
treated in strict confidence. To ensure participant confidence and to protect
third parties, all data collected was held securely by the researcher and care
taken to use only anonymised extracts when discussing the research findings.
It was expected, when collecting the experiences and opinions of very senior
personnel concerning emotive subject matter that some of the data collected
would be highly sensitive personally and politically and therefore the need
for confidentiality of the data and anonymity of the participants was paramount.
With such a specific sample group from a relatively small target group of
candidates, it was imperative that these measures should be taken to ensure
anonymity of the interviewees and confidentiality of the data collected. The
anonymity of the research participants was also protected through allocation of
a code letter, from A to I, to each interviewee with the true identity of the
interviewees known only to the researcher and dissertation supervisors.

It is a result of such confidentiality issues that care was taken when selecting
extracts for the Data Analysis Extracts, which comprise Appendix B of this
paper; even so, it proved impossible to completely protect interviewee
anonymity without comprising the sense of the data. Therefore, the full text of
the interview transcripts and Data Analysis Extracts cannot be included with this
document but are available, on request, only to the Dissertation Supervisors,
and other authorised persons (such as an external marker, or qualification
awarding body) as agreed by the primary Dissertation Supervisor. Despite
taking all reasonable protective measures, explicit reference to some of the
interviewee responses could not be included as the detailed information
(names, places, dates, situation and context) would be readily identifiable.
However, the implications of the interviewees observations have been included
in the main body of the study findings (Chapter 4), without revealing the detail of
the event or identity of the observer so that confidentiality and anonymity is
maintained. A summary of transcription analysis, juxtaposed with the six key
themes, is available at Appendix C Interview Data Summary Table.

9
ESRC Framework for Research Ethics 2010 is available at
http://www.esrc.ac.uk/_images/Framework_for_Research_Ethics_tcm8-4586.pdf

44

3.3.3: Data Collection Pilot Study

Prior to the embarking on the primary interviews, a short pilot study was carried
out to test the proposed interview questions, allow the researcher to assess
time required and to practice interview technique. It was intended to conduct a
total of three pilot interviews. The candidates selected were a 1-star grade
male officer, an OF5 grade female officer, and a C2 grade female civil servant.
However, due to sickness, the male candidate was unobtainable and timing
precluded identifying a replacement. Nonetheless, the pilot study proved to be
an invaluable tool for gaining experience and understanding of the practical
research requirements. The initial questioning approach, which included direct
reference to SQ theory, and tightly scripted questions, was found to be both
unwieldy and excessively time consuming. Both interviewees also reported that
they felt put on the spot in that they presumed that some level of knowledge of
the theory under consideration, together with a valid viewpoint, was required of
them. This led to a less than relaxed atmosphere for both interviewer and
interviewee and was thought to have a detrimental effect on the amount of
genuine data obtained. As a consequence, when conducting the primary
interviews which followed, a different interview approach Critical Incident
Technique (CIT) was employed, and no direct reference to SQ theory was
made at the commencement of the interviews.

3.3.4: Data Collection Techniques Utilised During the Main Study

Having decided upon utilising CIT, the research data was obtained by means of
face-to-face interviews, most lasting between 45 minutes and an hour. At least
one week prior to the date of each interview, a written brief was sent to each
candidate outlining the background to the research and providing a statement
of purpose of the activity in accordance with Flanagans (1954) guidelines on
conducting interviews using CIT. Candidates were then given sight of the first
interview question and invited to consider their choice of an incident or situation
prior to the interview. A copy of the interview pre-brief is at Appendix A. At
commencement of the interview, the researcher again outlined the purpose of
the research, and the statement of purpose of the activity, in order that this
could be understood and agreed.

A semi-structured approach to interview questioning was adopted wherein the
researchers interview framework (copy at Appendix D) was intentionally far
less directive than that used during the pilot study, affording the researcher
opportunity to maximise emerging opportunities for in-depth discussion.
Following the delivery of the primary question, which was utilised as the initial
point for all the interviews, a list of suggested summary questions provided
prompts for the interviewer to follow, or discard, as appropriate. This interview
technique afforded the interviewer a considerable degree of latitude in shaping
supplementary questions in order that emerging areas of interest could be
pursued and enlarged upon to gain a deep level of rich data. All the interviews
were recorded and then transcribed into hard copy for analysis, producing some
63,588 words of data. However, a data resource is only useful when it is
properly analysed and the manner by which this was undertaken is described in
the next section.

45

3.4: Framework for Data Analysis

This whole process of data analysis is succinctly summed up by Bogdan and Biklen
(1982, p.157) as:

...working with data, organizing them, breaking them into manageable units,
synthesizing them, searching for patterns, discovering what is important and
what is to be learned, and deciding what you will tell others.

Although this may sound a simple process, like most achievements, research skills are
honed through practice. Wolcott wisely states: The greater problem for first-time
qualitative researchers is not how to get data but how to figure out what to do with the
data they get. (1994, p.9). Consequently, he advises: If you can think through the
kind of analysis or interpretation you expect to make then you ought to have a pretty
good idea about the data to collect. (1994, p.404). Therefore, in this section, the
framework for data analysis will be discussed, together with its bearing on data
collection techniques. With this in mind, the method of data analysis selected for this
study is in accordance with Wolcotts (1994) iterative process of description, analysis
and interpretation, with particular emphasis on identifying and exploring emerging
themes. This process is summarised in Figure 1: Framework for Data Analysis.

46

Figure 1: Framework for Data Analysis (based on Wolcotts (1994) Description, Analysis and Interpretation Methodology)

COLLEC
T
DATA

DESCRIB
E
DATA

ANALYS
E
DATA
INTER-
PRET
DATA

Synthesize
data. Extract
meaning.
Identify
implications

DESCRIBE
DATA

Summarise data in data
analysis spreadsheets,
with explanatory
annotations
ANALYSE
DATA

Analyse data group
into themes and issues
COLLECT
DATA

Interview recordings,
transcripts and notes

47

The study SQ model (King, 2008), which was identified from the Literature Review in
response to RO2, comprised four sub-components of SQ: Critical Existential Thinking
(CET), Personal Meaning Production (PET), Transcendental Awareness (TA), and
Conscious State Expansion (CSE). These provide four themes for data analysis and
therefore are also key informers of the data collection process. In addition, a fifth theme
of Possible Utility (PU) met the investigative focus of RO3b: Identify the potential utility
of the SQ framework for strategic-level ethical education and development within UK
Defence. Finally, a sixth theme of Emerging Issues (EI) was included as a catch-all for
significant findings which fall outside the parameters of the preceding five key themes.
For ease of reference, the six themes were allocated a colour coding and are listed in
Table 11: Six Key Themes Which Inform Data Collection and Analysis.
Furthermore, these six themes, identified as an aid to data collection, description and
analysis, placed within the context of the overarching data analysis framework, are
shown at Figure 2: Framework for Data Analysis, with Six Key Themes Identified
from Literature Review.

The data was collected and analysed solely by the study researcher. It is recognised
that independent analysis of the research data by a co-researcher would have been
beneficial; as a resultant comparison of results, together with debate to arrive at a
consensus view, would lend support to the validity of the findings. Regretfully,
constraints of time and resources prevented this practice and the researcher
acknowledges the limitations this may place on the perceived value of the findings.
However, the researcher was acutely cognisant of this shortfall in best practice and
made every other attempt to ensure objectivity in the analysis process.

