Foreword.

A friend of mine, who has taken the trouble to critically read the manuscript of this book, he wrote
to me when he reached the middle of her: "This is the second chapter of a row I read with interest
the exciting, but also with a growing sense of insecurity. hy, because they do not see a clear
connection with the whole. Then you must help me. " The criticism was !uite fair, and this preface
is written to at the outset to explain to the reader, for what purpose, and the entire book is written
in a way connected to this end, there are separate chapters.
In the book, it is about aggression, that is, the instinct of struggle directed against fellow human
mind in animals and humans. The decision to write it was the result of accidental coincidence of
two factors. I was in the "nited #tates. First, in order to read the psychologists, psychoanalysts
and psychiatrists lectures on comparati$e ethology, physiology and beha$ior, and secondly, to
test the in $i$o on the coral reefs off the coast of Florida, the hypothesis about the combat
beha$ior of certain fish and their functions for color conser$ation of the species, % a hypothesis
built on a!uarium obser$ations. In American hospitals for the first time I had a chance to talk to
the psychoanalysts, for which Freud&s doctrine was not a dogma but a working hypothesis, as it
should be in any science. ith this approach, it was clear many of the things that first made me
an ob'ection because of excessi$e boldness theories of #igmund Freud. In discussions about the
instincts of his teachings were re$ealed unexpected results match the beha$ior and physiology of
psychoanalysis. (atches significant 'ust because these disciplines are different and asking
!uestions, and research methods, and % most importantly % the basis of induction.
I was expecting to insurmountable differences o$er the concept of "death instinct," which %
according to one of Freud&s theories % is opposed to all life%affirming instincts as destructi$e
principle. This hypothesis alien biology terms ethologist is not only unnecessary, but also
incorrect. Aggression, the manifestations of which are often identified with the manifestations of
"death instinct" % it&s the same instinct, like e$erybody else, and in $i$o as well as they ser$e to
maintain the life and appearance. The man, who by their own labor too !uickly changed their
li$es, the aggressi$e instinct often leads to disastrous conse!uences, but similar % though not as
dramatically % it is with other instincts. )a$ing started to defend his point of $iew in front of friends,
psychoanalysts, I was suddenly in the position of a man who was breaking into the open door. *n
many examples of !uotes from Freud&s papers, they showed me how little he relied on his
dualistic hypothesis of the death instinct, which he % a true thinker with coins and mechanistically
researcher % had to be fundamentally alien.
#hortly after I had studied in $i$o warm sea coral fish, for which the $alue of aggression for the
conser$ation of the species is not in doubt % and then I wanted to write this book. +thology now
knows so much about the natural history of aggression, which is permissible to speak about the
reasons for certain breaches of this instinct in humans. To understand the cause of the disease %
does not mean to find an effecti$e way to treat it, but this understanding is a prere!uisite for
treatment.
I feel that my writing skills are not sufficient to perform the tasks standing before me.
It is almost impossible to describe in words how the system works, in which each element is a
complex causal relationships with the others. +$en if the de$ice is to explain to a car engine % and
then you do not know where to start. ,ecause it is impossible to learn about the work of the
crankshaft, with no idea of connecting rods, pistons, cylinders, $al$es ... etc. etc.
The indi$idual elements of the o$erall system can be understood only in their interaction,
otherwise it is impossible to understand anything at all.
And the more complex the system % the harder it is to explore and explain, the structure of
interactions between instincti$e and socially conditioned beha$iors that make up the social life of
man is undoubtedly a complex system, which we only know the world. In order to clarify the few
causal relationships that I can not % I think % to trace in this ma-e of interactions $oleyne$oley I
ha$e to start from a distance. Fortunately, all of the obser$ed facts in themsel$es are interesting.
It is hoped that the battle of coral fish due to hunting grounds, instincts and constraints at the
beginning of social animals that resemble human morality, unfeeling family and social life )eron,
horrific mass slaughter of gray rats and other striking examples of animal beha$ior will keep the
reader&s attention until the until he comes to the understanding of the underlying relationships.
I try to bring it to this, if possible, in exactly the same way as was I, and I do it out of principle.
Inducti$e science always begins with an unbiased obser$ation of indi$idual facts, and from them
is transferred to the abstraction of general laws, which are sub'ect to these facts. In most
textbooks, for the sake of bre$ity and greater a$ailability, are on the way back and preface of
"special parts" % "general". In this presentation of wins in the sense of $isibility of the sub'ect but
loses in credibility. +asy and simple to compose a theory first, and then "back up" its facts,
because nature is so di$erse that if a good look % you can find con$incing%looking examples,
supporting e$en the most senseless hypothesis.
(y book will only be truly con$incing if the reader % on the basis of the facts which I will describe
him % he will come to the same conclusions as to how I came.
,ut I can not demand that he recklessly mo$ed on so thorny path because here draw up a sort of
guide, describing briefly the contents of the chapters.
In the first two chapters, I begin by describing the simple obser$ations of typical forms of
aggressi$e beha$ior, then mo$e on to the third chapter of its $alue for the conser$ation of the
species, and in the fourth talking about the physiology of instinctual manifestations in general and
particularly aggressi$e % enough to become clear of their spontaneity uncontrollable, repetiti$e
rhythmic breakthroughs. In the fifth chapter I clarify the process of rituali-ation and isolation of
new instinctual impulses that arise in the course of this process % to clarify the extent that this is
necessary in the future to understand the role of these new instincts in deterring aggression. The
same purpose is the sixth chapter, which pro$ides a general o$er$iew of the interactions of
different instinctual dri$es. The se$enth chapter is illustrated with specific examples, what
mechanisms "in$ented" the e$olution to direct aggression in a safe direction, what role in this task
plays a ritual, and how similar arise in this form of beha$ior to those that are dictated by the
person responsible morality. These chapters pro$ide the prere!uisites for, so you can understand
the operation of the four $ery different types of social organi-ation.
The first type % a flock of anonymous, free from any kind of aggression, but at the same time
de$oid of self%awareness and personal, community and indi$iduals.
The second type % family and social life, based only on the local structure of the protected areas,
like the night heron and other birds that nest in colonies.
The third type % a giant rat family, whose members do not distinguish between each other
personally, but recogni-ed by the smell and the sister show to one another exemplary loyalty, but
with any rat that belongs to another family, they are fighting a fierce hatred of the party. Finally,
the fourth type of social organi-ation % is one in which personal bonds of lo$e and friendship do
not allow community members to fight and in'ure each other. This form of community in many
ways similar to the human, described in detail on the example of gray geese.
It must be assumed that, after what has been said in the first ele$en chapters, I could not explain
why a number of $iolations of human instinct of aggression, chapter ./ % "Teaching humility" % to
create new prere!uisites for this by remo$ing some internal resistance, pre$ents many people
see themsel$es as a part of the uni$erse and to recogni-e that their own beha$ior is also sub'ect
to the laws of nature. This resistance is laid, firstly, the negati$e attitude to the concept of
causality, which seems to contradict the free will, and secondly, in the spirit of human conceit.
.0th chapter is to ob'ecti$ely show the current state of humanity, about the way he would see it,
say, biologist (artian. In the .1th chapter, I&m trying to suggest possible actions against those
$iolations instinct of aggression, the causes of which I think are already clear.
.. 2rologue to the sea.
)ey, boy3 In the sea, among the motions
#tart your long 'ourney of becoming.
4ontent with a simple creature like the sea,
#wallow the other, weaker, and -hirey,
#uccessfully eaten off, and prosperity,
5radually Impro$e your $iew.
5oethe
A long%time dream % flying % came true: I was floating weightlessly in the in$isible en$ironment and
easily glide o$er the sunny plain. In this case, do not mo$e as much as a decent person would
consider, philistine concerned propriety % belly forward and head up % and in a position
consecrated the ancient custom of all $ertebrates with his back to the sky and head forward. If
you want to look forward % you ha$e to arch his neck, and it is a nuisance like that I, in fact, the
occupant of another world. )owe$er, I do not want or want is $ery rare, as befits a scholar of land,
I look down for the most part, that is beneath me.
",ut down there is terrible and people should not tempt the gods % and should ne$er try to see
what they graciously harbor at night and the darkness." ,ut since they do not, once they are %
!uite the opposite % sending gracious rays of the sun to bestow the animals and plants in all
colors of the spectrum % the man certainly should stri$e to get there, and I recommend it to
e$eryone, at least once in their li$es, is not too old. To do this, a man needs a mask and snorkel %
in the extreme case, if it really is $ery important, e$en a pair of rubber fins % so money for the trip
to the (editerranean or Adriatic, unless the tailwind did not stretch it e$en further to the south.
ith ex!uisite negligence mo$ing his fins, I slip on a fabulous landscape. This is not a real coral
reefs with their riotous li$ing dissected terrain of mountains and canyons, and less impressi$e, but
by no means least populated the bottom surface near the shore of one of those islands,
composed of coral limestone % the so%called 4ase % which are long%chain ad'acent to the southern
tip the Florida peninsula. At the bottom of coral pebbles e$erywhere sit outlandish hemisphere
coral%mo-go$iko$, less fre!uently % richly branched bushes branching corals, wa$ing plumes of
horny corals, or gorgonians, and between them % you will not see this on a coral reef on the ocean
% swaying seaweed, brown, red and yellow. At a great distance from each other are enormous
sponges, thick girth and height of a table, the ugly, but the correct form, as if made by human
hands. 6ifeless rocky bottom not seen anywhere else: the whole area around is filled with a
dense undergrowth of bryo-oans, sponges and gidropolipo$, purple and orange%red species
co$er the bottom of the big spots, and many of these colorful mounds co$ered I do not know % it&s
animals or plants.
ithout effort, I gradually comes up to the lesser depth, coral becomes smaller, but more plants.
,elow me spread out the $ast forests of charming algae, which ha$e the same shape and the
same proportion as the African umbrella acacia, and this similarity is downright imposing illusion
that I did not soar abo$e the Atlantic coral bottom at head height, and hundreds of times higher %
on +thiopian sa$anna. ,elow me float away into the distance wide fields of sea grass % in a field
of grass and dwarf smaller % and when the water below me is a little more than a meter % when
you look forward, I see a long, dark, une$en wall that extends to the left and to the right as far as
the eye can see, and e$enly fills the gap between the mirror and the illuminated bottom water
surface. This % $ery significant boundary between sea and land, shore 6ignum 7itae 4ay, Island
Tree of 6ife.
Around becomes much more fish. They fly do-ens beneath me, and it again reminds aerial
photographs of Africa, where herds of wild animals flee in all directions before the shadow of the
aircraft. 8earby, on the lush meadows of eelgrass, funny fat fish balls strikingly resemble
partridges, which flutter o$er the field from the ears to flying a little bit, to di$e back into them.
*ther fish do the opposite % are hiding in the seaweed directly under him as soon as I walk up.
(any of them are the most incredible colors, but with all the di$ersity of their paints are combined
perfectly. Thick "porcupine" with ama-ing de$il horns o$er ultramarine eyes is !uite calm,
grinning, I ha$e it done nothing wrong.
,ut to me one of his relati$es did: a few days before I inad$ertently took a small fish 9Americans
call it "spiked boxes":, and it is % my parrot beak of the two teeth that grow toward each other and
sharp as a ra-or % without 6abour plucked me from a finger decent piece of skin. I di$e to that
seen 'ust copy % reliable, cost%effecti$e way herding ducks in shallow water, raising the water back
% gently grab it and go up the small upstairs with him. First he tries to bite, but soon reali-es the
seriousness of the situation and is starting to inflate. )and, I distinctly feel like "working piston of
the" little pump % swallowing muscles of fish. hen it reaches the limit of elasticity of the skin and
turns in my hand in the tight inflated balloon sticking out in all directions spikes % I let go of her
and amuse amusing haste with which she spits out the excess water and disappears into the sea
grass.
Then I turn to the wall that separates the sea from the land here. At first glance, you might think
that it is tuff % so intricately pitted the surface, many $oids are looking at me, black and
bottomless, like eye sockets of skulls. In fact, this rock % the skeleton, the balance pre%glacial
coral reef died during glaciation sangammonskogo being abo$e sea le$el. The whole rock is
composed of the remains of corals of the same species which sur$i$e today, among those
remains % shell clams, li$e and relati$es who now inhabit these waters. )ere we are at two reefs:
the old, who has been dead for thousands of years, and the new, growing on the corpse of the
old. 4orals % as ci$ili-ation % usually grow on the skeletons of their predecessors.
I swim to the pitted wall, and then along it until you find a comfortable, not too sharp ledge, for
which you can grab a hand to get up next to him on the anchor. In the mar$elous weightlessness
in perfect cool, but not cold, like a $isitor in dreamland, re'ecting all earthly cares, I gi$e myself a
gentle swaying of the wa$es, I forget about myself and the entire address in sight: animated,
enthusiastic tethered balloon3
Around me on all sides of fish, shallow almost entirely fine. They swim with curiosity to me % from
a distance or from hiding to ha$e time to hide at my approach % again shy ago, when I "cough" on
his pipe % a sharp exhalation pushing out of her accumulated condensate and water which fell
outside ... ,ut once again breathe calmly and !uietly % they are returning. #oft wa$es of swaying
them synchronously with me, and I % from the fullness of his classical education % remember: ";ou
are once again close, flimsy creations< *nce, $aguely, I do see you ... ,ut if I ha$e more desire to
grab you, as I wanted to last time< " It was on the first time I saw the fish % yet is actually $ery
$ague % some general patterns of animal beha$ior, at first they did not understand, but the desire
to comprehend them in this life, dream about it % e$erlasting3 =oologist, as an artist, ne$er tired in
his bid to capture life in all its fullness and $ariety of its forms.
The $ariety of forms that surround me here % some of them are so close that I can not see them
clearly been sighted with their own eyes % at first it seems o$erwhelming. ,ut after a while the
faces around getting dearer and imaginati$e perception % that wonderful tool of human cognition %
is beginning to embrace the di$ersity of the surrounding faces. And then it turns out that around
though $ery different species, but not as much as initially thought. From the way they appear, the
fish immediately di$ided into two different categories: one swim in packs, mostly from the sea or
along the rocky shore, others % when is panic caused by my appearance % slowly and carefully
chosen out of the hole or another shelter, and always % alone > *n these I already know that the
same fish can always % e$en after a few days or weeks % to meet in the same place. All the while I
was on the island ?ay 6argo, I regularly e$ery few days, $isiting one ama-ingly beautiful fish%
butterfly in her home under the $iaduct harbor, capsi-ed by )urricane @onna % and always found
her home.
*ther schools of fish roam from place to place, they can be found here and there. These include
the $ast flocks of small sil$ery aterinok % ears, "$arious small herring li$ing near the coast, and
their dangerous enemies % the rapid gars, a little farther under the gangway, mooring and drop%
offs are going to the coast of thousands of green%gray snappers, and #napper % among many
others % pretty krasnorotiki, which the Americans call "5rant" 9"curmudgeon": because of the
sound, which is published by the fish when it is remo$ed from the water. particularly common and
are especially beautiful sinepoloschatye, white and -heltopoloschatye krasnorotiki, these names
are chosen unsuccessful, as the color of all three species is composed of blue and yellow, but in
different combinations. According to my obser$ations, they often swim together in mixed flocks.
5erman name of the fish comes from the garish, bright red color of the mucous membranes of
the mouth, which is $isible only in that case, if the fish is threatened by his kinsman wide%open
mouth, to which he responds in the same way. )owe$er, neither the sea, nor the a!uarium I&$e
ne$er seen these impressi$e mutual threats ha$e led to a serious fight.
4harmingly fearless curiosity, which follow the bright krasnorotiki di$er, as well as many snapper,
often flying with them. 2erhaps they 'ust accompany the peaceful large fish or almost 9<: Already
extinct % alas3 % (anatees, the legendary sea cows, hoping to catch a small fish or other small
animals that scare big game. hen I first floated out of his "home port" % a breakwater at the
motel, "?ay%)ey$n" in Ta$ernier on the island ?ay 6argo % I was blown away by the incredible
number of grunts and snapper that surrounded me so tightly that I could not see anything around.
And no matter where I was swimming % they were e$erywhere, all at the same incredible
numbers.
*nly gradually dawned on me that this is the same fish that they accompany me, e$en at a
conser$ati$e estimate, there were se$eral thousand. If I was sailing parallel to the coast to the
next pier, located about se$en hundred meters, the flock followed me until about half way and
then suddenly and rapidly unfolding take home. hen my approach noticed the fish that li$ed
under the following 'etty % out of the darkness under the footbridge towards me took off a terrifying
monster. A few meters wide, about the same height, length is many times more % under it on a
sunlit day dense black shadow % and only close it disintegrated in countless mass of the same
friendly krasnorotiko$. hen it happened the first time % I was scared to death3 6ater on 'ust these
fish began to cause me !uite the opposite sense: as long as they are close by, you can be
completely calm, which is not anywhere near big barracuda.
Auite differently organi-ed deft little robber%gars that hunt at the surface of the water in small
groups of fi$e or six pieces each. As thin as twigs, they are almost in$isible on my part, because
of their sil$er sides reflect light the same way as the bottom surface of the air, more familiar to us
all in his second incarnation as the surface of the water. )owe$er, when $iewed from abo$e, they
cast a gray%green, 'ust like water, so it is e$en more difficult to notice them, perhaps, than at the
bottom. Turning into a wide range, they comb the top layer of water and prey on tiny aterinok,
"serebryanok" that hang in a myriad of water, thick as snowflakes in a bli--ard, gleaming like
sil$er gimp. I ha$e these chips are not afraid % for my si-e fish they prey % I can sail right through
their flocks, and they almost did not step aside, so that I sometimes in$oluntarily hold my breath
so as not to tighten them down his throat, as is often the case if you&re dealing with the same
cloud of mos!uitoes. I breathe through a tube into a different en$ironment, but the reflex remains.
)owe$er it is necessary to approach the tiniest 5arBar % sil$er fish instantly scatter in all
directions. @own, up, e$en popping out of the water, so that a second creates a large space free
from the sil$er flakes, which gradually filled only when hunters fade away.