48

Table 11: Six Key Themes Which Inform Data Collection and Analysis

CE
T
PU
PM
PP
TA
CS
E
EI
Critical Existential Thinking (CET) the capacity to critically contemplate meaning, purpose,
and other existential or metaphysical issues (e.g., reality, the universe, space, time, death). Also,
the capacity to contemplate non-existential issues from an existential perspective; such as moral
problem solving - the ability to resolve ethical dilemmas through the application of critical thinking
in conjunction with awareness of one's own moral convictions &/or spiritual beliefs.
Personal Meaning Production (PMP) the ability to construct personal meaning and purpose in
all physical and mental experiences, including the capacity to create and master a life purpose.
May include a sense of higher purpose, or reason for existence, associated with a personal belief
in or sense of the sacred or divine.
Transcendental Awareness (TA) the capacity to perceive transcendent dimensions of the self
(e.g., a transcendent self), of others, and of the physical world (e.g., non-materialism,
interconnectedness) during the normal, waking state of consciousness. Also, the ability to sense
a spiritual dimension of life. Self-realization achieved through self-awareness & reflection. The
ability to perceive beyond the physical senses - intuition, gut-feeling, inner knowing.
Conscious State Expansion (CSE) the ability to enter spiritual states of consciousness (e.g.,
pure consciousness, cosmic consciousness, oneness) at ones own discretion; often through
deliberate practice (e.g., prayer, meditation, relaxation, or rhythmic physical activity).
Potential Utility (PU) the potential utility of the SQ framework for strategic level leadership
education and development within UK Defence.
Emerging issues (EI) Emerging issues deemed pertinent to the study.

49

Figure 2: Framework for Data Analysis, with Six Key Themes Identified from Literature Review

INTERPRET
DATA

ANALYSE
DATA
(Process
informed
by six key
themes)

DESCRIBE
DATA
(Process
informed
by six key
themes)

COLLE
CT
DATA

CE
T
CE
T
CE
T
PM
P
PM
P
PM
P
TA TA TA
CS
E
CS
E
CS
E
PU PU PU
EI EI EI

COLLECT
DATA
(Process
informed
by six key
themes)
CE
T
LITERATURE REVIEW
STUDY SQ MODEL

50

The nine hours of interview enquiry recorded produced 626 KB (63588 words) of
transcribed data which was analysed according to the six themes of the data analysis
framework, and organised by respondent coded identity (see Appendix B). As data
analysis developed, comparison was made to the ongoing and extended Literature
Review with increased awareness of pertinent literature informing subsequent analysis.
As stated, data analysis is an iterative process, rather than linear, with emerging
themes informing subsequent data collection, and initial, re-visited, and extended
Literature Review further influencing data collection and analysis. It is a cyclic process,
akin to the Creswells Data Analysis Spiral (2007, p.151) illustrated below at Figure 3.

Figure 3: Creswells (2007) Data Analysis Spiral

Hence, a revised figure, of the study data analysis framework, which more aptly
illustrates the iterative and cyclic nature of the process, is at Figure 4.

51

Figure 4: Framework for Data Analysis, Depicting Cyclic Nature of Data Collection and Analysis Process

INTERPRET
DATA

COLLECT
DATA
(Process
informed
by six key
themes)

DESCRIBE
DATA
(Process
informed
by six key
themes)

ANALYSE
DATA
(Process
informed
by six key
themes)

PM
P
CE
T
CE
T
CE
T
PM
P
PM
P
TA TA TA
CS
E
CS
E
CS
E
PU PU PU
EI EI EI
LITERATURE REVIEW

STUDY SQ MODEL

52

As shown in Figure 4, collection, description, analysis, and interpretation of data
prompts questions in the researchers mind, which prompts a return to the Literature
Review stage of the study. New or revised information gleaned from re-engagement
with pertinent literature is utilised in subsequent data collection and analysis. This
circular process is repeated as many times as necessary, or until limitations of time
(and energy) force a curtailment. The Framework for Data Analysis outlined in this
section may seem relatively simple yet, regretfully, no system of research data
collection, collation and analysis is foolproof, and there are inevitably limitations which
need to be recognised and taken into account when evaluating data and drawing
conclusions from the research. Those limitations, together with potential problems
identified prior to the data analysis phase, are expounded in the following section.

3.5: Limitations and Potential Problems

It is hoped that the researcher, by adopting an appropriate, tried and tested research
strategy, data collection, and analysis techniques, and implementing them with
diligence, has demonstrated the overall validity and reliability of this study.
Nonetheless, the limitations of this research require acknowledgement as well as
discussion of potential problems related to its execution. The results of this study
cannot be generalised to represent the broader spread of leadership education in UK
Defence organisations or wider public and private communities. A similar study,
utilizing a larger or wider sample group within an alternative context may lead to
different results. However, by utilising a specifically selected research sample, this
researcher has deliberately chosen to sacrifice any claim to generality of the findings in
favour of securing rich data which is directly related to the particular context of strategic
leadership within a UK Defence environment. It is hoped that this study will inform
other researchers interested in the subject matter and will add a thread to the intricate
tapestry of leadership development within Defence. As exploratory research in an area
which has hitherto lacked enquiry, this study aims to establish a baseline for others to
build on in future research projects.

An associated possible limitation of this research is the dependence on survey by
interviews as a primary source of data. During initial planning stages, secondary
survey by questionnaire had been considered but was later discounted due to the
unacceptably high workload it would require from both researcher and prospective
respondents perspectives in an environment already suffering from survey fatigue.
On balance, the sole reliance on interviews was deemed sufficiently advantageous in
that they offered the researcher the opportunity to gain abundant and rich data from a
uniquely informed group of research subjects. Despite this, possible issues of possible
issues of interviewee (and interviewer) bias, imperfect recall and selective (or self-
censored) response cannot be ignored.

In addressing potential observer bias, the selection of CIT as a research methodology
is supported by the view that:

... rather than collecting opinions, hunches and estimates, (CIT) obtains a
record of specific behaviours from those in the best position to make the
necessary observations and evaluations. (Vandenbosch et al, 2001, p.117).

Additionally, awareness of the possibility of acknowledged or unintentional bias, in both
the interviewer and interviewee, has some effect of limiting its consequence. Imperfect
recall is difficult to guard against but was minimised by providing each interviewee with

53

the initial interview question prior to the meeting, thereby affording the interviewee a
realistic period of time in which to focus on and adequately recall the details of his
chosen incident or incidents.

Interviewee selective response might have been present for a number of reasons, the
primary one being the significant difference in rank between the interviewer and
interviewee (a minimum of four rank grade levels). Although this may rarely be a
concern outside the MOD, within the strictly hierarchical structure of a military
organisation it may be considered unusual for a very senior officer to speak freely
about sensitive and personal matter with a colleague of far junior rank. This could lead
to the interviewees reluctance to be completely open and candid. Although
exacerbated by this artificial differential in formal status, this issue might also be
encountered in similar, non-military situations as most people have a natural tendency
to be cautious of revealing their inner most thoughts to a relative stranger. The risk of
selective response during interviews in this study was minimised in the following ways.
Firstly, the majority of interview candidates selected were known to the researcher and
a relationship of professional mutual respect had already been established. Secondly,
interviewee confidentiality and anonymity (outside immediate dissertation supervision
personnel) was promised and maintained. Thirdly, obvious signs of status were
minimised by the researcher deliberately conducting the interviews in civilian clothing
and on neutral territory whenever possible. Fourth, and finally, the interviewer
endeavoured to maintain the demeanour of professional researcher at all times whilst
establishing rapport and trust prior to commencing each interview.

A further key constraint was the practical necessity of limiting the size of the survey
sample group. Without the luxury of full-time engagement on this project, the
researcher was forced to balance other priorities against the time available to conduct
interviews, collate, organise and analyse collected data, and synthesize findings. In
addition, access to extremely busy executives over a wide geographical spread, placed
limits on the manageability of the sample size. Consequently, a maximum of ten
interviews was decided. Steps were taken to mitigate the effect of these problems by
planning and arranging interviews weeks in advance and, where possible, clustering
meetings into a central location. Despite these precautions, the hours (days and
weeks) committed to interview preparation, conduct, and data management were
considerable.

Finally, as a companion to interviewee bias, researcher bias must be fully considered.
At the commencement of the project, and up to the interview stage, the researcher was
a member of the organisation which delivered the Defence Strategic Leadership
Programme, and therefore might have had a vested interest in the outcome of the
study. However, some twelve months prior to completion of the analysis and summary
stage, she moved to a completely separate organisation whose work was not
connected in any way to the outcome of the study. However, as an interested
observer who has deliberately selected the subject matter of this study, as opposed to
independently conducting research instigated by a third party, it is impossible to fully
eradicate researcher bias. It could be argued that viewing the world from a particular
perspective is the stock in trade of a social scientist (Burrell and Morgan, 1979) and
that whilst the observer can endeavour to maintain objectivity some degree of bias is
inevitably expressed by any human researcher.