8o matter how different loggerhead like groupers and snapper grumblers from thin, elongated,
sweeping needlefish % they ha$e a common feature: they do not de$iate too much from the
traditional $iew that communicates with the word "fish." ith the sedentary inhabitants of the
normal is not the case. (agnificent blue "angel" with yellow hori-ontal stripes adorning his
youthful outfit, perhaps e$en possible to calculate the "normal fish." ,ut there seemed something
in the gap between the two blocks of limestone: $raskachku strange mo$ements, back and forth,
a $el$et%black dial with bright yellow semi%circular ribbons across and radiant ultramarine border
along the bottom edge % fish at all< *r these two create, furiously rushed past, the si-e of a
bumblebee and the same round, dark eyes, fringed with blue stripe, and those eyes % on the rear
third of the body< *r a small gem, sparkling out from the mink % a body he di$ided diagonally,
front%to%back and up from the bottom, the boundary of two bright colors, $iolet%blue and lemon
yellow< *r this incredible piece of dark blue sky, studded with blue fire, which appears due to the
coral boulders directly below me, paradoxically per$erting all spatial concepts< 4ertainly, at a
closer look it turns out that all of these fabulous creatures % !uite decent fish, and they are in the
not so distant relationship with my long%time friends and co%workers, snappers. "=$e-dnik"
9"Cewel Fish" % "fish%5em": and a fish with a blue back and head with a yellow belly and tail 9",o
5regory" % "5risha%handsome": % all these and e$en close relati$es.
The orange%red bee % a cub of fish which the locals with good reason called the "rock beauty"
9"beautiful rock":, and black%and%yellow disc % young black "angel." ,ut what kind of paint3 And
what an incredible combination of these colors3 ;ou&d think they were deliberately chosen to be as
noticeable as far away, like a banner, or % more precisely % the poster.
#ways me immense mirror beneath me starry sky, though tiny, I&m weightless de%stress in a
transparent en$ironment, surrounded by a teeming swarm of angels, absorbed in contemplation,
re$erently admired the beauty of his creation, and % thanks to the 4reator, I am still !uite able to
obser$e the essential details. And then notice about me is this: in fish or dull, like krasnorotiko$,
pastel painting I almost always see many or at least some members of the same species at the
same time, they often swim with huge, dense flocks. Instead of brightly colored species in my
field of $iew is only one blue and one black "angel", a "pretty boy" and a "gem", but two babies
"rock beauties" who 'ust ran past, one with the greatest fury was chasing another .
Although water is warm from the fixed aerostat life I&m starting to free-e, but watch next. And then
I notice the distance % and this e$en in $ery clear water only .D%./ meters % another pretty boy
who is slowly approaching, apparently in search of food. 6ocal handsome stranger sees much
later than I had with my obser$ation tower, up to a stranger is four meters. At the same moment
with unprecedented fury local charges at the stranger, and although that bigger hitter, he
immediately turns around and runs away struggling wild -ig-ags, to which the attacker forces him
to an exceedingly serious ramming attack, each of which would ha$e caused serious in'ury if it hit
the target. At least one still got % I see the sinks shiny flake, circling like a fallen leaf. hen a
stranger hiding away in the blue%green twilight, the winner immediately returns to his burrow.
)e floats peacefully through the dense crowd of young krasnorotiko$, feeding near the entrance
to his ca$e, and utter indifference with which he a$oids these fish suggests that for him they
mean no more than pebbles or other non%essential and inanimate interference. +$en the little
blue angel, !uite similar to it, and the form and color, does not cause him the slightest hostility.
#hortly thereafter, I see exactly the same in e$ery detail, the hassle of two black angel fish, barely
the si-e of a finger. This clash, perhaps e$en more dramatic: it seems e$en more bitterness hitter
e$en more ob$ious panic fleeing alien % although this may be because my slow human eye
caught the better angels of mo$ement than krasa$chiko$ who played his play too fast .
5radually comes to my mind that I was already really cold. And until I get out on the coral wall in
the warm air under the golden sun of Florida, I formulate what you ha$e seen in a few short rules:
,right, "a poster" painted fish % all settled.
*nly at them I saw that they were defending a certain area. Their fierce animosity directed only
against the like, I ha$e not seen a fish of different species attacked each other, no matter how
aggressi$e each of them.
/. 4ontinuing in the laboratory.
hat can not be taken in hand % in order for you not,
ith what you disagree % that one lie and nonsense
hat you did not weigh % nonsense should be considered,
hat is minted % that if there is no price.
5oethe
In the pre$ious chapter I made a poetic license. #ilent about that, a!uarium obser$ations, I
already knew how fiercely struggling with similar bright coral fish, and that I already had a
preliminary idea about the biological significance of this struggle. I went to Florida to test his
hypothesis. If the facts contradict her % I was ready to immediately throw it o$erboard. *r, better
said, was ready to spit it out into the sea through a breathing tube: it is difficult to throw anything
o$erboard, when you float in the water. And in general % there is no better charging for the
researcher than e$ery morning before breakfast shake up your fa$orite hypothesis. ;outh sa$es.
hen, a few years before, he began to study in an a!uarium with colorful fish of coral reefs, I was
attracted not only aesthetic pleasure from their enchanting beauty % was drawn and the "flair" to
the interesting biological problems. First of all, it begs the !uestion: why is it that these fish are so
bright<
hen biologist puts the !uestion in this form % "for what<" % It does not seek to understand the
deeper meaning of the uni$erse in general, and in particular the phenomenon: the !uestion is
much more modest % he wanted to know something !uite simple in principle, always amenable to
study. +$er since, thanks to 4harles @arwin, we know about the historical de$elopment of the
organic world % and e$en some of the reasons for it % the !uestion "why<" for us means something
!uite specific. 8amely % we know that the reason for the change is the shape of the organ its
function. The best % always the enemy of the good. If a minor is itself random, inherited $ariation
does any body a little better and more effecti$e, the support of this feature and its descendants
make their less gifted brethren such competition, which they can not sur$i$e. #ooner or later, they
disappear from the face of the +arth. This ubi!uitous process called natural selection. #election %
is one of the two great designers of e$olution, the second of which % pro$iding material for
selection % is the $ariability, or mutation, the existence of which @arwin postulated a brilliant
insight at a time when its existence has not been pro$en.
All the great $ariety of complex and purposeful designs of animals and plants of all kinds owe
their origin to the work of patient $ariability and selection o$er many millions of years. In doing so,
we are con$inced now more than @arwin himself, and % as we shall see % with good reason. #ome
may be disappointed that the di$ersity of life forms % whose harmonic proportionality is our awe
and admire the beauty of the aesthetic sense % there was such a prosaic and, most importantly,
causal way. ,ut the scientist does not tire of admiring it that 8ature creates all of its high $alue,
ne$er breaking their own laws.
*ur !uestion is "why<" may be a reasonable response only if both of the great designer worked
together, as we mentioned abo$e. It is e!ui$alent to that of the function of ser$ing as conser$ation
of the species. hen the !uestion, "hy cats sharp cur$ed claws<" % e answer: "To catch mice"
% it does not say anything about our commitment to the metaphysical teleology, but only means
that catching mice is a special feature, the importance of which for the conser$ation of the
species in all cats de$eloped this form of claws. The same !uestion can not find a reasonable
answer, if the $ariability, acting by itself, leads to a purely random results. If, for example, in
chickens and other domesticated animals, which protects a person, except a natural selection in
color, you can find all sorts of colorful and mottled colors % here is meaningless to ask what these
animals are painted this way and not otherwise. ,ut if we meet in the highly speciali-ed nature of
the right of education, it is extremely unlikely 'ust because of their proportionality % as, for
example, the complex structure of feathers or some instincti$e way of beha$ior % a coincidence of
their occurrence can be excluded. )ere, we ha$e to wonder what kind of selection pressure has
led to the emergence of these entities, in other words % what they are for. ,y asking this !uestion,
we ha$e the right to hope for a reasonable answer, because I had recei$ed such answers !uite
often, and with sufficient diligence to in!uire of % almost always. And nothing can change those
few exceptions where the study was not gi$en % or ha$e not yet been gi$en % the answer to this
most important of all biological !uestions. hy, for example, need a shellfish ama-ing shape and
colors of shells< After all, their relati$es ha$e been unable to see them his weak eyes, e$en if
they were not hidden % as often happens % the folds of the mantle, but still co$ered with darkness
of the deep sea.
5arishly bright colors of coral fish re!uire explanation. hat $idosohranyayuschaya function
caused their appearance<
I bought the brightest fish, which he could find, and for comparison % se$eral types of less $i$id,
including a simple and camouflaged. Then I made an unexpected disco$ery: the o$erwhelming
ma'ority of really bright coral fish % "a poster" or "flag" colors % absolutely impossible to keep in a
small a!uarium, more than one indi$idual of each species. As soon as the a!uarium a few fish of
one species, as shortly after fierce battles in the li$ing remained only the strongest. The strongest
impression on me in Florida repetition in the open sea is the same picture, which is regularly
obser$ed in my tank after the deadly struggle: one fish of a certain species peacefully coexist with
other fish species, such as bright, but other colors % and of all other species too, there is only one.
A small pier, close to my apartment, got on a nicest way "handsome", one black "angel" and a
"mottled butterfly". The peaceful cohabitation of two indi$iduals of the same species of poster
colors can be applied only to the fish that li$e in a stable marriage, as many birds. These married
couples I obser$ed in $i$o in blue "Angels" and "2retty ,oy", and in an a!uarium % in brown and
belo-heltyh ",utterfly." #pouses in such pairs truly inseparable, and it is interesting that in relation
to other relati$es they show e$en greater hostility than single instances of their kind. hy this is
so, we will deal with later.
In the open sea the principle of "two of a kind % not a couple" is bloodless: the loser runs from the
territory of the winner, who will soon cease the persecution. ,ut in an a!uarium where there is no
place to run, the winner is often immediately finishes the $an!uished. At least it takes the entire
pool as their own possession and in the future so plagues the rest of constant attacks that are
growing much more slowly, its ad$antage is becoming more significant % and so to the tragic
outcome.
To obser$e the beha$ior of a normal mutual owners of pri$ate land, it is necessary to ha$e a large
enough pool, where they could fit into the territory of at least two indi$iduals studied species.
,ecause we built the a!uarium length of /.E meters, which could accommodate more than two
tons of water, and ga$e a little fish li$ing in coastal areas, space for multiple territories.
Cu$eniles ha$e a poster painted species almost always e$en brighter still tied to the habitat and
more $iolent adult fish, so that these tiny fishes can be good to watch the phenomena in a
relati$ely small space.
#o, in this a!uarium fishes were launched % the length from two to four centimeters % the following
species: F different types of butterfly fish, / species of angelfish, G kinds of "@emoiselle"
9pomatsentro$ group to which they belong "-$e-dniki" and " handsome ":, / species of triggerfish,
0 species of wrasse, . kind of" doctor fish "and a few others, not bright and non%aggressi$e
species, such as" ?u-o$ko$ "," balls ", etc. Thus, in the tank was about /E fish species stained a
poster, an a$erage of 1 each fish species % certain kinds of more of the other only one % and only
more than .DD indi$iduals. Fish preser$ed well, almost without loss, settled down, took heart and
% in full compliance with the program % ha$e begun to fight.
And then had the wonderful opportunity to calculate something. If the representati$e of the
"exact" science can calculate or measure something, it always feels the 'oy that the uninitiated
sometimes difficult to understand. "4an it be true nature, all for you % to count<" % Friedrich $on
#chiller asks so anxious measurements scientist. I ha$e to confess to the poet, that I myself
would ha$e known about the nature of intraspecific aggression, almost as if I did not make its
estimates. ,ut my statement that I know would ha$e been much less conclusi$e, if I had to clothe
it in words alone, ",right coral fish bite almost exclusi$ely of their relati$es." Cust bite and we
counted % and got the following result: for e$ery fish li$ing in an a!uarium, the likelihood of
accidental attack on one of its three of HI other fish is 0:HI. )owe$er, the number of bites inflicted
by relati$es, refers to the number of bites about how interspecific GE:.E. And e$en this small
number of the latter 9.E: does not reflect the true picture, because the attacks are related almost
exclusi$ely to the "@emoiselle". They are almost constantly sitting in their burrows, almost
in$isible from the outside, and $iolently attacked e$ery fish that comes close to their shelter. In
free water and they ignore any other fish species. If we exclude this group from this experiment %
which, incidentally, we did % then produced an e$en more impressi$e numbers.
Another part of the attacks on the fish of another species was to blame for the few who did not
ha$e relati$es all o$er the a!uarium and were therefore forced to $ent their anger on other
healthy properties. )owe$er, the selection of these ob'ects 'ust as con$incingly confirmed the
correctness of my assumptions as exact figures. For example, there was only one butterflyfish
species unknown to us, which both form and pattern as accurately occupied a middle position
between white and yellow and white and black species, which we immediately dubbed it white,
black and yellow. And she ob$iously fully shared our $iew of its systematic position, since their
attacks shared almost e!ually between representati$es of these species. e ne$er saw that she
was bitten by a fish of any of the third kind. 2erhaps e$en more interesting beha$ed blue
triggerfish % is also the only one we ha$e % which in 6atin is called "black odonus."
The -oologist, who ga$e this name could only see the discolored corpse of the fish in formalin,
because she does not li$e black, and bright blue, with a delicate shade of purple and pink,
especially on the edges of the fins. hen the company "erner Andreas" came batch of these
fish % from the beginning I only bought one, the battles that they ha$e undertaken more in the pool
store to anticipate that my big fish tank is too small for two shestisantimetro$yh stalwarts of the
breed. For lack of cousins, my blue triggerfish initially beha$ed peacefully enough, though, and
ga$e a few bites, meaningful way di$iding them between the two completely different species.
First, he pursued a so%called "blue de$ils" % kin &bo 5regory "% like him a magnificent blue color,
and secondly % the two other species of fish triggerfish, the so%called" fish 2icasso. " As can be
seen from the amateur title of this fish, it is colored with extremely $i$id and bi-arre, so in this
sense has nothing to do with the blue triggerfish. ,ut % it is $ery similar in form. hen a few
months the strongest of the two "2icasso" posted the weakest fish in the "other world" % in
formalin % between rest and blue triggerfish came an intense ri$alry. Aggressi$eness last towards
the "2icasso" undoubtedly intensified by the fact that during this time the blue de$ils had time to
change the bright blue color of youth to adult si-uyu and therefore less irritated him. And, in the
end, our "blue" that "2icasso" ruined. I could cite many more examples where se$eral fish taken
for the abo$e experiment, only one remained ali$e. In cases where the pairing connects two souls
into one fish % a couple li$ing remained as it was in brown and white%yellow "butterfly." It is known
a great many cases, when the animals % not 'ust fish % which in the absence of relati$es had to
endure the aggression to other ob'ects, chosen with the closest relati$es of the same species or
at least similar in coloring.
These obser$ations in the a!uarium, and their synthesis % no doubt pro$e the rule set and my
obser$ations at sea against their brethren the fish more aggressi$e than in relation to other fish
species.
)owe$er % as is e$ident from the beha$ior of different fish at large, described in the first chapter %
there are a considerable number of species, not nearly as aggressi$e as coral fish, which I ha$e
studied in their experiment. It is necessary to imagine a different fish, !uarrelsome and more or
less li$able % immediately suggests the idea of a close relationship between their color,
aggressi$eness and sedentary. Among the fish that I ha$e seen in the wild, extreme militancy,
combined with sedentary and directed against relati$es, found only in those forms in which the
bright colors superimposed large poster%spots, their species is already a considerable distance.
As already stated, it is this $ery characteristic color and pi!ued my curiosity, natolknu$ to the
existence of some kind of problem.
Freshwater fish are also $ery beautiful, $ery bright, in this regard, many of which are not inferior
to the sea, so that the difference is not in the beauty % in the other. (ost striking of freshwater fish
special charm of their fabulous colors is its impermanence. #peckled perch, whose color
determined their 5erman name, labyrinth fish, many of which are still superior to those colorful
perch, red%green%blue%spined stickleback and rainbow oxtongue our waters % as well as a great
many other species known to ha$e a!uariums at home % all they brighten their clothes only when
fired the spirit of lo$e and struggle. (any of these color can be used as an indicator of the mood %
i$e any gi$en moment to determine the extent to which they argue for the primacy of aggression,
sexual arousal and desire to escape. As the rainbow disappears, barely a cloud closes the sun,
so goes the magnificence of these fish, barely subsided excitement that was his reason, or gi$e
way to fear that once en$eloped the fish in an inconspicuous camouflage color. In other words, all
of these fish painting is a means of expression, and appears only when needed. Accordingly, they
all 'u$eniles, and often female, painted in camouflage colors.
*therwise aggressi$e coral fish. Their gorgeous robe so constantly, as if painted on the body. And
it&s not that they are unable to change the color, and almost all of them demonstrate this ability,
going to sleep when wearing a nightgown, the colors of which the most strikingly different from
the daytime.
,ut during the day, as long as the fish are awake and acti$e, they retain their bright color poster%
at any cost. The loser who tries to escape from the pursuer desperate -ig-ags, colored with
exactly the same as the triumphant winner. They lowered their flags identifying species no more
than the ,ritish warships at sea Forster&s no$els. +$en in a shipping container % where, really,
ha$e hard times % e$en dying from the disease, they demonstrate the continued colorful splendor,
and e$en long after his death, it is still there, although in the end and fades away.
In addition, the typical poster%colored reef fish not only both sexes ha$e the same coloring, but
also !uite tiny cubs bear the gaudy%bright colors, and % what is ama-ing % $ery often !uite
different, and more $i$id than in adult fish .
And what is really !uite incredible % some forms are only bright children. For example, the abo$e
mentioned "gem" and "blue de$il" with the onset of puberty become dull bluish%gray fish with pale
yellow caudal fin.
@istribution of paints, encounters comparison with the poster 9large, contrasting spots:, coral fish
are not only the ma'ority of fresh water, but also from all generally less aggressi$e and less
sedentary fish. These we admire the subtlety of colors, elegant nuances of soft pastel colors, a
really "lo$e" attention to detail. If you look at my fa$orite krasnorotiko$ a distance, you see a
greenish%sil$er, !uite inconspicuous fish, and only looking at them up close % thanks to the
fearlessness of these curious creatures so easily and naturally % you can see gold and sky blue
characters, twisty script co$ering the entire fish, like ex!uisite brocades. ithout a doubt, this
picture is also a signal that allows to know their $iews, but it is designed so that it can see close
relati$es, floating nearby. In the same way, no doubt, poster paint territorially aggressi$e coral fish
adapted in order that they can be seen and found as far away. As recognition of its kind in these
animals causes $iolent aggression % this we already know.
(any people % including those who otherwise understands the nature % it is strange and totally
superfluous when we biologists about each spot that is $isible on any animal, immediately ask
oursel$es % what $idosohranyayuschuyu function could be performed by this spot and how natural
selection could lead to the appearance. (oreo$er, we know from experience that a lot of us put it
in the guilt as a manifestation of crass materialism, blind to the $alues and therefore worthy of all
condemnation. )owe$er 'ustified e$ery !uestion to which there is a reasonable response, and the
$alue and beauty of any natural phenomenon in no way affected if we fail to understand why it
happens this way and not otherwise. Jainbow was less than perfect from what we ha$e learned
the laws of refraction of light by which it arises.