54

3.6: Next Steps

Having reviewed the objectives of this study, explained the research strategy, defined
data collection and analysis methodology and explored limitations and potential
problems which might be encountered during the project, focus will now transfer to the
results of all this effort the Research Findings.

55

CHAPTER 4: RESEACH FINDINGS

4.1: Introduction

As outlined in Chapter One, the overall aim of this study is:


This study, in addition to a review of relevant literature (Research Objectives One
(RO1) and Two (RO2) ), comprises a survey, conducted by a series of interviews with
nine specifically selected senior strategic leaders from across the uniformed and
civilian Services of UK Defence. The interviews were semi-structure in nature and
utilised Flanagans (1954) Critical Incident Technique (CIT) as a means to eliciting
relevant data. The aim of the survey was to conduct primary research in response to
the three sub-objectives of Research Objective Three (RO3):

Defence.

In the previous chapter, the manner in which survey data was to be collected, describe,
analysed for relevant content, compared to literature review outcomes, and collated
into six key thematic areas, was explained. Selected extracts from interview transcripts
comprise Appendix B: Data Analysis Extracts of this document and, to preserve
interviewee anonymity, are available to dissertation supervisors only. A summary of
transcription analysis, compared to the key themes is available at Annex C: Interview
Data Summary Table. The aim of this chapter is to take the next step to reveal the
results of the research survey and to seek meaning within the collected findings. This
action will produce a synthesised understanding of the combined research findings and
enable conclusions and recommendations to be made. The findings arising from the
literature review and the research survey will be , examined in turn, before the separate
threads are drawn together in a concluding section detailing the conclusions drawn
from the combined findings (RO4). Finally, the limitations of the research will be
reviewed.

4.2: Literature Review Summary of Findings

A literature review is a key source of knowledge and understanding. Its importance
should not be overshadowed by the collection of data obtained during the (seemingly)
more glamorous and proactive research survey. As outlined in Chapter Two, a
literature review summarises core literature relevant to a studys research objectives
and provides critical insight concerning conflicting theories and claims pertinent to the
subject being investigated (Hart, 1998). The outcome of the literature review
undertaken in support of this study is detailed fully in Chapter Two. The review
commenced with an brief explanation of the nature of intelligence, a discussion as to

56

what is meant by the term spirituality and defined what is understood to be the nature
and challenges of strategic leadership in a UK Defence context. This set the
framework for the specific investigation into SQ which followed. Seven prevalent
models of SQ were investigated and assessed; from which Kings (2008) Viable Model
of Spiritual Intelligence was selected as the study SQ model for use in the research
survey phase. King defines SQ as:

a set of mental capacities which contribute to the awareness, integration, and
adaptive application of the nonmaterial and transcendent aspects of ones
existence, leading to such outcomes as deep existential reflection,
enhancement of meaning, recognition of a transcendent self, and mastery of
spiritual states (2008, p.56).

The model comprises the following four components, details of which are described in
Chapter Three, Table 10: Study Model of SQ.

a. Critical Existential Thinking (CET)

b. Personal Meaning Production (PMP)

c. Transcendental Awareness (TA)

d. Conscious State Expansion (CSE)

The possible benefits and disadvantages of spiritually intelligent leadership were
evaluated with the balance decided to be in favour due to a reported increase in
productivity, staff motivation, morale, satisfaction and sense of meaning together with
enhanced leader effectiveness and communication. Clear links were noted with the
PMP and TA elements of the study SQ model. However, a warning note was sounded
regarding the possibility of religiosity dominating spirituality, with the associated risk of
friction and division within the workforce caused by insistence on unwanted religious
conformity. A comparison was made between the published values and standards of
the four main MOD organisations and were found to be similar in aim whilst differing in
tone and terminology. A brief examination of two alternative ethical leadership
development tools: Aristotles (translated 1998) concept of phronesis; and Stamps
(2001) Four Journeys of a Leader, was also undertaken, from which both approaches
were considered worthy of further research.

4.3: Research Survey Findings

As indicated in Chapter Three, which outlined the research methodology pertaining to
this study, six key themes where utilised to inform both data collection and analysis. In
addition to the first four themes which comprise the four components of the study SQ
model (CET, PMP, TA, and CSE), a fifth theme of Potential Utility (PU) was added in
response to RO3b Identify the potential utility of the SQ framework for strategic level
leadership education and development within UK Defence. Finally, a sixth theme of
Emerging Issues (EI) was included to embrace significant findings outwith the
parameters of the other five themes. An initial examination of findings arising from the
research survey element of this study will now be undertaken. It will commence with
scrutiny of findings related to the first four themes, in response to RO3a test the
conceptual framework for relevance within a UK Defence strategic leadership context,
followed by engaging with the remaining themes of Potential Utility and Emerging
Issues. Where reference is made to transcription extracts within Appendix B: Data

57

Analysis Extracts, the line entries have been numbered sequentially according to
theme and interviewee identity code; for example, the third reference to PMP by
Interviewee B is identified by the line entry reference PMP/B/3.

4.3.1: Critical Existential Thinking (CET).

CET is the SQ component concerning the capacity to critically contemplate
meaning, purpose, and other existential or metaphysical issues (e.g., reality, the
universe, space, time, death). It also comprises the capacity to contemplate
non-existential issues from an existential perspective; such as moral problem
solving - the ability to resolve ethical dilemmas through the application of critical
thinking in conjunction with awareness of one's own moral convictions and/or
spiritual beliefs.

Seven of the nine interviewees made comments which could be identified as
related, to greater or lesser degrees, with the theme of CET. All seven
exhibited awareness of their own moral convictions or spiritual beliefs, with
convictions including do as you would be done by (CET/G/1) and do as you
ought, not as you want (CET/A/1), and many attributing their moral
development to family, upbringing, church and school. Several interviewees
mentioned that formal Codes of Conduct or Core Values doctrine, issued by
each of the Services within UK Defence, provided moral guidance on required
behaviour and were useful calibrators of an individuals moral compass;
therefore, these publications were examined as part of the literature review (see
section 2.8.1).

Examples were provided of the ability to resolve ethical dilemmas through the
combination of critical thinking allied with awareness of moral conviction. Again
referring to his mantra of do as you ought, not as you want, Interviewee A
reinforced its importance as the driving force behind his ethical choices:

... and I have found it incredibly useful whenever Im stuck and
uncertain of what Im going to do. I work out in my mind what I want to
do, you always know that, thats the easy bit, and then I think What
should I do? and that is often a very painful decision and I would always
wherever have to go with the ought I have to go I am absolutely
driven by it. I will do as I ought. (CET/A/1)

The nature of a moral dilemma, where there is conflict between two
incompatible approaches rules or instinct, head or heart was apparent in
comments made by Interviewees A and B. Interviewee A admitted to breaking
the rules on occasion and his compulsion to do so when technically correct
actions conflict with his sense of what is right:

I can think of a couple of occasions when Ive decided that I need to go
with what I believe is morally right which was technically incorrect. Ive
certainly done that. Ill always do that. I think you need to do it
consistently too, so that the leadership scenarios, people completely
understand you and know what you are going to do and can predict that
this is a guy who is absolutely straight. He will therefore do this on his
integrities. Its all to do with integrity. Youve got to show that absolutely.
Yes, And just occasionally it all goes badly wrong. (CET/A/3)

58

Interviewee B also described an occasion when he put his moral convictions
ahead of strict obedience to regulations, by choosing to do what felt right:

I can calculate an answer and its no, same job therefore the same
salary, the rest of its neither here nor there. The feeling bit said, but
were putting someone in a place which is wrong. So it is about feeling,
its about my moral compass was swung by the impact upon the
individual rather than the impact upon the defence budget. (CET/B/1)

Interviewee H related a leadership dilemma in which he had to weigh-up the
impact of possible collateral damage (civilian injury and death) over the
importance of disabling the designated target. Although he made the decision
to execute the air attack, subsequent events occurred whereby the mission was
undertaken by another nations aircraft, a bomb fell short, destroying a house
and causing civilian fatalities, which caused the element of surprise to be lost
and allowed the target to escape. Interviewee B reviewed his decision making
process, confirming that he believed he had made the right decision, both
technically and morally, in the given circumstances, but admitted that he very
much regretted the outcome.