Ama-ing beauty and accuracy of drawings, colors and mo$ements of our fish can cause us to
ha$e a greater admiration when we learn that they are essential for the conser$ation of the
species they decorated li$ing beings. Cust about the great war paint coral fish we already know
!uite firmly, what specific role it performs: it causes the neighbor % and only he % a furious rush to
the defense of their land, if it is on its own territory, and eerily warns him about the combat
willingness to host, if he in$aded other people&s possessions. In both functions, it is like two drops
of water like another beautiful phenomenon of nature % to the birds singing, the song of the
nightingale, the beauty of which "leads to the creation of the poet," as well Jingelnats said. ,oth
the colors of coral fish, and the song of the nightingale ser$e to warn their relati$es from afar %
because only apply to them % that the local area has found a strong and warlike host.
If you test this theory by comparing the beha$ior of the military and dull colored by a poster of fish
that are closely related, li$ing in the same li$ing space, the theory is supported fully. +specially
impressi$e are those cases where the bright and dim species belong to the same genus. For
example, there is a member of the "@emoiselle" fish simple striated color, which the Americans
call "#ergeant" % it is a peaceful fish, kept in flocks. )er colleague on the genus "abudefduf" % a
luxurious $el$ety black fish with bright blue striped pattern on the head and front of the body with
a yellow, the colors of sulfur cross%belt in the middle of the body % on the contrary, perhaps the
fiercest kind of all settled, what I met for the study of coral fish. *ur large a!uarium was too small
for the two tiny kids this species, length of nearly /.E cm *ne of them is "staked out" the entire
a!uarium, another dragged out a miserable existence in the upper left front corner of a stream of
bubbles from the aerator, which hid it from +ye hostile brother. Another good example is the
comparison of butterfly fish. The only one among them li$able look, what I know, at the same time
has a one%of%a%kind coloring consisting of small parts so that the characteristic pattern can be
discerned only by a $ery small distance.
,ut the most notable is the fact that coral fish that are colored in a poster of youth and into
adulthood dim % show the same correlation between the color and aggressi$eness: in youth they
fiercely defend their territory, but with age become much more li$able.
(any of them e$en ga$e an impression that they need to remo$e the war paint to pre$ent any
peaceful con$ergence of different sexes. This is certainly true for one of the birth of the
"@emoiselle" % colorful fish, often sharp black%and%white colors % breeding in the a!uarium which I
watched se$eral times, for spawning, they change their color contrasting to a dull gray, but
immediately after spawning again raise their battle flags.
0. hat is the aggression.
2art of the force that without 8umbers
@o good, to all wishing e$il.
5oethe
hy do struggle with each other li$ing things< restling % ubi!uitous in nature, the process, ways
of beha$ior designed to control, as well as weapons, offensi$e and defensi$e, so highly
de$eloped, so ob$iously arose under the selecti$e pressure of the respecti$e
$idosohranyayuschih functions that we, after @arwin, of course, ha$e to deal with this issue.
Typically, the non%specialist, bewildered sensational tales of press and cinema, imagine the
relationship of "wild animals" in the "green hell" 'ungle as bloodthirsty struggle of all against all.
8ot so long ago were films in which, for example, could be seen fighting a ,engal tiger with a
python, and then immediately afterwards % a python with a crocodile. ith a clear conscience I
can say that under natural conditions this does not happen e$er. And what&s the point to one of
these beasts to destroy the other< 8one of these $ital interests of another does not affect3
#imilarly, @arwin&s formula "struggle for existence", turned into a bu--word that is often misused,
mistakenly attributed the uninitiated tend to struggle between different species. In fact, the
"struggle" was talking about @arwin and that dri$es e$olution % is primarily a competition between
close relati$es. hat makes the form it is today, to disappear % and turns it into a different form % is
it any successful "in$ention" that befell one or more counterparts in appearance as a result of a
completely random lottery winnings in eternal $ariability. The descendants of these lucky, as
already mentioned, $ery soon supersede all others, so that the form will consist of indi$iduals who
ha$e a new "in$ention."
*f course, there are hostile collision between different species. *wl at night kills and de$ours
e$en well%armed birds of prey, although they are likely to seriously resist. For my part % if they
meet a large owl in broad daylight, then attack her, full of hate. Almost e$ery though a little armed
beast from small rodents, fiercely fought, if he can not escape. In these special cases exist and
control of interspecies other less specific. Two birds of different species can fight because hollows
suitable for nestK any two animals, about e!ual in strength, can grab for food, etc. It is necessary
to say something about the cases of interspecies struggle, illustrated examples below, to
emphasi-e their identity and distinguish from intraspecific aggression, which itself is the sub'ect of
this book.
Function of preser$ing the species is much clearer in any interspecies collisions than in the case
of intraspecific combat. The mutual influence of predator and prey gi$es excellent examples of
how to make the selection of one of them to adapt to the de$elopment of another. Japidity
pursued by ungulates culti$ates powerful leaping ability and terribly armed paws big cats, and
those % in turn % are de$eloping in the $ictim more subtle flair and an increasingly rapid pace. An
impressi$e example of this e$olutionary competition between offensi$e and defensi$e weapons
gi$es good traced paleontological specialty herbi$orous mammal teeth % the teeth were getting
stronger % and the parallel de$elopment of food plants, which are protected from the possibility of
being eaten by the deposition of silicic acid and other measures. ,ut this kind of "fight" between
palatable and are eaten ne$er lead to the complete destruction of the $ictim predator, among
them always set a balance that is % when it comes to the form as a whole % is beneficial for both.
6ast 6ions would ha$e died of hunger much sooner than would ha$e killed the last couple of
antelope or -ebra capable of procreation. Cust as % in terms of language
chelo$echeskikommerchesky % whaling fleet would bankrupt long before the disappearance of the
last whale. ho directly threaten the sur$i$al of species % this is not a "de$ourer" and a
competitor, it is he and he alone. As in the old days there were dingoes in Australia % first
domesticated dogs that were brought there by people and feral there % they did not destroy any
kind of those that were prey, but the roots ha$e plagued the large marsupial predators that hunted
the same animals that and they are. 6ocal predators, Tasmanian wolf and the Tasmanian de$il,
was significantly stronger than the dingo, but these ancient art of hunting, rather stupid and slow
beasts inferior "modern" mammals.
@ingo is so reduced li$estock production, hunting techni!ues that their competitors no longer
"bankable" so that they are now found only in Tasmania, where a dingo got.
)owe$er, on the other hand, the clash between predator and prey is not a struggle at all in the
true sense of the word. *f course, the legs kick that knocks the lion prey, a form of motion is
similar to the way he hits the opponent % a hunting rifle, too, like a military rifle % but the origins of
the internal beha$ior of the hunter and fighter are !uite different. hen a lion kills a buffalo,
buffalo this makes him no more aggressi$e than in me mouth%watering turkey hanging in the
closet, which I look with the same pleasure. The difference between internal moti$ation can be
seen clearly on the expressi$e mo$ements. If a dog chases a rabbit, then it is exactly the same
stress and 'oyful expression with which she greets the owner or a foretaste of something
pleasant. And the lion&s mu--le in a dramatic moment of the 'ump you can !uite clearly see how it
is recorded on the many great pictures that he was not angry. 5rowl, pressed their ears and other
expressi$e mo$ements associated with combat beha$ior can be seen in hunting predators only
when they are seriously afraid of their armed production, but in this case only as a hint.
4loser to the true aggression than attack hunter prey interesting re$erse case "counter"
production against predators. This is especially true of herd animals, which all together are
attacking predator, they need only to notice it, because in +nglish it is called "mobing."
In e$eryday 5erman word is not appropriate, but in the old hunting 'argon, there is a saying %
crows or other birds &poison& owl, cat or other nocturnal predator when he comes their eyes to the
light of day. If you say that a herd of cows "baited" fee % it can shock e$en the adherents of #t.
)ubert, howe$er, as we shall soon see, here, and in fact is a !uestion of !uite similar
occurrences.
The attack on the predator%eater has an ob$ious meaning for conser$ation of the species. +$en
when the attacker is small and unarmed, it causes the ob'ect of attack is $ery sensiti$e trouble. All
predators preying alone can count on success only if they attack suddenly. hen accompanied
by a fox in the woods screaming 'ay, when, following the falcon flies a whole flock of chirping
warning agtails % hunting them is thoroughly tainted. ith the persecution many birds distilled
detected afternoon owl so far that the next night nocturnal predator hunting somewhere else. A
particularly interesting feature of harassment of a number of birds, with their highly de$eloped
social organi-ation, such as crows and many geese. In the first critical baiting for conser$ation of
the species is to show inexperienced youth looks like a dangerous enemy. This innate knowledge
among 'ackdaws not. In birds, this is a uni!ue case traditionally transmitted knowledge. 5eese,
on the basis of a strictly selecti$e innate mechanism "know": something fluffy, reddish%brown, long
and creeping % extremely dangerous. )owe$er, they $idosohranyayuschaya function "mobinga" %
with all its commotion when the clouds from e$erywhere flock of geese % is basically a training
goal.
Those who do not yet know, know: foxes are here. hen our lake is only part of the coast is
protected from predators special fence % geese a$oid any shelter, under which would hide the fox,
keeping at a distance of not less than .E meters from them, while at the same time they went
fearlessly into the thicket of young pine forest in protected sites. In addition to these didactic
purposes, hounding of predatory mammals % and crows, and geese % has, of course, the original
problem: tra$lyat enemy existence. Cackdaws beat him, aggressi$ely and thoroughly, and the
geese, apparently intimidated by his crying, and an incredible amount of fearless beha$ior. 6arge
4anadian geese attacking a fox on the ground e$en on foot in close order, and I&$e ne$er seen a
fox tried to grab it with one of his tormentors. ith the ears laid back with disgust on his face, she
looks back o$er her shoulder at a flock of trumpeters and slowly, to "sa$e face", trots off.
*f course, mobing most effecti$e in large and armed herbi$ores, which % if they are many % "take
aim at" e$en large predators. According to one credible reports, -ebra leopard attack e$en if he
comes across them in the open steppe. *ur domestic cows and pigs instinct general attack on
the wolf sits in the blood is so strong that if you go to the pasture to a large herd, accompanied by
a young and timid dog % it can be $ery dangerous. #uch a dog to bark instead of attacking or self
flee, seeking refuge in his master&s feet. I myself with my dog #tasi once had to 'ump into the lake
and escape by swimming, when a herd of young en$eloped us semicircle with drooping horns,
mo$ed menacingly forward. And my brother in the First orld ar held in southern )ungary
lo$ely e$ening at the i$y climbing there with his #cotch terrier under his arm: they were
surrounded by a herd of semi%wild )ungarian pigs gra-ing freely in the forest, and the circle
began to shrink, clearly re$ealing fangs.
*n such effecti$e attacks against real or imaginary predator%eater could talk a long time. #ome
birds and fish specifically for this purpose de$eloped a bright "aposematicheskaya" or warning,
coloration, which the predator can easily see and associate with those troubles, which he had met
with this $iew. , Toxic, nasty taste or otherwise protected animals of the $arious groups strikingly
often "choose" to alarm the combination of the same colors % red, white and chernogo.e And it is
extremely remarkable two species that % except for "poisonous" aggressi$eness % ha$e nothing to
do with each other or with these poisonous animals % namely sheldrake and fish, barbel
#umatran. About shelduck ha$e long known that they fiercely poison predators and their bright
plumage is so depressing foxes that they can get away hatch ducklings in fox holes, in the
presence of the owners. #umatran longhorn I bought specifically to find out why these fish are
painted so poisonous, and they immediately responded to this !uestion, ha$ing started in a large
a!uarium a general persecution of big perch that I had to be rescued from the giant carni$orous
these harmless%looking babies.
As in the attack on the predator prey or predator baiting his $ictims, as well
$idosohranyayuschaya ob$ious function of the third type of combat beha$ior that we L. )ediger
call the critical reaction. In +nglish, the phrase "fight like a rat cornered" symboli-es a desperate
struggle, in which the fighter is in$esting because it can neither escape nor count on mercy. This
form of fighting beha$ior, the most $iolent, moti$ated by fear, a strong desire to escape, which can
not be implemented because the risk is too close. The animal can be said to no longer runs the
risk of turning his back on her % and attacks itself, with the infamous "courage of despair." This is
what happens when a flight is not possible due to space limitations % as in the case of the rat tired
out % but 'ust as likely to act and the need to protect the brood or family. Assault chicken hen or
goose on any ob'ect too close to the chicks, too, should be regarded as a critical reaction. The
sudden appearance of a dangerous enemy within a certain critical areas, many animals $iolently
attack him, but would run at a much greater distance, had seen him coming from afar. As shown
by )ediger, circus trainers are dri$ing their predators anywhere in the arena, leading a risky game
on the border between flight distance and critical distance. A thousand hunting stories you can
read that large predators are the most dangerous in the dense undergrowth. This is primarily
because there is flight distance is particularly low, in most animal feels sheltered and expects that
the man forced his way through the brush, do not notice it, e$en if you will be $ery close. ,ut if
this person will cross a critical threshold distance of the beast, that is the so%called hunting
accident % !uickly and tragically.
In the cases 'ust discussed the fight between animals of different species ha$e a common
characteristic: it is unclear what benefit for conser$ation of the species is "should" get each of the
participants struggle. ,ut intraspecific aggression % aggression in the narrow and strict sense of
the word % also ser$es to preser$e the species.
For her, too, can and should ask a @arwinian !uestion "why<". To many it will seem not so
ob$ious, but people s$ykshayasya with the ideas of classical psychoanalysis can see in this issue
of the malicious attempt apology =hi-neunichto-hayuschego principalities, or simply e$il. 8ormal
ci$ili-ed man happens to find the real aggression only when its citi-ens become stuck or pets, of
course, he sees only the bad conse!uences of such strife. It is truly awesome series of gradual
transitions % from roosters, got into a fight in the garbage, a s!uabbling dogs through the boys,
smashing each other noses through the guys hitting each other head on beer mugs, a ta$ern
massacre, already tinted policy % leads finally to wars and to the atomic bomb.
e ha$e good reason to belie$e intraspecific aggression of the most serious dangers which
threaten humanity in the modern conditions of cultural, historical and technological de$elopment.
,ut the prospect o$ercome this danger does not impro$e, if we treat it as something
metaphysical, and the ine$itable and if we try to trace the chain of natural causes of its origin % it
might help.
+$ery time a person ac!uires the ability to intentionally alter the nature of a phenomenon in the
necessary direction, he was owed this to his understanding of cause%and%effect relationships that
define this phenomenon. The science of the normal processes of life, performing the function of
conser$ation of the species, % physiology % is the necessary foundation for the science of
$iolations of these processes % pathology. #o let us forget for a while that in the conditions of
ci$ili-ation aggressi$e instinct is $ery serious, "off the rails", and if possible try to impartially
in$estigate its natural causes. @arwinists as genuine, based on the already explained reasons,
we first ask oursel$es about $idosohranyayuschey function that performs the struggle between
the brothers of the mind in the natural % or, rather, in dotsi$ili-o$annyh % conditions. That selection
pressure of this function to such a struggle for its high de$elopment of a great many of the higher
animalsK&re not alone fish fighting each other, as described abo$e, the same thing happens in the
$ast ma'ority of $ertebrates.
As you know, the !uestion about the use of combat to sa$e the species already put @arwin
himself, and he also ga$e a clear answer to the $iew for the future % always beneficial to habitat
area or a female has won two of the strongest contenders. As often happens, the truth yesterday
but not today was a delusion, but turned out to be only a special caseK recently ecologists ha$e
found another function of aggression is e$en more essential for the conser$ation of the species.
The term "ecology" comes from the 5reek "oikos", "house." It is the science of multilateral
relations of the body with its natural li$ing space, in which he was "home", and in this space, of
course, need to be considered with other animals and plants that li$e there. If the special interests
of social organi-ation does not re!uire the close collaboration of life, then % for ob$ious reasons %
is the most fa$orable possible uniform distribution of a species in the li$ing space in which this
species may inhabit. In terms of the business of human life % if in some areas want to settle
se$eral doctors, or traders, or the mechanics of a bicycle repair, the representati$es of any of
these trades will go best with a stay as far away from each other.
That some part of the habitat a$ailable to the species, will remain unused, while in another part of
the form due to excessi$e population density run out of resources and power will suffer from
hunger % the danger easiest resol$ed by the animals and one the same species to repel each
other. It is in this, in a nutshell, and is the most important function $idosohranyayuschaya
intraspecific aggression. 8ow we can understand why it was settled coral fish so strikingly colored
in. Few habitats on +arth, in which there would be so many and such a $ariety of food, as in coral
reefs. This kind of fish during e$olution, may purchase "all sorts of professions." Fish as a
"laborer" could well be interrupted so that, in any case, e$ery a$ailable medium fish % to hunt the
smaller ones, are not poisonous, not armored, not co$ered with spines or not protected in any
way more animals that weight comes on the reef from the open sea: part passi$ely entered the
wind and wa$es in the form of plankton, as part % acti$ely sails "in order to" settle on the reef, as
do the myriad of free%swimming lar$ae of all li$ing organisms on the reef.
*n the other hand, some fish speciali-e in eating organisms li$ing on the reef itself. ,ut these
organisms are always somehow protected, and because fish need to find a way to deal with their
defensi$e de$ices. 4orals themsel$es are fed a $ariety of fish species, though in $ery different
ways. 2ointy rybybabochki or ,utterflyfish, mostly feed on corals and other animals
nematophores. They constantly examine corals in search of small animals, caught in the
tentacles of polyps. Finding something edible fish flapping pectoral fins creates a stream of water
directed at the $ictim as exactly that at this point between the corals formed a "bald spot": the 'et
pushes them apart, pulling together a scorching tentacles to the outer skeleton, so that the fish
can grasp prey almost without burning yourself stigma.
#till, it burns a little, you can see how fish "snee-es" % slightly pulling the nose % but it seems that it
irritated her e$en pleasant, like pepper. In any case, such fish as my beautiful butterfly, yellow and
brown, clearly prefer the same prey, say fry if it is caught in the tentacles, not float freely in the
water. *ther related species ha$e de$eloped the stronger immunity to the stinging poison and eat
prey, along with corals, catch it. #till others do not pay attention to the stinging cells of cnidarians
% and absorb the coral gidropolipo$ and e$en large, $ery stinging anemones, like a cow grass.
2arrot fish in addition to the immunity against poison de$eloped at kleshneobra-nye powerful
'aws and eat the coral literally entirely. hen you are near a gra-ing flocks of these magnificently
colored by fish, then you hear pops and clicks as if running a small stone crusher, and this is
completely untrue. @efecating, parrot fish reser$es the puff of white sand settles to the bottom,
and when you see it % you reali-e with ama-ement that the entire snow%white coral sand, each
co$ering a forest clearing in the coral, definitely made his way through the rybpopugae$.
*ther fish, puffer, which include funny fish%balls, ku-o$iki and hedgehogs, tuned to ra-gry-anie
hard shells of mollusks, crustaceans, and sea urchins. #uch fish as imperial angels % specialists
in lightning%fast abrasion feathery crowns, which nominate one of their other calcareous tubes
tube worms. 4rowns are drawn so !uickly that this rapidity protected from attack others, not so
nimble enemies. ,ut the +mperor&s angels are able to sneak up and grab the side of his head
worm lateral 'erk, so instantaneous that the speed of reaction the worm is not sufficient. And if the
tank emperor angels attack other prey that is not able to !uickly hide % they still can not grasp it in
any other mo$ement other than the procedures.
The reef pro$ides many other opportunities "professional specialty" fish. There is a fish cleaning
other fish from parasites. The most ferocious predators do not touch them, e$en if they climb to
those in the mouth or in the gills to perform there the beneficial work. hat else is incredible,
there are those who feed on large fish, eating away at them pieces of skin, and among them %
what is most striking % there are those who by their color, shape and habits present themsel$es as
'ust mentioned, cleaners and stalking her $ictims through this disguise. ho can count all the
people who call all the names<
For our study, it is essential that all or almost all of these features of a special de$ice % the so%
called "ecological niche" % there are often one and the same cubic meter of sea water. +$ery
single indi$idual, no matter what her specialty, with a huge abundance of food on the reef for
subsistence needs only a few s!uare meters of floor space. And in this small habitat may "want"
to co%exist as many fish as ecological niches in it % and this is $ery much like e$eryone knows who
watched in ama-ement crush o$er the reef. ,ut each of these fish is extremely interested in the
fact that its a small area is not settled other fish of its same species. #pecialists from other
"occupations" had undermined its prosperity as little as in the example abo$e, the presence of a
doctor in a $illage affects the income of a bicycle mechanic who li$es there.
In the habitats inhabited not so thick, where the same amount of space pro$ides an opportunity to
li$e only three or four species, the resident fish or poultry can afford to keep yourself away from
any other species that, in general, and should not ha$e to interfere with her . If a resident wanted
the same fish on a coral reef % it would be worn out, but was ne$er able to clear its territory of a
cloud uncompetiti$e $arious professions. +n$ironmental interests of all resident species benefit if
each of them produces a spatial distribution of indi$iduals on their own, without regard to the
other. @escribed in the first chapter of the poster%bright colors and they cause the electoral battle
reactions lead to the fact that each fish of each species can withstand a certain distance towards
their brethren, who are its competitors, because they need the same food. That is a $ery simple
answer to the often and much discussed !uestion of the function of reef fish colors.
As already said, indicating the kind of song plays in songbirds the same role that $isual signaling
ha$e 'ust described fish. There is no doubt that other birds still do not ha$e their own site, on the
singing will learn: This place has declared its territorial claims such and such a male clan or tribe.
2erhaps more importantly the fact that many species can sing $ery accurately determine how
strong singing % perhaps e$en his age % in other words, how dangerous it is for the listener of his
$isitor. (any birds, acoustically marking their possessions, attention is drawn to significant
indi$idual differences in their sound. (any researchers belie$e that these species may be
important personal business card. If )eynrot takes cock crow with the words ")ere rooster" that
,Mumer % the best expert on chickens % hears the cry much more accurate message: ")ere
,altha-ar cock3" (ammals mostly "think nose", there is nothing surprising in the fact that they
ha$e a crucial role is played by marking their possessions smell. To do this, there are $arious
ways for this de$eloped all sorts of odoriferous glands ha$ing astonishing rituals of urine and
faeces, of which e$eryone knows scoring paws of dogs. #ome experts mammals argue that these
odorous marks ha$e nothing to do with the application area, such as the le$el of known and
animals wandering o$er large distances, and social animals who do not occupy their own territory
% but these ob'ections are $alid only in part. First, it is pro$ed that the dogs % and, of course, other
animals that li$e in packs % get to know each other by smell marks indi$idually, because of the
pack immediately detect if a stranger dares to bully paw in their hunting grounds. And secondly,
as shown 6eyhau-en and olf, there is a $ery interesting opportunity to place a certain type of
animal on the existing biotope with no space and time schedule, as well. They found an example
of stray cats that li$ed in the countryside, a few indi$iduals may use the same hunting area
without any collision. In this case, hunting is regulated by a strict schedule, 'ust like the use of the
common facilities at our institute housewi$es in =ee$i-ene. An additional safeguard against
unwanted encounters are fragrant tags that these animals % cats, not housewi$es % usually lea$e
at regular inter$als, where$er they may be.
These tags act as a block signal to the rail, which likewise ser$es to pre$ent the collision of trains:
cat showed up on my hunting track signal other cats can $ery accurately determine the time of
filing of this signal, if it is fresh, it stops or turns off to the side, but if he has a few hours % calmly
continues on his way.
Those animals whose territory is not determined in this way, in time, and only space % also should
not be thought of as a complex range of land tenure, precisely delineated geographic boundaries,
as if entered in the land registry. *n the contrary, this area is determined only by the fact that the
willingness of the animal to fight is the highest in the most familiar place to him % namely, in the
center of its plot. In other words, 'ust below the threshold of aggression where the animal feels
most confident, that where his aggression least suppressed the desire to escape. ith the
remo$al of this "head!uarters" readiness decreases as the en$ironment becomes more and more
strange and fearsome. The cur$e of this decrease is so different slopes in different directions, at
the center of the area of fish habitat is almost always at the bottom, and their aggressi$eness
particularly sharp falls $ertically % an ob$ious reason for this is that the greatest danger
threatening the fish on top of it.
Thus, an animal belonging to the area % it&s 'ust a function of differences of its aggressi$eness in
different places, due to local factors that inhibit this aggressi$eness. 4loser to the center of the
field of habitat aggressi$eness increases exponentially. This increase is so large that it
compensates for any differences in si-e and strength, which may occur in mature adult
indi$iduals of the same species. Therefore, if the territorial animals % let&s say gorih$ostok front of
your house or in sticklebacks in the tank % known to the central point of the home sites of the two
got into a fight, then on the basis of their place of battle can certainly predict the outcome: all
other things being e!ual win the one who is currently is close to home.
hen the loser takes flight, the inertia of the reactions of both animals leads to a phenomenon
happening in all the self%regulating systems with braking % namely, to fluctuations. I pursued % as
we approach its head!uarters % reappears courage, and persecutor, entering enemy territory,
losing courage. As a result, the fugiti$e suddenly turns around and % 'ust as suddenly, no matter
how $igorously % on%falls on the recent winner, which % as was to be expected % now beats and
dri$es. All this is repeated se$eral times, and e$entually the soldiers stop at a definite point of
e!uilibrium where they only threaten each other, but do not attack.
This point, the boundary of their land, it is not marked on the bottom, and is determined solely by
the balance of power, and for any $iolation of this balance may mo$e closer to the head!uarters
of the weakened, e$en if, for example, in the e$ent that one of the fish ate and because grown
la-y. These fluctuations may illustrate the boundaries old record obser$ations of the beha$ior of
one of the two pairs of species of cichlids. *f the four species of fish placed in a large a!uarium,
the strongest male "A" immediately took a left%rear%lower corner % and began to relentlessly chase
the other three across the pond, in other words, he immediately announced a claim to the entire
a!uarium as your site. A few days later the male "," has mastered the tiny place at the surface of
the water in a diagonally placed near the right%upper corner a!uarium and there was bra$e the
attacks of the first male. #ettle on the surface % it&s a desperate thing for the fish: it is reconciled
with the danger to establish themsel$es against a stronger neighbor, which in these conditions %
for the reasons described abo$e % attacks less decisi$ely. The fear of an e$il neighbor to the
surface becomes an ally of the holder of such a plot.
In the coming days, the space protected by the male "," was growing before our eyes, and most
importantly % more and more extended downward, until finally he mo$ed his stronghold in the
right%front%bottom corner of the a!uarium, ha$ing won himself so full seat apartment. 8ow he had
a fair chance in the "A" and he !uickly pushed the order so that the a!uarium was di$ided roughly
in half between them. It was a beautiful picture of when they were threatening each other,
constantly patrolling along the border. ,ut one morning, this picture again mo$ed sharply to the
right, on the former territory of the ",", which is now defended only a few s!uare decimeters its
bottom. I immediately reali-ed what had happened: "A" sparo$alsya, and since all large colorful
perch task of defending the territory is di$ided e!ually by both spouses, the "," was forced to
withstand twice the pressure, which accordingly has narrowed its site. The next day the fish again
menacingly faced each other in the middle of the pond, but now there were four "," also got a
girlfriend, so that the balance of power was restored to the family "A". A week later I found out that
the border has mo$ed far to the left, into the territory of &A&, the reason was that the couple "A" 'ust
spawned and one of the spouses was constantly occupied with protection of eggs and care for
her, so that the protection of the border could de$ote yourself to 'ust one. hen, soon after, and
spawned a pair of "," % and immediately restored the old uniform distribution of space.
Culian )uxley once $ery nicely presented it to the beha$ior of the physical model in which he
compared the area with balloons, concluded in an enclosed and tightly ad'acent to each other, so
that the internal pressure change in one of them increases or decreases the si-e of the others.
This $ery simple physiological mechanism of control o$er territory downright perfectly sol$es the
problem of "fair", ie most beneficial for all kind of in it together, the distribution of species on areas
in which a gi$en species can li$e. At the same time, and the weaker to feed themsel$es and
produce offspring, though on a smaller space. This is especially important for animals that % like
many fish and reptiles % reach sexual maturity early, long before the ac!uisition of its final si-e.
hat is the achie$ement of peace "e$il principle"3
The same effect is achie$ed in many animals and without aggressi$e beha$ior. In theory, it is
enough that animals of any kind to each other, "can not stand" and thus a$oided. To some extent,
already smelling cat tags are such a case, although for them and hides the silent threat of
aggression. )owe$er, there are animals, completely de$oid of intraspecific aggression and still
strictly a$oiding their relati$es. (any frogs, especially wood, are pronounced indi$idualists %
except for periods of reproduction % and, as you can see, they are distributed within the a$ailable
li$ing space $ery e$enly. As a newly established American researchers, this is achie$ed is $ery
simple: each frog croaking away from the relati$es. )owe$er, these results do not explain how the
distribution is achie$ed through the territory of females which most frogs are dumb.
e may consider reliable, that the uniform distribution in the space of animals of the same
species is the most important function of intraspecific aggression. ,ut this function is not uni!ue3
4harles @arwin has rightly remarked that sexual selection % selection of the best, most powerful
animals for procreation % is largely determined by the struggle of competing animals, especially
males. The strength of his father naturally pro$ides direct benefits to offspring in species where
the father takes an acti$e part in the care of children, especially in their defense. The close
connection between caring for the offspring of males and their fights are most clearly manifested
in those animals that are not territorial in the abo$e sense, but are more or less nomadic way of
life, such as large ungulates, terrestrial monkeys and many others.
In these animals, intraspecific aggression does not play a significant role in the allocation of
space, in the dispersal of species such as, for example, buffalo, $arious antelope, horses, etc.,
which are collected in a huge community, and that the di$ision of land and the struggle for
territory completely alien, because they feed them enough. )owe$er, males of these animals and
fiercely dramatic fight with each other, and there is no doubt that the selection arising from this
struggle leads to especially large and well%armed defenders of the family and the herd % and $ice
$ersa, is what $idosohranyayuschaya protection function herds led to the emergence of such a
selection of brutal fights. In this way and there is so impressi$e fighters like buffalo bulls or large
males baboons that e$ery danger to the community erected around the weakest members of the
herd courageous circular wall of defense.
In connection with fights to mention one fact which each nebiologu seems ama-ing, e$en
paradoxical, and that is extremely important for the further content of this book: a purely intra%
selection can lead to the appearance of morphological and beha$ioral patterns not only
completely useless in terms of adaptation to the en$ironment but also directly harmful to the
conser$ation of the species. That&s why I was so stressed in the pre$ious paragraph, that the
protection of the family, ie form of collision with $ne$ido$ym en$ironment, caused the appearance
of the fight, and the fight has already selected the armed males. If the selection is directed in a
certain direction only sexual ri$alry, without due outside the functional focus on the preser$ation
of the species, it can lead to the appearance of bi-arre formations that form as such are not
needed. Antlers, for example, de$eloped exclusi$ely for fightsK hornless deer is not the slightest
chance of offspring. For anything else, these horns are known to be good for nothing. From
predators, deer, males are also protected only the front hoo$es, not horns. The $iew that the
extended orbital process on the horns of the reindeer are used to clean up the snow pro$ed to be
wrong. Jather, they are necessary to protect the eyes with one particular brand of rituali-ed
mo$ement, when the male has horns fiercely low bushes.
In exactly the same conse!uences as the fight ri$als, often resulting sexual selection, directed by
a female. If we find the males exaggerated de$elopment of $ariegated feathers, fancy shapes,
etc., that can be immediately suspect that the males do not fight, and the last word in the marital
choice belongs to the female, and the candidate&s spouse is not in the slightest opportunity "to
appeal against sentence . " As an example, a bird of paradise, Juff, mandarin duck and
pheasant%Argus. Female Argus responds to the huge rooster wings, decorated with gorgeous
pattern of eyespots, which he, current, unfolds before her eyes. These wings are so large that the
rooster is almost can not fly, but what they are % the more excited hen. The number of children
who appear in the cock for a certain period of time is directly dependent on the length of his
feathers. Though in other respects it is the excessi$e de$elopment of the wings can be harmful
for him % for example, the predator will eat it much earlier than his opponent, whose bodies
courtship is not terribly exaggerated % but the offspring will lea$e this cock as much, if not moreK
and thus supported a predisposition to grow giant wings, !uite contrary to the interests of the
conser$ation of the species. It is possible that the female Argus responds to the small red spots
on the wings of the male, which disappear from $iew when the wings are folded, and do not
interfere with any flight, any disguise. ,ut either way, the e$olution of the Argus pheasant%stalled,
and it manifests itself in the fact that males compete with each other in respect of the $alue of the
wings. In other words, the animals of this kind will ne$er find reasonable solutions and not "agree"
to refuse to continue this nonsense.
)ere we first encounter with the e$olutionary process, which at first sight seem strange, but if you
think about it % e$en creepy. It is easy to understand that the method of blind trial and error, which
is used by the great designer, ine$itably leads to the appearance and not%$ery%appropriate
designs. It is natural that in the animal and plant world, except in such manner, and there is also
the situation is not so unreasonable that destroyed his selection immediately. )owe$er, in this
case, we find something !uite different. #election, this rugged guard expediency, not 'ust a "blind
eye" and let second%rate structure % no, he is getting lost, here comes the fatal impasse. This
always occurs when the selection is sent only one competition congeners $ne$ido$ym without
regard to the en$ironment.
(y teacher *scar )eynrot often 'oked: "After%Argus pheasant wings, the tempo of the people of
estern ci$ili-ation % the silliest product of intra%selection." Indeed, the rush, which co$ers both
industriali-ed and commerciali-ed humanity, is a perfect example of inappropriate de$elopment
occurring exclusi$ely by competition between the brothers of the mind. Today&s people are sick
typical diseases of businessmen % hypertension, congenital contracted kidney, stomach ulcers,
painful neurosis % they fall into barbarism, because they do not ha$e more time to cultural
interests. And all this without any necessity: in fact they perfectly could agree to continue to work
more easy. That is, in theory, could be because, in practice, are capable of it, ob$iously, is no
more than the cocks%Argus to an agreement to reduce the length of their feathers.
The reason that here, in the chapter on the positi$e role of aggression, I&m talking in detail about
the dangers of intra%selection is the following: it is aggressi$e beha$ior % more than other
properties and functions of the animal % can be due to its harmful results to de$elop into an
absurd grotes!ue. In the following chapters, we will see what conse!uences this has resulted in
some animals, such as the +gyptian geese or rats. ,ut abo$e all % more than likely that harmful
aggression, which now sits as an e$il legacy of blood, we, the people, the result of intraspecific
selection affects our ancestors thousands of years throughout the 2aleolithic period. 8o sooner
had the people had ad$anced so that, being armed, dressed and socially organi-ed, able, to
some extent limit the external danger % hunger, cold, wild animals, so that the risk of losing
important role of selection factors % as once the game has to was a disastrous start intraspecific
selection. From now on, the dri$ing factor of selection was the war waged with each other warring
neighboring tribes, and the war was to the extreme to de$elop all of the so%called "military
$irtues." "nfortunately, they are still today many seem $ery tempting ideal % we will return to this in
the last chapter of this book.
Jeturning to the theme of the importance of the fight for the preser$ation of the species, we argue
that it ser$es as a useful selection only where the fighters are tested not only intraspecific dueling
rules but also fights against a foreign enemy. The most important function of the match % is the
choice of military defense of the family, so another function of intraspecific aggression is to
protect the offspring. This function is so ob$ious that talking about it is simply no need. ,ut in
order to eliminate any doubt, it is sufficient to refer to the fact that many of the animals in which
only one sex takes care of the offspring, really aggressi$e towards relati$es representati$es of
this particular gender or their aggressi$eness incomparably stronger. In stickleback % are males,
many small cichlid % the female. In chickens and ducks only females care for offspring, and they
are much more !uarrelsome males, unless, of course, keep in mind fights. #omething like that
should be in a human.
It would be wrong to think that the three already mentioned in this chapter, the functions of
aggressi$e beha$ior % the distribution of animals on the li$ing space, the selection in the matches
and protection of offspring % are the only important for the conser$ation of the species. e will see
in the future, which plays an irreplaceable role in a grand concert aggression instinct, as it is a
motor % "moti$ation" % and in such beha$ior, which apparently has nothing to do with aggression,
e$en it seems the direct opposite. The fact that 'ust the most intimate personal relationships,
which in general are among the li$ing beings, to the best of saturated aggression % then you do
not know what to say: this is a paradox or a platitude. )owe$er, we still ha$e to talk about many
other things, before we get into our natural history of aggression to this central challenge. An
important function performed by the interaction of aggression in a democratic instincts within the
body, easy to understand and e$en harder to describe.
,ut here is what can be described already here % it is the role of aggression in the system that the
procedure abo$e, but for the understanding of affordable, namely % 4ommunity social animal,
consisting of many indi$iduals. *rgani-ing principle, without which, ob$iously, can not de$elop an
ordered life together of the higher animals, the so%called hierarchy.