... but the chain of events is, OK, Im looking at a target which is
complex in which on this occasion I am pretty sure some innocent
people are going to die. The prospect of killing this guy who is a really
bad person, who I dislike intensely, but more particularly who is acting
as the fulcrum of a chain of events in XXXXX
10
. The attack takes place
not by the aircraft I cleared to do it but by American aircraft thereby
absolving me of my moral responsibility and yet I subsequently am the
person who receives the letter saying you killed 10 of my family.
(Interviewer: Regardless of the legalities, how do you feel about that?).
I was pissed off that we didnt get XXXXX
11
I was; but in terms of the
overall result, you sort of categorise it under the rub of the green, the
casualties of war, but of course I wish it hadnt happened. Very much.
(CET/H/1)

Both Interviewees B and H provided clear examples of the sort of dilemmas
strategic leaders are faced with on a regular basis, both in the battle space and
the business space. Reliance on a strong sense of ones own moral code when
facing such ethical dilemmas, in order to make the morally right decision was
apparent. Additional comments regarding the possible need for improved
ethical education and self-awareness will be dealt with in the Section 4.3.5:
Potential Utility.

4.3.2: Personal Meaning Production (PMP).

PMP is the ability to construct personal meaning and purpose in all physical and
mental experiences, including the capacity to create and master a life purpose.
It may include a sense of higher purpose, or reason for existence, associated

10
Interviewee named a Middle Eastern city (text redacted to protect interviewees anonymity).
11
Interviewee named a prominent person who had been designated as a legitimate enemy target (text
redacted to protect interviewees anonymity).

59

with a personal belief in or sense of the sacred or divine. Five participants made
comments associated with PMP. With regard to awareness of a personal or
higher life purposes, example were given of what gave individuals personal
meaning in their lives. Interviewee B, recalled the reasons he was attracted to
working in the Civil Service; that its values aligned with his own and that the
work was of importance to the community:

... there was in the simple choice of the Civil Service, a choice for what I
perceived at that time to be a morally more straightforward organisation.
And then there have been examples where, through my career, where
what we have been trying to do is to do the right thing, even though it
may not have been the easy thing. Where it was about a higher good
rather than a simple local team benefit or whatever. So suffusing the
whole of my working career has been my work in an organisation that
has values; that those values are important to the nation we serve... So
all the way from being a young boy, the sort of things that have taken
me in particular directions emphasised values over personal
advantage. (PMP/B/1)

A different example of personal meaning is shown in Interviewee Cs assertion
that what gave him most personal meaning in his career was the opportunity to
work in a value-centred organisation alongside professional people who share
his desire to be of service.

I only do what I do because of a very strong belief in the rectitude of the
profession and particularly the way we do it and I only do it because of
the interaction it gives me for the extraordinary professional bunch of
people who sacrifice a lot to deliver this capability for their country. And
that is what gives me the satisfaction. (PMP/C/1)

Another aspect of PMP within the SQ context is that individual sense of purpose
may be conjoined with a belief in or sense of the sacred or divine. With regard
to personal spiritual belief, three of those interviewed confirmed that they were
Christians whilst others did not offer information regarding their personal
spiritual convictions. However, comments were made as to the importance of
belief in something beyond self, particularly in situations of personal danger, as
exemplified by the following extracts:

But what I think is quite noticeable is that when you are away on
operations, how crucial the Padre becomes for individuals and how
many people have some religious elements and they had their own
values that they will express in very different ways, depending on the
circumstances. (PMP/D/3)

Now you can believe whatever you like. Some believe in the cause.
Belief in the leader, in the quirky world of the British Army, belief in the
regiment might be enough. For others its a belief in religion or
something else. But I think most people probably recognise the need
that, when the chips are down, theres something bigger than
themselves to identify with and to hang on to. (PMP/I/1)

The above examples show that whilst there is evidence of individuals
requirement for meaning in their lives and work, such desire may or may not be

60

associated with spiritual belief or experience. However, in times of threat or
hardship, especially in life-threatening situations faced during combat
operations, a sense of purpose beyond the individual has greater import.

4.3.3: Transcendental Awareness (TA).

TA is the capacity to perceive transcendent dimensions of the self (e.g., a
transcendent self), of others, and of the physical world (e.g., non-materialism,
interconnectedness) during the normal, waking state of consciousness. It
includes the abilities required to sense a spiritual dimension of life, achieve self-
realization through self-awareness & reflection, and to perceive beyond the
physical senses - intuition, gut-feeling, inner knowing. In some ways, TA is
linked closely to PMP, in that both are related to belief in, or sense of, the
sacred or divine. Whereas PMP is focussed towards spirituality as a possible
adjunct in which personal meaning can be contextualised, TA is concerned with
not only the ability to sense a spiritual dimension but also the ability to become
aware of a dimension above and beyond the ordinary needs of survivalist living.
Such abilities are developed through increased self-awareness, gained through
refection and self-examination, and are perceived as intuition or sense of
knowing.

Three participants made comments associated with TA. Both Interviewees E
and I were unequivocal in their belief that a sense of something beyond self is
essential in order to place situations and experience within a wider context. In
addition, both respondents saw that something bigger as having a spiritual
dimension:

I think that a spiritual sense is absolutely fundamental in the sense that
if you dont have a sense of the wider scheme of things. If you think
youre just an island. If you think that things are just a matter a sort of
rather rigid mechanistic causing effect, you may lose sight of the greater
meaning of things. Again that becomes more important the higher up
you go. Deeper thinking, a sense of a greater good of humanity. A bit
of philosophical awareness. (TA/E/5)

Interviewee I saw this need for transcendence to be particularly necessary as a
part of leadership and when faced with having to make moral choices:

I often argue whether a moral baseline is sufficient. Should there be a
spiritual dimension to decision making and to leadership? And I think
the small "yes", there should be, and that there is something rather
bigger than yourself and is a reflection of what you believe in. (TA/I/1)

When I said core values provide a very good moral baseline, I asked
the question Should there be a spiritual dimension. For me the answer
is yes to that and for me, its actually a big "YES" rather than a small
"yes". Because to me the Christian Faith is very important and therefore
the concept of having something bigger than yourself and outside
yourself, - which in context is the Christian Faith, is God , and the
teachings of the bible, and whatever, and church, - is very important to
me and therefore takes one regularly and routinely outside oneself.
Therefore you can hold up what you are doing to external scrutiny, if you
like, at least in your own mind, in the sort of relationship between a

61

single God who you cant see, but actually believe is very important.
(TA/I/2)

With regard to the importance of the self-awareness supported by personal
reflection, and the development and use of intuition as a source of knowledge,
several respondents regarded these aspects of TA as highly important to
effective leadership.

The very, very best (leaders) ... are constantly self critical and
constantly questioning and having a thirst for expanding. (TA/E/1)

The same interviewee discussed the need to become familiar with, or
sensitised to, an inner voice of moral conviction; otherwise, it is difficult to
recognise the ethical dimension of a problem when it occurs and moral decision
making skills become dulled through lack of awareness.

... if you are not aware enough you wont even notice youre facing a
methodical dilemma. (TA/E/2)

... you have to sensitise yourself so that when you suddenly find
yourself giving a piece of advice about to sign up to a decision, seeing
things going in a certain direction, that you havent shut down your own
reactions. That you hear your own instincts, your reaction here. Peel
back the layers and say Good heavens, I dont agree with this.
(TA/E/3)

From these comments, it is suggested that a self-awareness of ones own moral
convictions are essential to good leadership. This is sometimes referred to as
being aware of ones moral compass and ensuring that it is suitably calibrated
to point to the moral equivalent of true north. Belief in a spiritual dimension as a
context within which moral values might be set is not necessary for all, although
to some people it is highly desirable, even essential. What does seem to be
crucial is the ability to set experience within a larger context, to transcend minor
concerns, especially when faced with the challenge of making moral decisions.
As one participant phrased it; the ability to step back and to step up.

4.3.4: Conscious State Expansion (CSE).

CSE is the ability to enter spiritual states of consciousness (e.g., pure
consciousness, cosmic consciousness, oneness) at ones own discretion; often
through deliberate practice (e.g., prayer, meditation, relaxation, or rhythmic
physical activity). Seven of the interviewees made comments related to CSE,
although most of them were not supportive of the process as a spiritual
practice. Whilst two admitted to praying regularly, three others stated that
meditation was not a practice they would use. One interviewee described how
he was able to find inspiration following a period of intense concentration; which
might be considered a deliberate change in state of consciousness, although
not necessarily a spiritual one:

What are my other relief valves? I just occasionally bowl off for half
an hour. I actually have to concentrate when riding my motor bike. Its
much more demanding in terms of concentration than driving a car
where you can let go a bit. I find that if I let my thoughts drift while

62

driving the bike, you frighten yourself but that period of time when youve
not been able to think about the issue because youve been
concentrating on riding a motor cycle actually does make for inspiration
when you get back. (CSE/C/1)

Most interviewees cited rhythmic and solitary exercise as a method of relaxation
and inner reflection; such as swimming, golf, skiing, fishing, and walking the
dog. However, they did not say whether or not they found such activity to be a
route to a spiritual state of consciousness. Despite the lack of evidence of CSE
practice by most of the respondents, when discussing his attendance at the
XXXXX
12
, one interviewee expressed interest in, and confirmed the value of,
some of the self-management techniques he had experienced.

I was very impressed. As I said to a number of people when I came
back from it, it taught me, well, the Windsor Leadership, its quite a
privilege to do it anyway but, I was really shocked with some of the
approaches. Lying on the floor with women at XXXXX
13
meditating for
ten minutes. Somebody teaching them how to do this. Really, really,
really good value. And people were talking to you about how to get the
best value out of sleep. Why dont we do this here? (CSE/C/2)

With this suggestion in mind, it is now time to review findings concerning the
potential utility of SQ.

4.3.5: Potential Utility (PU).

The theme of Potential Utility concerns identifying the degree to which the
concept of SQ might be utilised as a tool to aid ethical education and
development of strategic leaders and the findings will be of direct import to
achieving RO3b Identify the potential utility of the SQ framework for strategic-
level ethical leadership education and development within UK Defence.
Interviewee comments regarding PU focussed mainly on the need for leaders to
receive education in moral philosophy and ethical decision making skills. It was
suggested that this should be achieved through formal training programmes
and mentoring within command chain to achieve progressive through-career
development of what they viewed to be essential leadership skills. With regard
to one senior joint development programme, Interviewee E spoke of the need to
sensitise people to the implications of ethical issues in order to encourage
people to notice that they dont agree::

... all we can do is to sensitise people to these things and at least 50%
of the people at this place, even you know the quality that we get; these
points will go straight over their heads and they wont even know what
you are talking about. But 50 % will start to get this and you see it
happen to them. Its like a light bulb coming on. ... If you dont have the
top man understanding this and rewarding people according to the right

12
Interviewee named a distinguished UK leadership education programme for senior leaders (text
redacted to protect interviewees anonymity).
13
Ibid.

63

behaviours, then you havent a hope. And we also have to develop
people from the very beginning who are aware of this. (PU/E/2)

Another interviewee emphasised the fundamental importance of educating
officers, from initial training onwards, as to the importance of values and
standards, utilising the moral compass as a model to achieve this. Referring to
the moral compass, he states:

I feel very, very strongly about it. If there is nothing more important at
XXXX (name of initial officer training establishment), absolutely nothing.
It is absolutely the bedrock for the whole lot. Everything hangs on it.
(PU/A/2)

Interviewee H underlined the importance of ethics in military education and the
need to ensure that is becomes a fundamental part of officer development:

It has to be almost as fundamental as the Commissioning document
14
if
you see what I mean. It should be as fundamental as our innate
recognition of what we need to do at officer training. It should not be
something which has kind of been allowed to go its own way. It needs
gripping properly. (PU/H/3)

However, he also advises that change in ethical behaviour cannot take place
unless it is evaluated as part of the annual staff performance review process
and taken into account when selecting personal for promotion. To become
effective, ethical behaviour has to be entrenched as part of the organisational
culture:

Its all very well a Defence Strategic Leadership Programme introducing
people to this, unless we assess people on this basis, then we are
always going to get the wrong people. Its got to be part of the stock in
trade of both developing and assessing your generation after generation
of leaders. Unless we understand how to identify the necessary traits in
a strategic leader, and how to assess them, how to mentor people and
how to report on them, then an intervention at the DSLP level is not
going to change the world Im afraid. (PU/H/1)

The final interviewees comment in this section serves as a reminder of the life
and death ethical choices faced by many leaders within Defence when
employed on operational duties, and of the need to prepare them adequately to
make the right choices:

One has to recognise at the end of the day people who are involved in
the sort of thing that we are doing operationally and people face
horrendous choices. Just horrendous choices and very often with little
time to react. And so I think the other side of this coin is that having
done the best that one can to equip people with their awareness to deal

14
The Commissioning scroll is a document given to every HM Forces officer when his/her commission is
ratified on completion of initial officer training. It is the formal acknowledgement of the contract of
trust and duty between each individual officer and the Sovereign.

64

with these things, one also has to recognise that we are at the edge of
what we human beings can tolerate. Literally. Even now it needs more
recognition. (PU/E/3)

From the interviews there was a clear case established for the need for an
ethical culture within UK Defence and it was suggested that ethical and moral
leadership education is a key enabler to establishing and supporting such a
culture. Exactly what form such education and development should take is
open to debate although it has been proposed that it should be conducted
progressively, through-career, and not be restricted to formal training
interventions. It is suggested that further research will be required in this area
to ascertain the most beneficial form and incidence of education to achieve the
desired effect. Mentoring by chain of command is equally important; as is the
need for ethical behaviour to be continually monitored and reported on as part
of the annual appraisal system. Although these assessment requirements are
currently part of the staff management process across all four Services, the
degree to which they prove effective in supporting an ethical culture is likely to
be a rich area for future research.

Regarding the specific use of the study SQ model as a potential tool to aid
leadership development, the findings were inconclusive as to its suitability, as
interviewees responses were more concerned with the general need for ethical
and moral education rather than a specific device by which development might
be enacted. One interviewee referred to correspondence he had exchanged
with Professor Gillian Stamp
15
regarding the use of the Aristotles (translated
1998) ethical concept of techn, epistm and phronesis as a basis for
ethical leadership education; therefore this approach was briefly investigated as
part of the literature review.

Moving on to the remaining issues which have arisen from the research survey
findings, it is interesting to note that the importance of developing an ethical
culture is a common thread which runs between this section and the next.

4.3.6: Emerging Issues (EI).

Emerging issues were found to fall into three main areas: moral courage; blame
culture versus constructive dissent; and the need for an ethical culture shaped
from the top down.

4.3.6.1: Moral Courage. The British Army defines moral courage as
doing the right thing, not looking the other way when you know or see
something is wrong, even if it is not a popular thing to do or say. (MOD,

15
Professor Gillian Stamp, is a Fellow of the Windsor Leadership Trust and a former Director of the
Brunel Institute of Organisation and Social Studies (Bioss) a self-financing research institute founded at
Brunel University, Uxbridge. Her advisory roles have included the Archbishops Council of the Church of
England, the Scottish Government, the National Defence University in Washington DC, the Nuclear
Decommissioning Authority, HMRC, the Social Care Institute for Excellence, the Employers Forum for
Disability, the Community Action Network, the Bank of England. She now works in the private, public,
religious, military and social enterprise sectors on governance, leadership, strategy, decision-making in
uncertainty and the development of people.