It consists simply in the fact that each of the indi$iduals li$ing together knows who is stronger than
him and who is weaker, so that e$eryone can retreat without a fight in front of a strong % and can
expect a weaker, in turn, will retreat before it themsel$es, if they fall to one another on the way.
#helderupp%+bbe was the first who studied the phenomenon of domestic chickens hierarchy and
introduced the term "pecking order", which is still preser$ed in the literature, especially +nglish. I
somehow always funny when people talk about the "pecking order" among large $ertebrates,
which does not burn, and biting or hitting horns. idespread hierarchy, as already mentioned,
clearly shows its important $idosohranyayuschey function, so we ha$e to ask, what is the function
of this is.
*f course, immediately begs an answer that this way a$oids the struggle between members of
the community. ;ou can argue the following !uestion: is it better than an outright ban on
aggression towards members of the community< And again, you can gi$e an answer, not 'ust
one, but se$eral. First % we will ha$e a $ery detailed talk about that in a later chapter 94hapter ..,
""nion": % it may well happen that the community 9for example, a wolf pack or a herd of monkeys:
is $ital aggressi$eness towards others communities of the same species, so that the fight should
be ruled out only within the group. And secondly, the tensions that arise within the community as
a result of aggressi$e impulses and grow out of the hierarchy can gi$e him much useful structure
and strength. @o crows, and many other birds with a high social organi-ation, hierarchy leads
directly to the protection of the weak. #ince each indi$idual is constantly stri$ing to impro$e their
rank, directly between the lower % and higher is always a particularly strong tension, e$en hostility,
and $ice $ersa, this hostility, the smaller the farther apart the ranks of the two animals. And as
'ackdaws of high rank, especially males, be sure to interfere in any !uarrel between the two
lower%le$el % these differences in step tensions ha$e a fa$orable effect: daw highest rank e$er
enters the fray on the side of the weak, as if by the chi$alrous principle of "strong place % on the
side of the weak ".
Already ha$e an aggressi$e crows with a ranking position of the won%related and other forms of
"authority": with expressi$e mo$ements of an indi$idual of high rank, especially old male
members of the colony are considered much more than a mo$ement of young birds of low rank.
If, for example, a young 'ackdaw scared something insignificant, the other birds, especially the
older ones, almost obli$ious to the manifestations of her fear. If, howe$er, expressed a similar
concern old male % all 'ackdaws, which can only notice it, hurriedly taking off, turning to flee. It is
noteworthy that the 'ackdaws no innate knowledge of their predatory enemies, each indi$idual
learns the beha$ior of this knowledge more experienced older birds should therefore be $ery
important that the "opinion" of older and experienced bird was gi$en a high rank % as 'ust
described % a greater "weight . "
5enerally, the more ad$anced type of animal, the more important the indi$idual experience and
training, while the innate beha$ior although not lose its importance, but is reduced to simpler
elements. ith the e$olution of the o$erall progress of the growing role of experience of old
animals, and you can e$en say that the common social life of the most intelligent mammals gains
due to this new function in the preser$ation of the species % namely, the traditional transfer of
indi$idually ac!uired information. 8aturally, as con$erse is also true: a 'oint social life, of course,
makes the selection pressure towards better de$elopment of the capacity to learn, since these
skills in social animals are beneficial not only to a single indi$idual, but the community as a whole.
Thus, the long life and well abo$e the period of sexual acti$ity, gains $alue for conser$ation of the
species. As reported by Fraser @arling and (argaret Altman, many deer herd is the leader of the
"lady" of old age, maternal duties which had long been hampered perform its public duty.
#o % ceteris paribus % the age of the animal is usually in direct proportion to the same rank, which
it has in the hierarchy of their community. And so it is ad$isable that the "construction" of beha$ior
relies on this rule, members of the community "who can not deduct their leader at the age of his
birth certificate, a commensurate degree of credibility with his rank. ;erkes and his colleagues
ha$e already made an extremely interesting truly striking obser$ation: chimpan-ees, which are
known for their ability to learn by direct imitation, in principle only imitate fellow of higher rank.
From the group took one of these monkeys, low%grade, and taught her to take bananas from a
specially designed feeder with $ery complex manipulations. hen that monkey with its feeder
back into the group, the relati$es of a higher rank tried to take away her hard earned bananas,
but none of them had the idea to see how the despised brother, and something to learn from him.
then so work the same way with this trough taught chimpan-ees highest rank. hen he was
returned to the group, the rest were watching him with the li$eliest interest and instantly took o$er
his new skill.
#6 "oshbern and Ir$an @e$ore, watching baboons on the loose, and found that the herd is not
controlled by a single leader, and the "board" of a few old males who maintain their superiority
o$er the younger and far more powerful members of the herd due to the fact that always stick
together % and together they are stronger than any of the young male. In the obser$ed case, one
of the three senators was almost toothless old man, and two others % not too long ago, "in the
prime of life." hen once the herd was in danger on the treeless place to stroll into the hands % or,
rather, in the fall % the lion, the herd has stopped, and the young males formed a strong perimeter
defense of the weaker animals. ,ut one old man came out of the circle, carefully performed a
dangerous task % to establish the whereabouts of the lion, so he did not notice it % and then went
back to the herd, and took him to the far circuitous route, bypassing the lion to a safe lodging for
the night in the trees. All followed him in blind obedience, no one !uestioned his authority.
8ow look back at all that we ha$e learned in this chapter % from ob'ecti$e obser$ation of the
animals % about the benefits of intraspecific struggle to sa$e the species. The li$ing space is
shared between animals of the same species so that it is possible e$eryone finds their own food.
For the benefit of posterity choose the best father and the best mother. 4hildren are protected.
4ommunity is organi-ed so that a few seasoned males % "#enate" % ha$e sufficient authority to the
decisions necessary community, not only accepted, but also implemented. e ne$er found out
that the ob'ecti$e was to destroy the neighbor of aggression, but of course, in the course of the
match could ha$e an accident when the horn gets in the eyes or in the canine carotid artery, and
in unnatural conditions not co$ered by "design" of e$olution % for example in capti$ity % aggressi$e
beha$ior can lead to disastrous conse!uences. ,ut let&s try to look into our own guts and
understand yourself % without pride, but without pre consider themsel$es $ile sinners % that we
wanted to do with his neighbor, calling us the highest degree of aggressi$eness. I hope I do not
portray myself better than I am, claiming that my ultimate goal % that is, an action that would ha$e
defused my rage % would be not killing my enemy. *f course, I would ha$e slapped him en'oying
the most resounding slap in the face, or at least would ha$e caused a few crisp punches to the
'aw % but in any case do not want to rip open his stomach or shoot him. And the desired final
situation is not the fact that the enemy was lying dead in front of me. *h no3 )e must be sensiti$e
beaten and humbly accept my physical % and if he baboon, then spiritual superiority. And since I
basically could only beat a type which such an appeal only benefit % I do not stand too harsh
sentence instinct, calling such beha$ior. *f course, we must recogni-e that the desire to beat and
can easily lead to a fatal blow, for example, if in your hand happens to be a weapon. ,ut if you
appreciate all of this together, the intraspecific aggression does not seem neither the de$il nor
scathing start, not e$en a "part of that power which eternally wills e$il, but to do good" % it would
be !uite clearly a part of the organi-ation of all li$ing beings, which preser$es their system
performance and their $ery li$es. 6ike e$erything else, it can make a mistake % and thus destroy
life. )owe$er, the great achie$ements of the formation of the organic world, this force is to do
good. And besides, we ha$e not taken into account % we learn about it only in the .. % and led %
that both the great design, $ariation and selection, who raise all li$ing things, it is a rough branch
of intraspecific aggression chose to grow on it Flowers of personal friendship and lo$e.
1. The spontaneity of aggression.
ith poison in my $eins you )elen
In any&ll see, certainly.
5oethe
In the pre$ious chapter, I hope, !uite clearly shown that obser$ed in so many animal aggression
directed against the brothers in mind, generally speaking, is in no way detrimental to this species,
but on the contrary % is needed to sa$e it. )owe$er, this should not decei$e us optimistic about
the current state of humanity, !uite the contrary. Any change in en$ironmental conditions, e$en
insignificant in itself, can completely unbalance the mechanisms of innate beha$ior. They are so
unable to adapt !uickly to change, that under ad$erse conditions, species may be lost.
(eanwhile, the changes made by the person in the en$ironment, is not negligible.
If dispassionately look at a person, it is today 9in the hands of the hydrogen bomb, the gift of his
own mind and in my heart the instinct of aggression % the legacy of the anthropoid ancestors, with
which his mind can not cope:, it is difficult to predict a long life.
,ut when the same situation sees the man himself % that this is all about3 % It is a horrible
nightmare, and it&s hard to belie$e that aggression is not a symptom of the decline of modern
culture, pathological in nature.
*ne could only dream of, that it was so3
Cust knowing that aggression is a true instinct % primary, aimed at preser$ation of the species, %
allows us to understand how it is dangerous. The main danger is that it is the instinct of
spontaneity. If it were merely a reaction to certain external conditions that in$ol$e many
sociologists and psychologists, the position of mankind would not be so dangerous as in reality.
Then it would be thoroughly studied and eliminate factors inducing this reaction. Freud has
earned a reputation for the first time recogni-ing the independent significance of aggression and
he also showed that the lack of social contact, and especially their loss 9"loss of lo$e": are among
the strongest factors that fa$or aggression. From this representation, which in itself is correct,
many American teachers made the wrong conclusion that children will grow up in a less neurotic,
more adapted to reality and, more importantly, less aggressi$e people, pro$iding them with a
childhood protected from any disappointments 9frustration: and in all of them to concede.
American methods of education, based on this assumption, only showed that the instinct of
aggression, like other instincts, spontaneously erupts from within a person. There was
insufferably arrogant innumerable children who lacked anything, but certainly not aggressi$e. The
tragic aspect of this tragic%comic situation manifested itself later when these children came out of
the family suddenly faced, instead of their submissi$e parents with a ruthless public opinion, such
as admission to college. As I said, the American psychoanalysts, many of the young people
brought up in this way, much less become neurotic, came under the pressure of public
regulations, which pro$ed to be extremely tough. #uch methods of education, it seems, has not
died out completely, e$en in the last year, a highly respected American colleague, who worked at
our Institute as a guest, asked me for permission to stay with us for another three weeks, and as
a reason not to bring any %or new scientific ideas, but simply and without comment said to his wife
'ust came to $isit her sister, and at the same three children % "besfrustratsionnye."
There is absolutely erroneous doctrine that the beha$ior of animals and humans is primarily
reacti$e, and if it e$en has some inherent elements % can still be changed by training. This
doctrine has deep and tenacious roots in a misunderstanding of the proper inherently democratic
principle. #omehow it does not fit with the fact that people are born not so completely e!ual to
each other, and that not e$eryone has an e!ual chance at 'ustice turn into ideal citi-ens. In
addition, for many decades, reactions, reflexes were the only elements of beha$ior that
psychologists ha$e paid attention to the serious reputation, while the spontaneity of animal
beha$ior has been the domain "$italistic" 9ie some mystically:%minded scientists.
In a study of the beha$ior of 4raig allace was the first to make the phenomenon of spontaneity
sub'ect of scientific study. +$en before he illiam (c@ougall opposed to the motto of @escartes
"Animal non agit, agitur", which is inscribed on his shield the American school of beha$ioral
psychologists, its much more true aphorism % "The healthy animal is up and doing" 9"A healthy pet
is acti$e and acts ":. )owe$er, he considered that the result of spontaneous mystical life force, of
which no one knows what the word actually means. ,ecause he did not think to 'ust obser$e the
rhythmic repetition of spontaneous action and measure the threshold of pro$oking irritation
whene$er their manifestation, as did later his pupil 4raig.
4raig conducted a series of experiments with male do$e, which he took from them females in
stepwise increasing inter$als and experimentally established, which is able to induce male
courtship. A few days after the disappearance of the females of their species the male do$e was
ready to take care of the home white do$e, which he completely ignored before. A few days later
he went further and began to perform his bowing and cooing in front of a stuffed pigeon, e$en
later % in front of cloth wound round in a knot, and finally % after a few weeks of being alone % was
to address their courtship in an empty corner of the cage, where the intersection of edges created
the box though some optical point that could hold his ga-e. Translated into the language of
physiology, these obser$ations indicate that long%term non%compliance with any of instincti$e
action % in the case described courtship % a threshold of irritation is reduced. This phenomenon is
so common and natural that the popular wisdom has long been familiar with it, and clothed in a
simple form saying: "In need damn fly gobble", 5oethe expressed the same pattern of words of
(ephistopheles: "ith poison in your $eins, you will see +lena in any necessarily . "
And so it is3 And if you&re a do$e % that in the end you see her in a dusty old rag, and e$en in an
empty corner of a pri$ate prison.
6owering the threshold can cause irritation to the fact that in special conditions it can fall to a
$alue of -ero, i.e. "nder certain circumstances, the appropriate instincti$e action may "break"
without kakogolibo clear external stimulus. I ha$e li$ed many years #tarling, taken from the nest
as infants who had ne$er caught a single fly and ha$e ne$er seen, as do other birds. )e&s got
food in his cage out of the trough, which I filled e$ery day. ,ut once I saw him sitting on the head
of a bron-e statue in the dining room, in the 7ienna apartment of my parents, and he beha$ed
$ery strangely. Tilt the head to one side, he seemed to be looking around the white ceiling abo$e
him, and then by the mo$ements of his eyes and head can be seemed to accurately determine
that it is closely monitoring any mo$ing ob'ect.
Finally, he flew up to the ceiling, I would grab something unseen, returned to his obser$ation
tower, producing all the mo$ements, what insecti$orous birds kill their prey, and something as if
swallowed. Then shaken, as do all the birds, getting rid of stress and took a rest. I ha$e do-ens of
times climbing on chairs, e$en dragged into the dining room stepladder 9apartments in 7ienna at
the time had high ceilings: to find the prey that caught my starling. 8o insects, e$en the smallest
ones, was not there3
"Accumulation" instinct that occurs when there is no duty to discharge the stimulus has the effect
of not only the abo$e%described increase preparedness for response, but many other, more
profound phenomenon that in$ol$e the whole body. In principle, e$ery truly instincti$e action,
which is described abo$e ha$e not been able to discharge, resulting in the animal state of general
anxiety and forces him to seek discharge the stimulus. These searches, which in the simplest
case consists in random motion 9running, flying, swimming:, and in the most complex may include
any form of beha$ior, learning and ac!uired knowledge, 4raig allace called appetentnym
beha$ior.
Faust does not sit and wait for women to ha$e appeared in his field of $ision, to find )elen, he is
known to be a rather risky $entures walking to (others3
"nfortunately, it must be noted that the decrease in the threshold of irritation and search beha$ior
of rare cases in which manifest themsel$es as clearly as in the case of intraspecific aggression.
In the first chapter we ha$e seen examples of this, let us remember the butterfly fish, which in the
absence of relati$es chose himself as a proxy ob'ect fish closely related species, or triggerfish,
which is in a similar situation e$en attacked not only by triggerfish other species, but also to
complete strangers fish not ha$ing anything to do with its own species but annoying blue. In
cichlids family life exciting fun, and we&ll ha$e to do it in great detail, but if they are kept in
capti$ity, the accumulation of aggression, which under natural conditions would be discharged by
hostile neighbors % $ery easily leads to murder her husband. Almost e$ery a!uarium owner,
engaged in culti$ation of these uni!ue fish started with one and the same, almost ine$itable
mistakes: in the launch of se$eral large a!uarium fry one species to gi$e them the opportunity to
mate naturally, without coercion. ;our wish has come true % and that you ha$e in your a!uarium,
which already has se$eral small for such a large number of fish grown, there was a pair of lo$ers,
the radiant splendor of colors and full a unanimous desire to banish from your site all the brothers
and sisters. ,ut those unfortunate nowhere to escape, with tattered fins they timidly stand at the
corners near the surface of the water, unless you rushing to escape, the entire basin when
frighten them out of there. ,eing humane naturalist, and you sympathi-e with the persecuted, and
the wedding couple, which in the meantime has already spawned and now tormented by worries
about posterity. ;ou immediately catches the extra fish to pro$ide a couple of undi$ided
ownership pool. 8ow, you think e$erything has been done, that depends on you % i$e next few
days do not pay much attention to this $essel with its li$ely content.
,ut after a few days with ama-ement and horror disco$er that the female, torn to shreds, floating
belly%up, and from the eggs and fry of no trace.
This unfortunate e$ent, which takes place as described abo$e with predictable regularity %
especially in +ast Indian yellow etropluso$ and ,ra-ilian mother of pearl fish % can be a$oided
$ery simply, you can either lea$e the a!uarium "whipping boy", ie fish of the same species, or % a
more humane way % to take an a!uarium big enough for two couples and glass border di$iding it
into two parts, to settle on a pair in each of them. Then each fish takes out his anger on a healthy
neighbor of the same sex % are almost always female attacks the female and the male to male %
and none of them does not think defuse his anger on his own wife. It sounds like a 'oke, but in our
tested de$ice installed in the a!uarium cichlids, we often notice that the border glass starts to
grow algae and become less transparent % 'ust by the way the male begins to be rude to his wife.
,ut it was enough 'ust wipe clean with a borderline glass % wall between the "flats" % as
immediately began a fierce, but by necessity innocuous !uarrel with neighbors, "discharges
atmosphere" in both families.
#imilar stories can be seen in humans. In the good old days when there was more on the @anube
monarchy and yet there ha$e been a maid, I watched my widowed aunt following beha$ior,
regular and predictable. (aids ne$er kept it longer than G%.D months. +$ery time a new assistant
aunt certainly admired, praising her to the skies as a kind of treasure, and swore that now at last
she found her whom she should. @uring the following months, her enthusiasm cooled down. At
first, she found a poor girl&s minor flaws, then % deser$ing of censure, but by the end of that period
it has detected defects that caused legitimate hatred % and as a result of laying off her ahead of
time, usually with a big scandal. After the discharge of the old lady again was ready to see in the
next ser$ant of the true angel.
I am far from being arrogant sneer at my aunt, all else is $ery cute and has long been dead.
+xactly the same phenomenon I could not % or rather, I had % seen in the most serious people
capable of the highest self%control, which can be imagined. It was in capti$ity. The so%called "polar
disease", or "expeditionary disease", affects mainly the small group of people, when they are due
to circumstances determined by the $ery name, are doomed to communicate only with each
other, and thus denied the opportunity to !uarrel with someone outsiders, not members of the
their partnership. From the abo$e it is clear that the accumulation of aggression, the more
dangerous the better know each other members of the group, the more they understand each
other and lo$e. In such a situation % and I say this from personal experience % all the incenti$es
that cause aggression and intraspecific struggle undergo a sharp decline thresholds. #ub'ecti$ely,
it is reflected in the fact that the person on the smallest gestures of his best friend % is to cough or
blow your nose % is responsible reaction, which would be ade!uate if he slapped a drunken bully.
"nderstanding the physiological laws of this phenomenon is extremely painful and e$en pre$ents
the murder of a friend, but in no way facilitates torture. *utput, which e$entually finds
understands is that he !uietly out of the barracks 9tents, huts: and breaks something, not too
expensi$e, but that shattered into pieces with the highest possible noise. It helps a little. In the
language of the physiology of beha$ior is called, according to Tinbergen, redirected, or displaced
by the action. e will see that this output is often used in nature to pre$ent the harmful effects of
aggression. A still%)uh kills his friend % and often3
E. )abit, ceremony and magic.
@id you % did not know the people,
@o not know the $alue of their words<
5oethe
@isplacement, the reorientation of the attack % this is probably a stroke of genius tool, in$ented by
e$olution to direct aggression in a safe direction. )owe$er, this is not the only means of this kind,
the great designers of e$olution % $ariation and selection % $ery rarely restricted to only one way.
The $ery essence of their experimental "dice game" allows them to often come across se$eral
options % and apply them together, doubling and tripling the reliability of the solutions to the same
problem. This is especially $aluable for a $ariety of beha$ioral mechanisms designed to pre$ent
in'ury or killing the neighbor. To explain these mechanisms, I will ha$e to start again from afar.
And abo$e all, I will try to describe one&s still $ery mysterious e$olutionary process that creates a
truly unbreakable laws to which social beha$ior is sub'ect to many of the higher animals as well
as acts of ci$ili-ed man % the most sacred customs and traditions.
hen my teacher and friend of #ir Culian )uxley shortly before the First orld ar made his in
the true sense of the word pioneer study of the beha$ior of grebes, he found a $ery curious fact:
some steps in the process of losing their own phylogeny, the original function and become purely
symbolic ceremony. This process he called rituali-ation. )e used the term without any !uotation
marks, ie unhesitatingly identified the cultural and historical processes leading to the emergence
of human rituals, with the processes of e$olution, which produced such a wonderful ceremony
animals. From a purely functional point of $iew, this identification is 'ustified, no matter how we
tried to keep a conscious distinction between the historical and e$olutionary processes. I will now
re$eal striking parallels between the rituals that ha$e arisen phylogenetically, culturally and
historically, and show how they are explained exactly in the identity of their functions.
A perfect example of how the ritual arises phylogenetically as it ac!uires its meaning and how
changes in the course of further de$elopment % pro$ides us with a study of the ceremony, the
female duck birds, the so%called pitting. 6ike many other birds from the same family organi-ation
in ducks females although smaller in si-e, but no less aggressi$e than males.
Therefore, when two couples often the case that inflamed anger duck mo$es to the hostile pair
too far, then frightened own courage and rushing back under the protection of the stronger
spouse.
,eside him she felt a new surge of courage and starts to threaten hostile pair, but this time it does
not lea$e a safe proximity of his drake.
In its original form, this se!uence is completely arbitrary in shape, depending on the game
opposing impulses that stimulate the duck. The time se!uence, which is dominated by militant
fer$or, fear, finding protection and a new desire to attack, clear and easy to read on the
expressi$e mo$ements of ducks, and abo$e all by its position in space. For example, our
+uropean shelduck this whole process does not contain any fixed ritual elements, except for a
certain head mo$ements associated with a particular sound. As with any other like it, bird, duck
runs in an attack in the direction of the enemy, low stretching his neck, and then, immediately
raised his head back to her husband. 7ery often, duck, running away, goes for @rake and goes
around him in a semicircle, with the result that % when it starts to threaten again % is in position on
the side of a spouse, with the head facing directly towards the enemy pair. ,ut often, if the flight
was not too panicked, she is content with the fact that only runs up to her and @rake stopped in
front of him, feeding him, so that the threat to the enemy she has to turn his head and pull the
neck back o$er his shoulder. It also happens that she is standing sideways in front of or behind
the drake, and cranes his neck at a right angle to the longitudinal axis of the body % in short, the
angle between the longitudinal axis of the body and elongated neck depends entirely on where
she is, her drake and the enemy who threatens it. 8o pro$ision is not for her preferred. In a
closely *gar, dwelling in +astern +urope and in Asia, it is pitting se$eral more rituali-ed. Although
this kind of female "still" can not stand next to her husband and threatening in front of him or
obegaya around him, to send out its threat to any angle to the longitudinal axis of the body&s own
% but in most cases it is facing drake, feeding him , and threatens a shoulder%to%back. And when I
saw one like a duck isolated pairs of this species produced mo$ement pitting "idle" % that is,
without irritating the ob'ect % it is also threatened by shoulder%to%back, as if seen nonexistent
enemy in this direction.
In true ducks % which belongs to our mallard, the ancestor of the domestic duck % pitting
chere-plecho back and turned to the only possible, mandatory form of mo$ement, so that the
female before they start pitting, always getting chest to @rake as close as possible to itK
respecti$ely, when he runs or swims % she follows him closely.
Interestingly, the mo$ement of the head through the shoulder%to%back so far include the initial
orientation reactions, which ha$e gi$en rise to all kinds of Tayogpa phenotypically % ie in terms of
shape, external appearance % similar but changeable shape of the mo$ement. This is best seen
when the duck begins to incite the $ery weak state of arousal and only gradually brings himself
into a rage. It may happen that at first % if the enemy is right in front of her % she will threaten
straight forward, but as her excitement grows, she shows an irresistible desire to pull the neck
back o$er his shoulder. That in this case there is always a reaction and other places, which tends
to draw a threat to the enemy % it can literally "read the eyes" duck: her eyes in$ariably confined to
the sub'ect of her wrath, although new, is firmly anchored coordination of mo$ement pulls her
head to the other side. If the duck said she probably would ha$e said: "I want there to threaten
someone else hated @rake, but something pulls me down3" The presence of two competing with
each other trends motion can pro$e ob'ecti$ely and !uantitati$ely, as follows: if a foreign bird, to
which application threat facing the duck, the de$iation of the head in the direction of rotation of
the back is the smallest. It increases the accuracy as much as increasing the angle between the
longitudinal axis of the body and the direction of ducks on the enemy. If he&s standing right behind
her, that angle is .GD degrees, the duck with beak gets almost instigating its own tail.
This conflict beha$ior of ducks at inciting allows only one single interpretation that must be true,
no matter how strange it may seem at first glance. ,y legkora-lichimym factors, of which
described the mo$ement initially emerged in the course of the e$olutionary de$elopment of the
species was 'oined by another, new, As I said, I shelduck flight to the spouse and the attack on
the enemy "still" !uite sufficient to fully explain the beha$ior of ducks. It is clear that in (allard are
the same moti$es, but due to their mo$ement imposed a new, independent from them.
4omplexity is extremely complicated the analysis of the picture, is that the newly arisen as a
result of rituali-ation instincti$e action is a hereditary trait copy of those actions which originated
as other incenti$es. *f course, this action occasionally manifests itself $ery differently % with
$arying force causing its independent stimuli % so again there is a rigid instincti$e coordination is
only one fre!uent option. This option is then schemati-ed % in a manner $ery reminiscent of the
occurrence of characters in the history of human culture. @o mallard original $ariety of ways,
which could be a spouse and the enemy schematically narrowed so that the first to stand in front
of a duck and the other behind her, of an aggressi$e "back" to the enemy and fleeing from the
moti$ated "here" to a spouse get merged in rigid ceremony and $ery orderly "back and forth" in
which this order and regularity in itself enhances the expressi$eness of mo$ements. 8ewly
formed instincti$e mo$ement becomes dominant at once, at first it was always there, along with
nerituali-o$annym sample and at first only slightly superimposed on it. For example, *gar
rudiments of coordination, causing the head to mo$e duck with incitement o$er his shoulder, you
can see only in the case if the ceremony is performed, "idle", ie in the absence of the enemy.
*therwise threatening mo$ement necessarily directed at him, due to the predominance of the
primary guiding mechanisms.
The process 'ust described is an example pitting mallards, typical of any phylogenetic
rituali-ation. It always consists in the fact that there are new instincti$e actions, the form of which
copies the form of $olatile beha$ior caused by multiple stimuli.
For those interested in family history and the origin of species should be added here that the
abo$e process is the direct opposite of the so%called phenocopies. About phenocopy say when
external influences acting on a solitary indi$idual, generate a picture 9"phenotype":, similar to that
in other cases determined by genetic factors, "copy" the picture. hen ritualisation emerging
genetic mechanisms inexplicably replicate beha$iors that were pre$iously phenotypically due to
the combined impact of $arious influences of the outside world. There would fit well the term
"genokopiya", in our 'argon, humorously painted institute, for which special terms and is not holy,
often used the term "popokeniya."
*n the example of incitement can demonstrate the originality of a ritual. It di$es inciting rituali-ed
somewhat different and more difficult.
For example, the red%nosed di$e not only the mo$ement of the threat to the enemy, but also
turning to his wife in search of protection rituals that fixed instincti$e mo$ement that arose
specifically for this. @uck this kind interlea$es periodically throwing the head back o$er his
shoulder with a marked turn to your spouse, and each time she raises and lowers her head again
with a raised beak, which corresponds to mimic exaggerate the mo$ement of the flight.
I play off a female white%eyed pochard dangerously long distance swims in the direction of the
enemy, and then returns to @rake repeatedly raising the beak of a mo$ement which in this case,
little or not at all different from the mo$ement during takeoff.
Finally, 5oldeneye incitement has become almost completely independent of the presence of a
fellow by the form, who represented himself to the enemy. @uck floating on his drake and the
correct timing makes sweeping motions neck and head, alternately to right%back and left%back,
not knowing the e$olution of intermediate steps, you can hardly find in this mo$ement a threat.
)ow far remo$ed in the process of rituali-ation progressi$e form of these mo$ements on the
shape of their nerituali-o$annyh prototypes, so the same changes and their implications. e
shelduck inciting "more" is !uite similar to the usual for this type of threat and its impact on the
drake also only slightly different from what is seen in nenatra$li$ayuschih species of ducks and
geese, as a friendly indi$idual attacks another: @rake catches his rage and 'oins the attack by
Alien. In some of the stronger and more pugnacious *gar, and especially the +gyptian geese
inciting action is many times stronger. These birds inciting really deser$es its name because the
males they react as ferocious dogs, 'ust waiting for the master&s words to the sign on the dream of
dreams to gi$e $ent to their rage. In these types of function pitting closely linked with the function
of protecting the site. )eynrot found that *gar, males generally get along well with the pen, if you
remo$e therefrom all females.
In true ducks and di$es the meaning of pitting de$eloped in the opposite direction. The former
rarely happens to duck under the influence of pitting females really said it attacked the "enemy",
which is actually in need of !uotes. In mallards, for example, inciting means simply a marriage
proposal, and is not an in$itation to mate % especially for this is the so%called "wiggle", which is
!uite different % namely, to long%term marital cohabitation. If drake is to accept the offer, then he
picks up the beak and head slightly turned away from the duck, $ery !uickly says "rebreb,
rebreb3" or, especially on the water, meets !uite certain, as rituali-ed ceremony "slurping and
preening." ,oth mean that drake mallard said his "yes" to propose to his duckK thus "rebreb" still
contains a trace of aggression, but remo$al of the head to one side when lifted its beak % this is a
typical gesture of appeasement. ith extreme excitement drake may be that he is in fact slightly
depict an attack on another drake, happened to be nearby. At the second ceremony 9"slurping
and preening": this does not happen e$er. 2itting on one side and "slurping a preening" on the
other % mutually stimulate each other, so the couple can continue their $ery long. +$en if the ritual
of "slurping and preening" originated from a gesture of embarrassment in the formation of which
initially participated and aggression % a rituali-ed mo$ement, what we see in the dabbling ducks,
it&s gone. They ceremony ser$es as a pure soothing gesture. In red%di$e and the other di$es I
ha$e ne$er seen a duck incitement led @rake to a serious attack.
Thus, if *gar and +gyptian geese $erbal incitement would ha$e sounded: "5oni this type3 @estroy
him3 ,ay3" Then di$es it means, in essence, merely, "I lo$e you." In many species, standing
somewhere between these two extremes, such as, for example, widgeon or in (allard, we find as
a transitional stage setting: ";ou are my hero, I trust you3" *f course, the message is concluded in
this symbol $aries depending on the situation, e$en within the same species, but a gradual
change in the symbol point undoubtedly took place in the direction indicated.
There are many other similar examples.
6et&s say cichlids common swimming stroke has become a gesture beckoning fry, and in one
particular case e$en addressed to them a warning signalK chickens clucking in the feeding
grounds became a call, turned to the cock and turned into sound explicit sexual content, and so
etc. etc.
I would like to take a closer look, only one series of successi$e differentiation of rituali-ed
beha$iors, taken from the life of insects. I appeal to this case, not only because he is perhaps
e$en better than the abo$e examples illustrate the parallels between the phylogenetic emergence
of such ceremonies and cultural%historical process of symboli-ation % but also because, in this
case the symbol is not limited to beha$ioral act, and takes the material form and becomes a
fetish, in the most literal sense of the word.
In many species, the so%called tolkunchiko$ 95erman title % "dancing fly":, standing close to
ktyryam 95erman title % "fly%killer," "predatory flies":, de$eloped as beautiful as it is expedient ritual
consists in the fact the male 'ust before pairing presents his belo$ed insect caught them suitable
si-e. hile she was busy that tastes this gift, he can impregnate her without the risk that it will eat
him: and such a danger in muhoyadnyh flies beyond doubt, especially since they ha$e larger
females than males. ithout a doubt, this is the danger of selection pressure exerted as a result
of which there was such a remarkable beha$ior. ,ut the ceremony was preser$ed and in such
form as the northern tolkunchik, and their females, besides the wedding feast, ne$er flies do not
eat. *ne of the 8orth American species, the males wea$e beautiful white balls that attract
females optical and containing se$eral small insects eaten by the female during mating. 6ikewise
is the case with the (auritanian tolkunchika, whose males are wo$en small fluttering $eils,
sometimes % but not always % wea$ing them into something edible. )a$e a fun alpine
muhiportnogo, more than any other worthy of the name "dancing fly", the males generally no
longer catch insects, and wea$e a small, ama-ingly beautiful $eil which is stretched in the air
between the middle and hind legs, and females react to the sight of these $eils.
"hen hundreds of these tiny shleyfonostse$ are in the air with sparkling dance of their small,
about / mm, shleyfiki, opal shining in the sun, are an ama-ing sight" % describes the collecti$e
wedding ceremony )eymons these flies in the new edition of ,ram.
#peaking at the instigation of the female duck, I ha$e tried to show that the emergence of a new
hereditary coordination takes a $ery significant part in the formation of a new ritual, and therefore,
that there is an autonomous and $ery rigidly fixed by the form of a se!uence of mo$ements, ie
nothing like a new instincti$e action. Tolkunchiko$ example, the dance mo$es are still waiting for
a more detailed analysis may be appropriate in order to show us a different, e!ually important
aspect of rituali-ation, namely % the newly emerging response, which the animal responds to the
symbolic message addressed to him the neighbor. Those kinds tolkunchiko$ whose females
recei$e only token loops or pellets without the edible contents % they ob$iously are responding to
these fetishes are no worse or better than their progenitor responded to a purely material gifts in
the form of edible oil. Thus there is not only a non%existent before the instincti$e action of a
specific function of the message from one of the relati$es, the "actor", but also an innate
understanding of the message of another, "percei$ing the person." The fact that we, at a
superficial obser$ation, it seems the single "ceremony," often consists of a number of elements of
beha$ior are mutually call each other.
The newly emerged motility acts of rituali-ed beha$ior is completely independent instincti$e
nature of the action, as well, and challenging situation % which in this case is largely determined
by the response beha$ior of the neighbor % gets all the properties satisfying the instinct of the final
situation: her eager for its own sake. In other words, the se!uence of actions that originally
ser$ed some other, ob'ecti$e and sub'ecti$e goals, it becomes an end in itself, once transformed
into an autonomous ritual.
It would be !uite wrong to say rituali-ed mo$ements in (allard pitting or e$en di$e "with" lo$e and
de$otion to her female spouse.
(arginali-e the instincti$e action % it is not a by%product, not the "epiphenomenon" bond
connecting the two animals, and it itself is the link. The constant repetition of such a pair of
ceremonies linking impressi$ely demonstrates the power of autonomous instinct that leads them
into action. If a bird loses a spouse, you lose and the only ob'ect that can defuse this your instinct,
and the way she&s looking for a lost partner, has all the hallmarks of the so%called appetentnogo,
search beha$ior, ie, irresistible desire to regain that sa$ing the external situation, which can
discharge the accumulated instinct.
)ere we must emphasi-e the extremely important fact that in the process of e$olution of
rituali-ation is always a new and completely self%contained instinct, which in principle is
independent as well as any of the so%called "core" instincts % food, reproduction, flight or
aggression. As with any of the abo$e, a newly emerged instinct takes place and a $oice in the
95reat Instincts 2arliament. And this, again, is important for our topic, because it is the instincts
that ha$e arisen in the process of rituali-ation, $ery often act in this 2arliament against
aggression and direct it in a safe direction and inhibit its manifestations that are harmful to the
species. 4hapter of the personal attachments, we will see how to perform this $ery important task
of the rituals that ha$e arisen 'ust reoriented mo$ements of attack.
The rituals that occur in the course of the history of human culture, not rooted in heredity, and
pass on the tradition, so that each indi$idual has to learn by teaching them again. ,ut despite this
difference, the parallels go so far that we can rightly omit !uotation marks here, as it did )uxley.
At the same time, these functional analogs show how to use a completely different mechanisms
great designer reach almost identical results.
Animals do not ha$e symbols transmitted by tradition from generation to generation. In general, if
want to gi$e a definition of an animal that would separate him from the people, then it should be
held here and abroad. )owe$er, in animals happens that indi$idually ac!uired experience is
passed from older to younger through training. This authentic tradition exists only in the forms of
animals with a high learning ability combined with highly de$eloped social life. #uch phenomena
are pro$ed, for example, crows, gray geese and rats. )owe$er, the transmitted knowledge is
limited by the simplest things, such as knowledge of the routes, certain foods or dangerous
enemies, and in rats, and more knowledge of the dangers of poisons.
An essential common feature which is present in these animals prime traditions, and the highest
in the cultural humans is habit. Jigidly fixing the already ac!uired, it plays the same role in the
de$elopment of traditions, as heredity in the e$olutionary appearance of rituals.