65

2008a). In illustration, Interviewee I offers an example of lack of moral
courage which he suggested had a lasting effect on UK Defence:

I think our late lamented Prime Minister Tony Blair lacked moral
courage at the time of the 97/98 Defence Review when a very
good policy framework was put in place, but his Chancellor his
next door neighbour his political ally said Fine but Im not paying
for this. So the Defence Review of 97/98 which otherwise had
quite a good outcome was effectively stillborn from the outset,
and of course when life became more difficult in Iraq and
Afghanistan for the Armed Forces the serial effect of the under-
funding of the Defence Review really began to bite home. So
not doing the right thing, not insisting on the right thing was lack
of moral courage. (EI/I/1)

The need for leaders to possess and display moral courage was
reported as essential. Interviewee H likened moral courage to a bank
account where frequent deposits of morally courageous behaviour build
up a positive balance which would strengthen and support future
intention to act in a morally courageous manner:

... people say that moral courage is a bank account and I think
thats true. I think even as a very Junior Officer you are
confronted with these dilemmas and you need constantly, I think,
to ask yourself Well am I making decision A because its the
easy decision? and I think it has always been in my mind that
the more you exercise moral courage, the more you have in your
bank account. (EI/H/1)

He subsequently expands on this view to stress moral courage is a skill
acquired through practice:

And you can forgive someone in a sense taking the easy option,
the first couple of times, but you expect them to recognise for
themselves that actually with the benefit of hindsight, the easy
option was not the best option and to learn, and then gradually
they build up the confidence to say Yes, I know this is morally
difficult but Yes, thats what I think. (EI/H/2)

The need for moral courage, to do what we know is right (MOD, 2007,
p.021C), as a recurrent theme which runs through the findings of the
survey, emphasises the importance placed on it by senior leaders within
UK Defence. It is therefore imperative that moral courage should form
part of leadership education for all four Services and be embedded in
Defence organisational culture. This includes the courage to speak out
appropriately and challenge morally unsound behaviour; a concept
termed by Grint (2008) as constructive dissent, which also arose as
part of the second emerging issue, that of Blame Culture versus
Constructive Dissent.

4.3.6.2: Blame Culture vs Constructive Dissent. A blame culture is
defined as A set of attitudes such as those within a particular business
or organisation that are characterised by an unwillingness to take risks

66

or to accept responsibility for mistakes due to fear of criticism or
prosecution. (Business Dictionary, 2012) Grints (2008, p.11) concept of
constructive dissent, as opposed to destructive consent is based on
the preference for followers who are empowered, and confident in their
own sense of what is right, to be able to challenge authority when
warranted. This does not equate to subordination as such challenges
are made in a suitable manner and only when appropriate. Constructive
dissent can only be properly exercised within a responsible culture
where mutual trust exists between leaders and followers. Both of these
concepts were evident in the research survey findings. Interviewee B
reflected on whether there was a blame culture within UK Defence:

... it raised another question - to what extent is the most senior
management prepared to stand behind us? This comes back to
issues of do we have a blame culture here, do we allow people
to make mistakes, to what extent are people prepared to
support, and so on and so forth? And these I find, well they are
at heart of course moral issues, because its very easy to say its
not my fault, even when it is. Its very easy to blame someone
even when its an honest mistake just to distance oneself from
the mess. (EI/B/1)

Failure to encourage and support devolved responsibility will lead to a
blame culture. If a blame culture exists amongst the top leadership
cadre, then this will filter down and taint the whole organisation.
Interviewee H emphasises the importance of empowering subordinates
and supporting them when they exercise their own judgment:

The second point is to develop a culture which says Its Ok use
your own judgement. This is what we expect you to do. Now
that comes from the top. So this idea of saying we want you to
use your own judgement' and not therefore being continually
worried about whats going to happen to you if someone
disagrees is absolutely fundamental. ... once you get a blame
culture at the top, you will get not on my watch all the way
down, particularly at the OF4
16
level where they know they are
competing for command at the OF 4 level and if I can get
through this without a blemish then its OK. (EI/H/3)

This issue of a failure of culture, combined with a seemingly endemic
resistance to constructive dissent, is illustrated in an incident related by
Interviewee E. It concerns a very high-level meeting where institutional
culture discouraged individual challenge of a decision to move forward
on what was a highly questionable moral issue concerning a large-scale
operational military deployment. One very senior, experienced, capable
and highly responsible officer said We are not ready for Phase Three.
Reaction from the remainder of those attending was to distance

16
OF 4 (Officer Grade 4) is the NATO designation for a particular military rank level . Within the UK, OF4
equates to Commander (Royal Navy); Lieutenant Colonel (Army) and Wing Commander (Royal Air
Force).

67

themselves from the statement (perhaps for fear of censure) yet
Interviewee E believed it was obvious to all present that separating
Phase Three (reconstruction) from the fighting phase had not been
properly thought through.

... partly because of the way that people had been brought up
and partly because of the leadership culture, which is crucial,
instead of people saying Stand by, time out there is a major
issue here, what actually happened was the group think thing.
The reaction was physical in the sense round a very senior table,
with representatives from several departments, which was heads
down. I am looking at my notes Im not catching anybodys eye.
And so this particular case markedly, but it happened many
times, the real discussion was avoided. People connived in an
incomplete and perfectly considered position. Now this is a
repeating fundamental massive failure of our system. Its a
failure of individual leadership. Its a failure of the broad
leadership culture. It is a failure of a system which should
engage and encourage genuine engagement on the real issues.
(EI/E/1)

4.3.6.3. Ethical Culture Shaped from the Top Down. The final
emerging theme captures the essence of the two which preceded it, in
the need for an ethical culture in Defence which can only be developed
by those at the top of the organisation. Interviewee E suggests how it
might be accomplished:

By getting a leader at the very top who himself understands this.
... We have to allow people to be empowered and encouraged.
Encouraged, given the courage to speak their minds. But that
wont happen in the month of Sundays unless the culture will
reward people for doing that rather than killing them, and the
culture comes from the top. You can drive little pockets of better
culture but in any organisation, like in Strategic Leadership itself,
you dont get a different culture unless the top man or woman
says This is what I want. I will promote people who look like
this. I want these behaviours. (EI/E/2).

The findings of this research survey have highlighted some emerging issues
which relate directly to Research Objective Five (RO5 Make
recommendations, including directions for further research) as an area of fertile
ground for future research projects concerning ethical strategic leadership
development and practice. It has also been noted during analysis of the
research findings that some of the points raised prompted a need for further
literary review. These will be discussed in the following section.

4.4: Research Findings Conclusions

In response to research objective four (RO4 Draw conclusions) this section seeks to
draw together the findings from the both the primary and secondary literature review
with the findings from the research survey and to highlight areas of commonality and
resolve areas of conflict. The literature review emphasises the need for, and benefits
of, ethically sound leadership within UK Defence where the maintenance of core values

68

and standards uphold the ethos and moral coherence of the organisation. These
findings were confirmed by research survey findings which, from those interviewed,
emphasised the need for an ethical culture in Defence, epitomised by the presence of
ethical decision making and moral courage. Within the research survey, strong views
were expressed regarding the need for ethical leadership practice to become integral
within the organisational culture which must be enforced from the top down. Education
of strategic level leaders in the practical applications of moral philosophy, and affording
them the opportunity to fully develop moral self-awareness and a sense of their own
ethical drivers was found to be essential, by those interviewed. However, it was
suggested that such a culture would only develop to full maturity when desired
behaviours (ie ethically sound behaviour, truly aligned with core values and standards)
were properly acknowledged and rewarded. Key issues of concern were the need for
moral courage at all levels of the organisation but especially set as an example by
senior leaders; the degree to which a blame culture might exist in Defence; and the
necessity for ethical values and behaviours to be modelled by those at the top of the
organisation as the style-setters for the whole organisational culture.

With regard to the possible relevance of SQ to UK Defence strategic leadership and its
potential utility for strategic-level ethical leadership education, the four aspects of the
study SQ model were found, from this research data, to have varying degrees or
relevance. Within the Critical Existential Thinking Component (CET) the ability to
resolve ethical dilemmas through the application of critical thinking in conjunction with
awareness of ones own moral convictions was found to be highly relevant. Less
relevant was the need for this process to be informed by spiritual beliefs or the capacity
to contemplate existential issues. Personal Meaning Production (PMP) was found to
be important with a sense of service to community being a key aspect. The degree to
which this was related to a personal spiritual belief varied but was not found to be an
essential aspect of the construct, except when faced with personal danger or crisis.
With regard to Transcendental Awareness (TA), self-awareness of ones own moral
values was found to be essential, as was the ability to place experience within a wider
context, particularly when faced with ethical challenges. The need for the awareness
to be connected to spiritual or religious belief was essential for only some. Conscious
State Expansion (CSE), as the ability to enter spiritual states of consciousness at will,
was found to be the least relevant component of the model as although rhythmic
physical activity was found to be widespread there was little evidence of it enabling an
altered state of consciousness. Overall, the concept of SQ was found to be only
partially relevant to the practice of strategic leadership within UK Defence, from those
interviewed, although the elements of self-awareness of moral beliefs and the need to
have a sense of meaning in life were highly regarded. The potential utility of the SQ
model as a tool for strategic education and development was therefore found to be
inconclusive and would require additional research, ideally with a larger sample group
than was found practical for this study. As sample size was one of the limiting factors
of this study, it is appropriate to examine this, and other, limitations of the research.