The crucial role of habits by simply learning the route the birds can gi$e a result similar to the
emergence of complex cultural rituals of a man much like % I understood it once because of an
e$ent that will ne$er forget. At the time, my main hobby was the study of a young gray goose,
which I raised from eggs, so she had to mo$e on my person all the beha$ior, which in normal
conditions would apply to her parents. This is a remarkable process that we call imprinting, and
about the goose (artin explained in detail in one of my pre$ious books. (artin in early childhood
has ac!uired a solid habit. hen a week old, she was !uite capable of climbing the stairs, I tried
not to carry her to her bedroom in her arms, as it happened e$ery night before, and lure her to go
by herself. 5ray geese do not respond to any touch, shy, so if possible it is better to protect them
from it. In the lobby of our altenbergskogo house to the right of the central door begins a staircase
leading to the upper floor. *pposite the door % a $ery large window. And when (artin dutifully
following behind me, came into this room % she was scared unusual situation and rushed to the
light, as it has always frightened the birds do, in other words, she ran straight from the door to the
window, past me, and I was standing on the first rung of the ladder. At the window she paused for
a few seconds, until relie$ed, and then followed him % to me on the stairs and follow me upstairs.
The same thing happened the next night, but this time her way to the window was slightly shorter,
and the time in which she had calmed down, too, was considerably reduced. In the days that this
process is continued: the delay has completely disappeared from the window, and also the
impression that the goose at all scared of something. The passage to the window are increasingly
becoming habit % and looked downright comical when (artin decisi$e step ran up to the window,
there is no delay unfolded, as well resolutely ran back to the ladder and climb up it was taken.
The familiar passage to the window is getting shorter, and turn%by .GDo rotation remained on all
the smaller angle. A year has passed % and with all of the way there was only one right angle:
instead of directly from the door to climb the first rung of the ladder at her right side, (artin ran
along the stairs to the left edge and, turning sharply to the right, began to rise.
At this time, it happened that one e$ening I forgot to let (artin&s house and take her to her room,
and when he finally remembered it came already deep twilight. I hurried to the door and opened it
slightly % 5oose in fear and haste s!uee-ed in through the crack in the door, then between my
legs and, against his habit, rushed to the stairs ahead of me. And then she did something that
e$en more was at odds with her habit: she shied away from its usual path and chose the shortest,
ie climbed onto the first rung on the near, right and start climbing up, cutting off the rounding
staircase. ,ut there was something truly ama-ing: getting to the fifth step, she suddenly stopped
and craned her neck and spread her wings to fly, as do the wild geese in a strong fear. In
addition, she has published a warning cry and almost took off. Then, after a moment, and turned
back, hastily descended back down, $ery carefully, as if performing a $ery important duty, ran his
longtime long 'ourney to the window and back again came to the stairs % this time, "according to
the ordinance," to the $ery left edge of the % and was climbing up. Jeaching back to the fifth step,
she stopped, looked around, then shook himself and made a welcome mo$e. These recent
actions are always seen in the gray geese when weathered fright gi$es way to calm down. I could
hardly belie$e my eyes. I did not ha$e any doubt about the interpretation of this e$ent: the habit
has become a custom that the goose could not $iolate without fear.
@escribed the incident and its interpretation gi$en abo$e, many may simply seem comical, but I
can assure that the expert on higher animals such cases are well known. (argaret Altman, who
in the monitoring of deer, elk and moose for months came in the wake of its facilities with an old
horse and e$en older mule made $ery interesting obser$ations and odd%toed o$er their
employees. 4ost her a few times to break camp at the same place % and was !uite impossible to
na$igate through this place its animals without e$en symbolically, a short stop with the remo$al
7yuko$, play breakdown and collapse camps. There is an old tragi%comic story of a preacher from
a small town in the American est, who unknowingly bought a horse before many years
belonged to a drunk. This Josinante forced his master 7enerable stop in front of e$ery ta$ern and
go there at least for a minute. As a result, he has ac!uired in his parish into disrepute and in the
end actually drank himself out of desperation. This history is always described only as a 'oke, but
it may well be true, at least in regard to the beha$ior of a horse.
+ducator, ethnologist, a psychologist and a psychiatrist in higher animals such beha$ior should
seem $ery familiar. Anyone who has children of their own % or at least more or less suitable as
uncle % he knows from his own experience, the persistence with which small children clinging to
e$ery detail of the usual one: for example, how they fall in real despair if, by telling them a story, a
little escape from one set of text. And who is able to self%obser$ation, one would ha$e to admit
that in the adult ci$ili-ed human habit, once it was fixed, has more power than we usually
recogni-e. *ne day, I suddenly reali-ed that dri$ing around 7ienna in the car, usually use different
ways to mo$e towards a target, and back away from it. This happened at a time when there was
no one%way streets, forcing it to go wrong. #o I tried to beat a sla$e of habit and decided to go
"there" in the usual way back, and $ice $ersa. A striking result of this experiment was the
unmistakable feeling fearful anxiety is so uncomfortable that I went back already familiar road.
+thnologist, hearing my story, immediately recalled to the so%called "magical thinking" of many
primiti$e peoples, which is still ali$e and well in the ci$ili-ed man. It makes most of us resort to
degrading petty sorcery like "pah%pah%pah3" as an antidote to the "e$il eye" or stick to the old
custom of throwing o$er his left shoulder three grains of spilled salt shakers, etc., etc.
Finally, a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, described the beha$ior of animals remind compulsi$e
need repetition, which is found in some form of neurosis % "obsessi$e%compulsi$e disorder" % and
in more subtle forms seen in so many children. I distinctly remember as a child persuaded himself
that would be awful if I nastuplyu not on stone, but on the gap between the plates of the
pa$ement in front of the 7ienna 4ity )all. Cust a children&s imagination inimitably showed AA
(ilne in one of his poems.
All these phenomena are closely related to one another because they ha$e a common root in one
and the same mechanism of beha$ior, the appropriateness of which to sa$e the species entirely
certain. For a being de$oid of understanding the causal relationships should be extremely useful
to stick to the line of conduct, which has % or once again % pro$ided a safe and leading to the goal.
If you do not know which details of the o$erall action se!uences are essential for the success and
safety, it is best to repeat the sla$e accuracy in its entirety. The principle of "what if something
happened" !uite clearly expressed in the already mentioned superstitions: forgetting to cast a
spell, people are afraid.
+$en when a person is aware of a purely random occurrence of a habit and is well aware that its
$iolation is not exactly a no%brainer % as in the example of my car routes % excitement, no doubt
associated with fear, forces still stick to it, and little by little sanded so the beha$ior becomes a
"fa$orite" habit. #o far as we can see in animals and humans, e$erything is exactly the same. ,ut
when a man is not himself becomes a habit, and gets it from their parents, from their culture % are
starting to sound new and important note. First, now he does not know what causes led to the
emergence of these rules, a de$out Cew or (uslim, ha$e an a$ersion to pork, with no idea that it
has introduced legislation to ban it because of the se$ere danger of trichinosis. And secondly, the
distance in time and gi$e the charm of the myth of the Father%figure 6awmakers such greatness
that his prescriptions seem to be di$ine, and their $iolation becomes a sin.
In 8orth American Indian culture emerged a beautiful ceremony of appeasement, which
capti$ated my imagination when I was still playing himself in the Indians: smoking kalyumeta,
peace pipes. 6ater, when I learned more about the e$olution of congenital rituals and their
meaning for the inhibition of aggression and, abo$e all, about the striking analogies between the
phylogenetic emergence and cultural symbols, I ha$e one, if ali$e, suddenly appeared before the
eyes of a scene that was to take place, when the first two Indians were enemies of friends,
because together to smoke the pipe.
#potted olf and #potted +agle, combat leaders of the two neighboring tribes of the #ioux, both
old and experienced soldiers, slightly tired to kill, decided to take a little used to this attempt: they
want to try to agree on the rights of hunting here this island that is washed ,obro$a small ri$er
separating hunting their tribal lands, rather than immediately take up the tomahawk. This
company from the $ery beginning a few painful as one might fear that the willingness to negotiate
will be interpreted as cowardice. #o when they finally meet, lea$ing behind his suite and weapons
% they are both extremely embarrassed, but no one dares to admit it e$en to himself, much less to
another. And now they are going to meet each other with pointed proud, e$en calling posture,
sternly looking at each other, sit down with all possible dignity ... And then, o$er time, nothing
happens, nothing at all. ho e$er negotiated with the Austrian or ,a$arian peasant to buy or
exchange of land or other similar business, he knows who first started talking about the sub'ect,
for which there is a meeting % he was already half lost. The Indians should be the same, and it is
difficult to say how long the two men sat well against each other.
,ut if you sit and do not dare to e$en lift a facial muscle, not to betray his emotion, and if willing to
do anything % many of which would ha$e made3 % ,ut the good reasons not to allow these actions,
in short, in a conflict situation is often a relief to do something third, something neutral, that has
nothing to do with any of the opposing moti$es, and in addition also allows you to show your
indifference to them both. In science this is called the offset effect, and in e$eryday language % a
gesture of embarrassment. All smokers, people I know in the case of internal conflict do the same
thing: climb into his pocket and light up his pipe or cigarette. 4ould it be otherwise of the people
who first disco$ered tobacco, which we ha$e learned to smoke<
That&s #potted olf % or, perhaps, it was #potted +agle % then lit his pipe, which at the time was
not yet peace pipe, and other Indian did the same thing.
ho is not familiar, this di$ine, relaxing catharsis smoking< ,oth leaders ha$e become calmer,
more confident, and this has led to the discharge of the o$erall success of the negotiations.
(aybe e$en at the next meeting of one of the Indians immediately lit his pipe, maybe sometime
later one of them was without a handset, and the other % is more centrally to it % offered his and
smoke together ... And maybe it took countless repetition of such incidents to the common mind
to gradually reali-ed that an Indian smoking a pipe, is far more likely is ready to agree than an
Indian without the tube. (ay ha$e been hundreds of years before the symbolism of smoking a
'oint is uni!uely and reliably identified the world. *ne thing is certain is that at first it was 'ust a
gesture of embarrassment for generations stuck in a ritual that connected e$ery Indian as law.
After co%smoked pipe attack became !uite impossible for him % in fact, because of the same
insurmountable internal obstacles that made the horses (argaret Altman stop at the usual place
of bi$ouac, and (artin % run to the window.
)owe$er, highlighting the effect of forcing or prohibiting the culturally and historically arisen
rituals, we would ha$e made an extraordinary one%sidedness and e$en would ha$e o$erlooked
the matter. Although the ritual prescribed by law and sanctified transpersonal caused by tradition
and culture % he always retains the character of a fa$orite habit, and moreo$er, his lo$e is much
stronger, it felt the need e$en more than a habit that has arisen in 'ust one indi$idual life. It is in
this sense of lo$e is hidden solemnity of ritual mo$ements and the external grandeur of the
ceremonies of each culture. hen iconoclasts belie$e splendor of the ritual is not only irrele$ant,
but e$en harmful formality that detracts from the inner recesses in essence % they are wrong. *ne
of the most important, if not the most important function, which is performed and cultural % and
e$olutionarily emerged rituals is that they both act as independent, acti$e incenti$es social
beha$ior. If we openly re'oice colorful attributes some old custom % for example, decorating the
4hristmas tree and lighting a candle on it % it means that the tradition we lo$e. ,ut this feeling of
warmth depends on our fidelity to a certain character, and all that it represents. This feeling of
warmth and adds $alue to us the fruits of our culture.
The pri$ate life of this culture, the creation of a community standing abo$e the indi$idual person
and longer than the life of the indi$idual % in short, e$erything that is true humanity, it is based on
the isolation of the ritual that turns it into an autonomous moti$e of human beha$ior.
+ducation through rituals tradition certainly stood at the origins of human culture, as well as
before, at a much lower le$el phylogenetic rituals education stood at the origin of the social life of
the higher animals. Analogies between these rituals, which we generally emphasi-e easy to
understand from the re!uirements of the rituals of their o$erall function.
In both cases, some sort of action by which a species or cultural community o$ercomes kakieto
external circumstances, takes on a whole new function % the function of the message. The original
purpose of such actions can be maintained in the future, but it often mo$es further and further into
the background and may e$entually disappear altogether, so that a typical change of function.
From the message in turn may occur two e!ually important functions, each of which is to a certain
extent and communicati$e. First % this is the direction of aggression in a safe direction, the second
% to build a strong alliance, the holding together of two or more brothers in mind. In both cases,
the selection pressure of the new features makes similar changes in the shape of the original,
nerituali-o$annogo action. (ixing a $ariety of different possibilities of beha$ior to a single, rigidly
fixed action, undoubtedly reduces the risk of ambiguity posts. The same goal can be achie$ed by
fixing strict fre!uency and amplitude of a specific se!uence of mo$ements. @esmond (orris
disco$ered this phenomenon and called it a "typical intensity" of the mo$ement, which ser$es as
a signal. 4ourtship gestures or threats in animals pro$ide many examples of this "typical
intensity", as many such examples in the ceremonies of human cultural and historical origins. The
rector and the deans are included in the assembly hall of the "ni$ersity of measured steps, the
singing of 4atholic priests during the (ass is exactly regulated by the liturgical rules and
ad'ustment, and the rhythm, and $olume. (oreo$er, the repetition of messages enhances its
uni!ueness, rhythmic repetition of a mo$ement typical of many rituals, as instincti$e and cultural
backgrounds. The informati$e $alue of rituali-ed mo$ements in both cases is aggra$ated
exaggeration of all those elements that are already in the original form nerituali-o$annoy the
recipient to an optical or acoustic signal, while the other elements % mechanical % are reduced or
completely eliminated.
This is a "mimic exaggeration" can result in the ceremony is actually $ery akin to the character
that produces theatrical effect, first noted by Culian )uxley under the super$ision of grebes. The
richness of forms and colors de$eloped for its special function, accompanied by a phylogenetic
and cultural%historical emergence of rituals. Ama-ing shapes and colors of #iamese fighting fish,
plumage of birds of paradise, striking colors mandrills front and back % all of this has occurred in
order to enhance the effect of certain rituali-ed mo$ements. There is little doubt that all human art
originally de$eloped in the ser$ice of a ritual, and that autonomous art % "Art for art&s sake" %
appeared only at the next stage of cultural de$elopment.
The immediate cause of all the changes through which the rituals that ha$e arisen
phylogenetically and kulturnoistoricheski ha$e become so similar to each other % is, of course, the
selection pressure that generates a signal: it is necessary to send signals correspond to the
limited abilities of perception at that destination, which must respond selecti$ely these signals,
otherwise the system will not work. A recei$er constructed selecti$ely responsi$e to the signal, the
easier the simpler 9and thus uni!ue: signals themsel$es. *f course, the transmitter and recei$er
ha$e on each other selection pressure that affects their de$elopment, and thus % in the mutual
adaptation % both can be highly speciali-ed.
(any instincti$e rituals, many cultural ceremonies, e$en the words of all human languages owe
their current form of this process of mutual adaptation of the transmitter and recei$er are one and
the other partners in the historically de$eloped communication system. In such cases, it is often
impossible to trace the emergence of a ritual to find his nerituali-o$anny prototype, because its
shape has changed beyond recognition. ,ut if the transitional stage of de$elopment of the line
can be learned from other li$ing species % or in other currently existing cultures % a comparati$e
study can afford to go back along the path along which went into its de$elopment the current form
of some fancy and elaborate ceremony . That is what makes comparati$e studies such appeal.
As with the phylogenetic and cultural rituali-ation in the newly emerging pattern of beha$ior takes
a $ery special kind of independence.
And instincti$e and cultural rituals become autonomous moti$ations of beha$ior, because they
themsel$es become a new goal that is becoming a pressing need of the organism. The $ery
essence of the ritual as a carrier independent moti$ating factors lead to the fact that he outgrows
its original function of communication and ac!uires the ability to perform two new, e!ually
important ob'ecti$es, namely % deterring aggression and the formation of connections between
indi$iduals of the same species. e ha$e already seen how the ceremony can turn into a strong
alliance that connects certain indi$iduals, in the ..th chapter, I will show in detail how the
ceremony, deter aggression may de$elop into a factor that defines all social beha$ior, which in its
external manifestations comparable to human lo$e and friendship.
Two steps of de$elopment, leading in the cultural rituali-ation of understanding to deter
aggression % and from there to the formation of personal relationships % certainly similar to those
which are obser$ed in the e$olution of instinct rituals shown in 4hapter .. of the example of the
triumphant cry of the geese. Triple function % a ban fighting between members of the group,
keeping them in a closed community, and the delimitation of the community from other similar
groups % so clearly manifested in the rituals of cultural background, this analogy suggests the
number of important considerations.
The existence of any group of people, superior in si-e, such a community, the members of which
may be related personal lo$e and friendship, based on these three functions, cultural and
rituali-ed beha$ior. 2ublic beha$ior is permeated with cultural rituali-ation to such an extent that it
is because of its ubi!uity is almost ne$er comes to our mind. If you want to gi$e an example of
deliberately nerituali-o$annogo human beha$ior, you ha$e to apply to actions that are not
explicitly produced as o$ert yawning or stretching, picking your nose or scratching in
neudobona-y$aemyh parts of the body.
All that is called manners, of course, is rigidly fixed cultural rituali-ation. The "good" manners % by
definition % are those that characteri-e his own group, we are always guided by their demands,
they become second nature. In e$eryday life we do not reali-e that their purpose is to inhibit
aggression and create social union. (eanwhile, it is they who create a "community group," as it is
called by sociologists.
Function permanent manner as a means of appeasing the mutual members of the group
becomes clear immediately when we are seeing the effects of this loss of function. I do not mean
the gross $iolation of customs, but only the absence of such small displays of courtesy, as looks
or gestures that people usually react, for example, the presence of his neighbor, coming into a
room. If someone feels offended members of their group and is included in the room in which
they are not performing this little ritual courtesy, and beha$es as if no one was there % this
beha$ior causes irritation and hostility in the same way as openly aggressi$e beha$ior. In fact,
such a deliberate suppression of normal appeasement ceremony is actually e!ui$alent to an
open aggressi$e beha$ior.
Any de$iation from the forms of communication specific to a particular group, causes aggression,
and because the members of the group are forced to accurately perform all the norms of social
beha$ior. ith a nonconformist treated so bad as a stranger, in simple groups, as exemplified by
the classroom or a small military unit, its most brutal way to sur$i$e. +ach uni$ersity professor,
who had children and worked in different parts of the country could watch the incredible speed
with which a child learns the local dialect to school friends did not re'ect it. )owe$er, the nati$e
dialect of the house is maintained. 4haracteristically, such a child is $ery difficult to induce to
speak a foreign language 9learned in school: in the domestic circle, except to ask him to recite
poetry. I suspect that the co$ert belonging to a different group than the family, young children felt
like a betrayal.