4.5: Limitations of the Research

Although a full discussion of the limitations pertaining to this research is contained
within Chapter 3 of this paper, a key limitation requires emphasis at this stage of the
project. Circumstances which dictated the time available to complete this study placed
limits on the number of interview subjects deemed to be both reasonable and
manageable. In addition, the candidates selected comprised a convenience sample
and were specifically chosen for their professional involvement in strategic leadership
policy definition or delivery. This was a deliberate choice to ensure that the data

69

gained was as relevant as possible to the subject matter under investigation. For these
reasons, the researcher makes no claim to general applicability of the findings beyond
the tight focus of the study parameters. However, as exploratory research in an under
researched field, it is suggested that the original intention for this study to establish a
baseline for other researchers to build on has been achieved. The final chapter of
this study will briefly summarise the findings and conclusions reached, as a precursor
to making recommendations for further action and research.

70

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

5.1: Introduction

It has been proposed that an apparent shift in Western societys attitudes away from
the have it all decadence of the 1980s and 1990s towards a more socially
consciousness and financially straitened times of the post-millennium years has seen a
rise in demands for ethical behaviour in commerce and public life. As a microcosm
which reflects the mores of wider British society, members of the UK armed forces and
the MOD civil service reflect such opinion and are also called, as public servants, to
meet the demands of the nation. Therefore a shift towards demands for more overt
ethical behaviour and moral accountability in public bodies has implications for the way
in which those organisations, including UK Defence, are led; particularly as it is
incumbent of senior leadership to set, model and nurture an appropriate culture which
imbues the organisation they lead. Consequently, this perceived demand has an
impact on the way in which leaders within UK Defence are to be educated and
developed, especially with those who inhabit the most influential positions at the
strategic level of the organisation. This begets the question: Are we doing all we can
to ensure that our leaders are suitably equipped with the required intellectual and
emotional tools, vocabulary, and understanding to meet the ethical leadership
demands of the twenty-first century?. This study has sought to address a small part of
that question with regards to the possible utility, or otherwise, of a particular ethical and
moral concept for use within the Defence Strategic Leadership Programme (or similar
leadership education interventions) within UK Defence, namely Spiritual Intelligence
(SQ).

The aim of the research study was to conduct exploratory research in to the possible
value of the concept of SQ within a Defence leadership education context, with the aim
of utilising the research findings to inform strategic-level ethical leadership
development and education interventions, such as the Defence Strategic Leadership
Programme (DSLP), and as a foundation for further research. Specific research
objectives associated with this aim are listed below:

literature.


Defence.



This chapter seeks to summarise the findings and conclusions of the study prior to
proposing recommendation for further action and research. Finally, the researcher

71

offers a personal statement of self-reflection concerning the learning journey she has
undertaken over the duration of this study.

5.2: Research Objectives: Summary of Findings and Conclusions

This section comprises a summary of findings and conclusions which were discussed
in depth, in response to research objective four (RO4 Draw conclusions), in Chapter
Four Research Findings.

5.2.1: Research Objective One (RO1) Literature Search and Review.

a. Summary. A search and review of relevant literature was made and
the concepts of intelligence, spirituality, and leadership within a strategic
Defence context were examined. The benefits and possible
disadvantages of a spiritually intelligent workspace were discussed.
Seven theoretical approaches to SQ were examined prior to selection of
Kings (2008) Viable Model of SQ as the conceptual framework to inform
the study. The literature review was extended to encompass issues
raised during the research survey stage of the study. These included
examination of Defence ethical codes of conduct and possible
alternative tools for ethical leadership development.

b. Conclusion. In an organisation which supports spiritual belief and
religious tolerance, the reported benefits of a spiritually intelligent
workplace include improved leader effectiveness, communication,
morale, motivation, productivity, satisfaction, sense of meaning and
commitment, and decrease in absenteeism and staff turnover. The
literature review findings emphasised the need for and benefits of an
ethical culture within UK Defence.

5.2.2: Research Objective Two (RO2) Selection of Conceptual Framework.

a. Summary. The conceptual framework selected for the study, Kings
(2008) Viable Model of SQ, comprises four components: Critical
Existential Thinking (CET); Personal Meaning Production (PMP);
Transcendental Awareness (TA); and Conscious State Expansion
(CSE). King defines SQ as a set of mental capacities which contribute
to the awareness, integration, and adaptive application of the
nonmaterial and transcendent aspects of ones existence, leading to
such outcomes as deep existential reflection, enhancement of meaning,
recognition of a transcendent self, and mastery of spiritual states (2008,
p.56).

b. Conclusion. Kings model was selected as most appropriate for the
study as, of the seven models examined, it was found to be the most
holistic, representation of current thought on SQ theory. It provided
comprehensive definitions of each of the four components. Additionally,
limiting the number of components to four aided management of data
collection and analysis. Kings model also included a SQ measurement
tool (SISRI) which could be readily utilised for further research.

5.2.3: Research Objective Three (RO3) Primary Research

72

a. Summary. Primary research was conducted on a convenience
sample of nine military and civilian strategic leaders within Defence.
The survey was made through face-to-face interviews in semi-structured
format, utilising Flanagans (1954) Critical Incident Technique as a
vehicle to aid data collection. All interviews were recorded and
transcripts produced, from which data was organised and analysed for
content and theme.

b. Conclusion. Primary research findings endorsed conclusions drawn
from the literature review regarding the importance of an ethical culture
within Defence. The concept of SQ was found to be only partially
relevant to the practise of ethical strategic leadership, with most
emphasis placed on the models aspects concerning self-awareness of
moral beliefs and personal meaning production. The potential utility of
SQ as a tool for ethical leadership education was found to be
inconclusive. The exploratory nature of the research was emphasised
and confirmatory additional research, with a larger sample group called
for. However, several wider issues emerged and are important to note.
The need for progressive through-career ethical leadership education
was strongly endorsed by all survey participants. This should be
achieved through improved education in ethical decision making skills
and enhanced development of self-awareness of personal moral
imperatives. Such education was recognised to be a key enabler of
leadership effectiveness. It was recommended that its development
should not be restricted to formal education programmes as les formal
initiatives, such as mentoring, should also be utilised. Concern was
raised about whether a blame culture existed in UK Defence, with
inadequate encouragement of constructive dissent. The importance of
moral courage was found to be integral to good leadership and a key
enabler of an ethical culture, especially when exercised visibly by those
at the top of the organisation. Finally, concern was expressed that an
ethical culture could only be maintained when appropriate behaviour
was properly rewarded at all levels of the organisation, and, most
importantly, driven by those in senior leadership positions.

5.3: Recommendations

The following recommendations for action and further research are made:

1. Further research is needed to develop the conclusion of this study that
officer education programmes at all levels, which include opportunities for the
development of moral self-awareness and ethical decision making skills, would
be conducive to the maintenance of an ethical culture within UK Defence.

2. The concept of SQ should be introduced as an ethical development tool
within the Defence Strategic Leadership Programme (DSLP) on a trial basis to
allow its utility to be fully tested and evaluated.

3. Further research should be undertaken to identify and evaluate suitable
theoretical and practical tools to enable ethical development.

73

4. Further research should be undertaken to assess the ethical behaviour
of leaders at all levels (JNCO, NCO, junior officer, and senior officer, and civil
service equivalents) within Defence to establish a base line against which future
ethical leadership development can be measured.

5.4: Self-Reflection Personal Learning Journey

5.4.1: Introduction.

During the two years spent undertaking this dissertation project, I have learned
a great deal about the research process and even more about myself. Lacking
the experience of undertaking research as part of a first degree, this was my
first attempt at academic research. As expected it proved a steep learning
curve. This has been a journey of understanding both professionally and
personally which has involved heart, mind and soul (and sometimes an
aching body from long hours spent bending over a keyboard). The following
paragraphs record some of my personal reflections concerning that journey
from the selection of the research topic, through the literature review and
research phases, to data analysis issues ending with a few words concerning
lessons learned.

5.4.2: Research Topic.

Looking first at the choice of subject matter, the topic of this study spiritual
intelligence and its relationship to leadership development have both been in
my mind from the very start of my enrolment on the MSc in Defence Leadership
programme. I am passionate about enabling others to fulfil their leadership
potential and have been lucky enough to have spent several years working in
the area of leadership education in Defence, alongside academic partners who I
admire and respect. This has imbued me with a desire to extend my own
theoretical knowledge in the area of leadership in the hope that I can, in turn,
help others to gain wider understanding of this fascinating subject. The spiritual
aspect of this study has been important to me personally as it has acted as a
catalyst for my own spiritual growth. My advice to any student embarking on a
similar project is to select a research topic subject matter for which she has an
avid and abiding interest, as not only will the study become time consuming, it
will inevitably be life consuming for many months if not years.

5.4.3: Literature Review.

For me, with the topic of research decided well in advance, I was able to start
collecting related literature well in advance of the commencement of the
dissertation study period. This proved a double-edged sword. I had amassed a
large amount of study material, perhaps too much, as it was hard to keep my
interest focussed on the narrow area of spirituality and leadership which
comprised the research objectives. Other areas outside the tight confines of
spiritual intelligence and strategic leadership education beckoned enticingly and
I was too frequently drawn into the wider areas of ethics philosophy, spiritual
leadership, spirit at work, and associated leadership theories such as
Greenleafs Servant Leadership and Avolios Authentic Leadership. I had to
learn to be ruthless in my selection of study material and keep returning to the
stated research objectives to ensure that I remained focussed. To help me
achieve this I displayed copies of the objectives in prominent places in my office

74

and home including on the fridge which helped remind me, not only of the
research aim, but of the need to focus on completing it.

5.4.4: Research Phase.

I found the production of the research proposal to be an important stage in
clarifying process by which I would undertake the study. It was fundamental to
the planning and implementation stages which followed and the time spent
crafting it proved to be wisely invested. The pilot study was invaluable in
practicing interview technique and approach to questioning. Without it I would
have started the main interviews and had to change my approach part way
through. Not ideal as I could not ask my interviewees to repeat the process.
The main interview stage went reasonably smoothly. Once selected, I
approached prospective participants directly, asking them to consider taking
part in the study. This allowed me to penetrate the protective ring of outer office
staff easily when I made a formal request to individuals to be interviewed. I
found that recording the interviews was essential. Due to my partial deafness, it
took all my concentration to listen (and lip read) which meant that taking notes
was not an option. Subsequently, tapes required transcription by a third party
as, without the benefit of lip reading, they were very difficult for me to decipher.

5.4.5: Data Analysis Issues.

I am aware that the analysis of the transcripts brought forth more issues than I
had initially set out to investigate. All interviewees were passionate about the
need for an ethical culture within the MOD and most were keen to contribute
their view on how this must be achieved. I felt it would have been irresponsible
to ignore such rich and valuable data and decided to capture it. I hope it will
prove a spur to further research in the particular areas outlined in the study, in
addition to a purely education and development focus.

5.4.6: I Wish.

Finally, I wish I had made better use of my supervisor. It was not through lack
of offers of support on his part, but I always seemed to be too busy to arrange
tutorials. As I now realise, that was a false economy and had I had more
regular meetings with my supervisor I think I would have been able to complete
this study in a shorter period of time and produce a finer product. Mea culpa!

75

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79

APPENDIX A

PRE-INTERVIEW BRIEF

Cranfield University

School of Defence and Security Centre for Defence Leadership and
Management

Leadership and Management Division Leadership Research Project

The purpose of this research is to inform current review and development of the
Defence Strategic Leadership Programme, and allied education interventions, with
regard to leadership and decision making when faced with moral dilemmas. The
research will assist in evaluating the relevance to Defence of current academic theory
in this area.

During the research interview I will ask you to describe an incident or event concerning
a moral dilemma that you were personally involved in, or a situation you observed,
where you witnessed either exceptional leadership or very poor leadership. You may
find it useful to consider your choice of incident or situation prior to the
interview.

From the data gathered I will conduct thematic analysis to establish patterns and
differences that either support or disconfirm academic theory. This will then be used to
gauge the relevance and value of the theoretical model to leadership defence in a
strategic Defence context.

The interview will last approximately 30-45 minutes and, with your agreement, I will
record our discussions. Interviews will be conducted and analysed in a manner that
ensures anonymity. If you require additional information my contact details are:

(Contact details supplied on original)

80

APPENDIX B
DATA ANALYSIS EXTRACTS

In order to protect Interviewee anonymity, the full text of the interview transcripts and Data Analysis Extracts cannot be included with this document
but are available, on request, only to the Dissertation Supervisors, and other authorised persons (such as an external marker, or qualification
awarding body) as agreed by the primary Dissertation Supervisor. For illustration purposes, an example copy of the data analysis extract
format is included in this appendix.

Interview Ident:
Ref Transcript Quote Page Notes
C
E
T

P
M
P

T
A

C
S
E

P
U

81

E
I

82

APPENDIX C
INTERVIEW DATA SUMMARY TABLE

Theme
Interviewee Ident Reference
Row
Total
Notes
A B C D E F G H I
CET A1,A2,A3 B1,B2,B3 D1 F1,F2 G1 H1,H2 I1 14

PMP B1 C1/C2 D1,D2,D3 H1 I1 8

TA
E1,E2,E3,
E4,E5
H1,H2 I1,I2,I3 9

CSE B1 C1, C2 D1 E1 F1 I1,I2 7

PU A1,A2 D1 E1,E2,E3 F1 H1,H2,H3 I1 12

EI E1 B1 D1,D2
E1,E2,E3,
E4
G1

H1,H2,H3,
H4,H5,H6,
H7,H8
I1 18
Emerging Issues include:
1. Moral Courage:
H1,H2,I1.
2. Blame Culture vs
Constructive Dissent:
H3,B1,E1,E3.
3. Need for ethical culture
shaped from top down:
E2,H3,H8.

83

APPENDIX D
MAIN STUDY INTERVIEW FRAMEWORK

Explain reason for interview: Leadership research, looking to personal views of senior
leaders in Defence, particularly with regard to situations, events and conundrums where a
moral dilemma is concerned.

The outcome of the research will be used to inform the future development of the Defence
strategic Leadership Programme, and other leadership education initiatives.

To do this, I will ask you to describe a particular incident and how you perceived it.

The interview is planned to take approximately 30-45 minutes (but Im happy to chat for as
long as you can spare the time)

Reconfirm CONFIDENTIALITY & ANONYMITY

Explain about electric ears (personal induction hearing loop)
Ask permission to tape (TURN TAPE (x2) ON!)
Put watch where you can see it. Note time.

Refer to single page pre-brief

Primary Question:

From your experience, please will you describe an incident or an event concerning a
moral dilemma that you were personally involved in, or a situation you observed, where
you witnessed either exceptional leadership or very poor leadership.

Supplementary Questions (use as required):

Why did you select this example?

What impact did that have on you as a leader?

What do you consider to be the main learning point from this experience?

Please explain the moral conflict as you saw it

(Think about how this shows personal values and philosophy)

Additional questions to obtain views on the value of ethical leadership education &
development

Do you have any other comments you would like to add?

On completion: Thank interviewee. TURN OFF RECORDER

Disclaimer

The views expressed in this paper are entirely and solely those of the
author and do not necessarily reflect official thinking and policy either of
Her Majestys Government or of the Ministry of Defence.

Published by Defence Academy of the United Kingdom
Tel: (+44) 1793 314828
Email: admin.hq@defenceacademy.mod.uk
http://www.da.mod.uk/publications

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Spiritual Intelligence: is it relevant to ethical leadership

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