@e$eloped in the culture of social norms and rituals also typical for small and large human groups
as birth signs, ac!uired in the course of phylogeny, characteristic of the subspecies, species,
genera, and larger taxonomic units. The history of their de$elopment can be reconstructed
methods of comparati$e analysis. Their mutual differences which ha$e arisen in the course of
historical de$elopment, create boundaries between different cultural communities, 'ust as signs of
di$ergence creates boundaries between species. Therefore +rik +rikson had e$ery reason to call
this process "pse$do$idoobra-o$aniem."
Although pseudo%education is much faster than the separation phylogenetic species, but it takes
time. The beginning of the process in a nutshell % the emergence of a group of some custom and
discrimination uninitiated % can be seen in any group of children, but to gi$e the group some social
norms and rituals of strength and indestructibility, you must appear, their continued existence for
at least se$eral generations. Therefore, the smallest !uasi%species culture, which I can imagine %
a community of former students of the school kakoynibud ha$ing established traditions, it&s
astonishing how such a group of people retains its character !uasi%species o$er many long years.
*ften derided these days, "old school friendship" % is something $ery real. hen I meet a person
with the "aristocratic" bow accent % the former #cottish school student % I could not help feel a
cra$ing for it, I&m inclined to trust him and beha$e much kinder to him than with a completely
stranger.
An important function of polite manners especially well to study in social contacts among $arious
groups and subgroups of human cultures.
(uch of the habits, determined by good manners, is rituali-ed in the culture of exaggeration
gestures of submission, most of which probably dates back to the phylogenetically rituali-ed
beha$ior which had the same meaning. 6ocal notions of good manners in $arious cultural
subgroups re!uire !uantitati$ely different underscore these expressi$e mo$ements. A good
example is a gesture indicating attention to the other party, which is what the listener pulls the
neck and at the same time ,ar o$er his head emphatically, "substituting ear" speaker. This
mo$ement is willing to listen carefully and, if necessary, to obey. In the courteous manners of
some Asian cultures, this gesture is $ery much exaggerated, in Austria is one of the most
common gestures of politeness, especially in women of good family, and in other 4entral
+uropean countries, it seems, less common. In some areas of northern 5ermany, he is reduced
to a minimum or none at all, in the local culture is considered correct and courteous, the listener
held his head straight and looked directly into the face of the speaker, as is re!uired of a soldier
who recei$es an order. hen I arri$ed from 7ienna to ?Nnigsberg % and the difference between
the two cities, in !uestion, is especially great % took a long time before I got used to the gesture of
polite attention, adopted at the +ast 2russian ladies. I expected more from a woman with whom
con$ersation, though she re'ects his head slightly, and because % as she sat $ery straight and
looked me straight in the face % could not escape the thought that saying something inappropriate.
*f course, the meaning of such gestures is determined exclusi$ely by courtesy agreement
between transmitter and recei$er in the same communication system. hen communicating the
cultures in which these agreements are different, misunderstandings are bound to arise.
If we measure the Capanese gesture, "#ubstitutes ear," +ast 2russian scale, it can be interpreted
as a sign of subser$ience miserable, to the Capanese as polite attention of the 2russian ladies
impress implacable hostility.
+$en $ery small differences in the agreements of this kind can cause incorrect interpretation of
rituali-ed cultural and expressi$e mo$ements. The ,ritish and 5ermans are often considered
southerners "unreliable" because their interpretation exaggerated gestures of friendliness in
accordance with their own agreement and expect them far more than was behind these gestures
in real life. The unpopularity of the northern 5ermans from 2russia especially in southern
countries is often based on a misunderstanding of the re$erse. ell I&m sure the American society
often seemed rude 'ust because I find it difficult to smile as often as re!uired by the American
manners.
There is no doubt that these $ery minor misunderstandings contribute to the bitterness of different
cultural groups. The man had misunderstood % as described abo$e % the social gestures of other
cultures, feels cheated and betrayed insulted. The mere failure to understand the expressi$e
gestures and rituals of another culture institute such distrust and fear that this could easily lead to
o$ert aggression.
From minor features of the language or beha$ior, combining the smallest community, is a
continuous gamma transitions to the $ery complex, consciously performed and percei$ed as
symbols of social norms and rituals that bind the largest social community of people % a nation,
culture, religion or political ideology. In principle it is possible to study these systems a
comparati$e method, in other words % to study the laws of this pse$do$idoobra-o$aniya, although
such a task would ha$e been certainly more difficult than the study of a species, as it is often one
would face the superimposition of different concepts of how, for example, national and religious
4ommunity.
I ha$e stressed that e$ery norm rituali-ed social beha$ior gaining momentum at the expense of
emotional o$ertones. +rik +rikson has recently shown that the habit of distinguishing between
good and e$il begins in early childhood and continues to de$elop until the person&s maturity.
7I. 5reat instincts parliament.
6ike e$erything in the unity of wo$en,
*ne is embodied in the other3
5oethe
As we saw in the pre$ious chapter, the e$olutionary process of rituali-ation always creates a new,
stand%alone instinct that intrudes into the general system of all other instinctual dri$es as an
independent force. )is action, which, as we know, the original is always sending a message % in
the "communication" % can block the damaging effects of aggression is what makes possible the
understanding of neighbors. 8ot only do people !uarrel often arise from the fact that one
mistakenly belie$es if the other wants to do him harm. Already this is the $ital importance of the
ritual for our theme. ,ut apart from that % as will become e$en clearer by the example of the
triumphant cry of geese % a new instinct as a self%moti$ation may ac!uire such power that is able
to successfully oppose aggression in the 5rand 2arliament Instincts. To explain how the ritual,
blocking the aggression, but not weakening it on the merits and not interfering with her foster
conser$ation of the species % what we talked about in the third chapter % it is necessary to say
something about the system of interactions instincts at all. This system resembles a parliament
that is more or less complete system of interactions between the set of independent $ariables, as
well as the fact that it truly democratic procedure occurred from historical experience % and
although not always result in complete harmony, but it creates at least , tolerable compromise
between the $arious interests.
hat exactly is a "separate" instinct< For the names that are often used in e$eryday speech to
refer to $arious instinctual dri$es, stuck harmful legacy "finalisticheskogo" thinking.
Finalist % in the bad sense of the word % a person who confuses the !uestion "why<" with the
!uestion "why," and as a result thinks he, with a $alue of a function for the conser$ation of the
species, it has sol$ed the problem of its causal origin. It is easy and tempting to postulate the
existence of a special moti$ation, or instinct, for any function that can be easily identified and
whose importance for the conser$ation of the species is $ery clear, as, say, nutrition,
reproduction, or flee. As a habitual traffic "instinct of reproduction3" Cust do not try to persuade
himself % as, unfortunately, many researchers are doing % as if these words explain the
corresponding phenomenon. The terms corresponding to these definitions, is no better than the
concepts of "phlogiston" or "fear of emptiness" 9"horior $acui":, which only referred to the
phenomenon, but "falsely pretend to contain their explanation," as Cohn @ewey said sternly. #ince
we are in this book seek to find a causal explanation of dysfunction of one of the instincts % the
instinct of aggression % we can not confine oursel$es a desire to find a "why" need this instinct, as
it was in the third chapter.
e need to understand its normal reasons to look into the causes of the $iolation and, if possible,
to learn how to eliminate these $iolations.
The acti$ity of the organism, which can be called by its function % nutrition, reproduction, or e$en
self%preser$ation % of course, there is ne$er the result of only a single cause or a single impulse.
Therefore, the $alue of such concepts as "the instinct of reproduction" or "instinct" is as worthless
as negligible $alue of the concept would be some kind of special "motor force", which I could with
the same right to enter an explanation for the fact that my old good car still dri$es. ,ut who pays
for repairs as a result of which this is possible % and that would ne$er belie$e this mystical force:
here it is in repairs3 ho is familiar with pathological disorders innate mechanisms of beha$ior %
these arrangements we call instinct % he ne$er thinks like animals and e$en human beings, led by
some guides factors that are understandable only from the point of $iew of the final result, and the
causal explanation can not be and does not re!uire it.
,eha$ior, in terms of a single function % for example, food or breeding % always caused by a
complex interaction of many physiological reasons. 7ariation and selection, e$olution of the
designers, this interaction "in$ented" and thoroughly tested it. #ometimes all the physiological
reasons for it are capable of mutually balanced, and sometimes one of them affects the other to a
greater extent than is sub'ect to reciprocal influence on the part of some of them relati$ely
independent of the total system interactions and affect it more than it is on them. A good example
of such elements, relati$ely independent from the whole skeleton bones are.
In the area of coordination of beha$ior inherited or instincti$e actions are elements clearly
independent from the whole. ,eing as unchanged form, as $ery strong bones of the skeleton,
each of them has its own special power o$er the body. +ach % as we already know % re!uires
$igorous words, if he had to be silent for a long time, and forcing an animal or a person acti$ely
look for a situation that encourages and makes it produce this instincti$e action, and not any
other. #o it would be a great mistake to suppose that e$ery instincti$e action,
$idosohranyayuschaya function of which is, for example, food%producing, must necessarily be
due to hunger. e know from their dogs, they sniff with great passion, prowling, chase, grab and
tear when not hungryK e$ery dog lo$er knows that gambling can not be a hunting dog,
unfortunately, weaned from his passion no feeding. The same is true of the instincti$e actions of
prey capture in cats, with respect to the known "soundings" from starlings that run almost
continuously and completely no matter how hungry starling % in short, to all small ser$ants of
conser$ation of the species, whether it be running, flight, bite, kick, washing, digging, etc. +ach
hereditary coordination has its own spontaneity and causes its own search beha$ior. #o these
small pri$ate moti$es are completely independent of each other< And the mosaics, the functional
integrity of which only arises in the course of e$olution< In some extreme cases, this may be true,
until recently regarded as special cases of such a general rule. In the heroic times of comparati$e
ethology, and it was belie$ed that only one moti$ation always takes possession of the animal
thoroughly and completely. Culian )uxley used the beautiful and apt comparison, which I !uote
for many years in his lectures he said that a person or an animal % a ship commanded by many
captains. In humans, these commanders can be on the bridge at the same time, and e$eryone is
free to express their opinions, sometimes they come to a reasonable compromise that offers the
best solution to the problem, rather than a single opinion cle$erest of them, but sometimes they
fail to reach an agreement, and then ship left without any reasonable guidance. The animals,
howe$er, adhere to the captains of persuasion, that at any time only one of them has the right to
be on the bridge, so e$eryone should lea$e as soon climbed up the other. 6ast attracti$ely
compare accurately describes some instances of animal beha$ior in conflict situations, and
because we then ha$e o$erlooked the fact that it is only !uite rare special cases. In addition, the
simplest form of interaction between the two ri$al impulses manifested in the fact that one of them
is suppressed, or simply turn off the other: so that was !uite natural and right for the beginning to
stick to simple phenomena, it is easiest to analy-e, although not the most common.
In fact, the two moti$es that can change independently of each other, there can be any
concei$able interaction. *ne of them may be one%sided support and strengthen the other, and
both can mutually support each other, are not engaging in any interaction, summed up in one and
the same beha$ioral act and, finally, can mutually inhibit each other. In addition to many other
interactions, the enumeration of which would take us too far, there is finally a rare and special
occasion when the weakest at the moment of the two impulses off more se$ere as the trigger is
working on the principle of all%or%nothing. *nly one case this corresponds compared )uxley, and
only about one and only moti$ation we can say that it is usually suppresses all others % about the
moti$ation to escape. ,ut e$en this instinct often finds a host.
4on$entional, fre!uent, reusable "cheap" instincti$e actions I described abo$e "small ser$ants of
conser$ation of the species" are often in possession of se$eral "big" instincts. First of all the
action mo$ing % running, flying, swimming, etc. % but also other actions that the animal bite, bites,
grabs, etc. % may also ser$e food, and multiply, and escape, and aggression that we here call
"big" instincts. As they thus ser$e as a tool of $arious systems of higher order and submit to them
% especially the aforementioned "big four" % as a source of moti$ation, I called them in another
work of instrumental actions. )owe$er, this does not mean that such actions are depri$ed of its
own spontaneity. *n the contrary, in accordance with a common principle of the natural economy
needed to, say, a wolf or a dog #pontaneous elementary moti$es % sniff, prowl, chase, grab, tear %
was set up about those re!uirements, which makes them hungry 9in $i$o:. If we eliminate hunger
as moti$ation % using a $ery simple measure, constantly filling the bird feeder itself a tasty meal %
it immediately becomes clear that the animal sniffs, looking for trail running and riding almost the
same as in the case where all of this acti$ity is necessary to meet the need for food. ,ut if the dog
is $ery hungry % she does it all measurable acti$ity. Thus, although the abo$e%mentioned tools
ha$e their own instincts and spontaneity, but hunger causes them to greater acti$ity than they
would manifest themsel$es.
That&s right: the moti$ation may be are moti$ated3
#uch exposure spontaneous functions incenti$es going somewhere on the side % it&s physiology is
not an exception and is not news. Instincti$e action is a reaction % in cases where it should be in
response to some external stimulus irritation or some other moti$ation. *nly in the absence of
such incenti$es, it takes its own spontaneity.
A similar phenomenon has long been known for stimulating the heart center. )eartbeat normally
caused by automatic rhythmic pulses, which produces the so%called sinoatrial node % a body of
highly speciali-ed muscle tissue and at the entrance of blood into the atrium. A little further along
the blood flow in the transition into the $entricle is the second such body % the atrio$entricular
node, which leads from the first bundle of muscle fibers that transmit arousal. ,oth sites produce
pulses are capable to induce $entricular contraction. The sinus node is faster than the
atrio$entricular, so the last, under normal circumstances, ne$er is able to act spontaneously,
e$ery time when he is about to shoot her slowly exciting pulse, it gets a boost from his "boss" and
shoots a little earlier than would ha$e done it by being left to himself. Thus, the "boss" impose
"subordinate" their own working rhythm. 8ow, we carry out a classic experiment and fail #tannius
communication between nodes, cutting beam excitation conducti$e, so we free the
atrio$entricular node from the tyranny of the sinus, and in this case the first one does what is
often done in such cases, subordinates % and stops working waits for the command. In other
words, my heart stops for a moment, it has long been called the "pre%automatic pause". After a
short rest, the atrio$entricular node suddenly "notice" that he, in fact, and he is perfectly capable
to work out the necessary impetus and some time to send him to the heart muscle. 2re$iously
had ne$er reached, because he always got behind a push for a split second earlier.
In the same terms as the atrio$entricular node with sinus is most instincti$e beha$ior with different
sources of moti$ation of higher orders. )ere the situation is complicated by the fact that, first, $ery
often, as in the case of instrumental responses, one ser$ant can ha$e multiple owners, and
secondly % these hosts can be $ery different nature. It may be bodies rhythmically and
automatically generating excitement as sinus node, can be receptors, internal and external,
recei$ing and transmitting on % in the form of pulses % both external and internal stimuli, which
include tissue needs such as hunger, thirst, or lack oxygen. It is, finally, there may be endocrine
glands, hormones that stimulate !uite certain neural processes. 9The word "hormone" comes
from the 5reek *J( O w, "urge":. #uch acti$ities, howe$er, led by some higher authority, ne$er
has the character of a pure "reflex", ie the whole system of instincti$e action does not beha$e like
a machine that % if not necessary % howe$er long standing around and "wait" when someone
clicks on the button. Jather, it looks like a horse: it needs the reins and spurs to obey the master,
but it is necessary to dri$e e$ery day to pre$ent symptoms of excess energy, which under certain
circumstances can become really dangerous, as, for example, in the case of intraspecific
aggression, instinct, interest e first of all.
As already mentioned, the number of spontaneously occurring instincti$e actions always
approximates the expected needs. #ometimes it would be appropriate to calculate it more
economical manner, such as in the case of the atrio%$entricular node, when it produces more
pulses than the "purchase" it sinus node, while in humans occurs with neurosis notorious
extrasystole, etc. is reducing unnecessary $entricular dramatically interfere with normal cardiac
rhythm. In other cases, permanent o$erproduction can be harmless and e$en useful. If, say, the
dog runs longer than it needs to search for food, or a horse without any external cause rears,
'umps and kicks 9motion flight and protection from predators: % is a healthy exercise and,
therefore, the preparation of "a last resort . "
The most abundant "o$erproduction" of instrumental action should be seen there, tae the least
predictable of what they need in each case to perform $idosohranyayuschey function of the
totality of these actions. #ometimes hunting cat may be forced to wait at (ousehole for se$eral
hours, and at other times she would not ha$e to wait no, no creep % succeed in a sharp 'ump to
grab the mouse, accidentally ran past. )owe$er % it is easy to imagine, and as you can see by
watching the cats in their natural en$ironment % the a$erage cat has a long and patient wait and
sneak up before she will be able to perform the final step: to kill and eat their prey. In obser$ing
this se!uence easily begs incorrect analogy with purposeful human beha$ior, and we can not
help tend to the assumption that the cat performs his hunting action only "for the sake of
saturation."
;ou can experiment to pro$e that it is not. 6eyhau-en gi$e a cat a mouse%hunter after another
and watched the se!uence in which indi$idual actions fell caught and eating prey. First of all, the
cat stopped eating, but killed a few mice and left them.
Then she got sick to kill, but she continued to conceal mice and catch them. #till later, when
depleted and fishing acti$ities, guinea cat has not ceased to hunt down mice and sneak up on
him, and it is interesting that she always chose those that were running at the greatest possible
distance from it, in the opposite corner of the room, and did not pay attention to those that
crawled under her nose.
In this study, easy to count how many times each of these is made of partial actions until it is
exhausted. The resulting numbers are clearly related to the a$erage normal demand. It goes
without saying that a cat has often wait in ambush and sneak up before she could e$en get close
to their prey so that the attempt to catch it would ha$e any chance of success. *nly after many
such attempts mining falls into claws, and can tear, but it also does not always work the first time,
so it should ha$e its own set of deadly bites of each mouse, which is to be eaten.
Thus, whether produced some of the partial actions only on its own motion or on any more % and
for what it is % a complex beha$ior of this kind depends on the external conditions that determine
the "demand" for e$ery single action. As far as I know, the first time this idea is clearly expressed
child psychiatrist Jene #pit-. )e obser$ed that infants who recei$ed milk in bottles, of which it is
too easy to suck out, after complete saturation and failure of these bottles remained unspent
margin sucking mo$ements, they had to work on his kakomnibud the replacement facility. 7ery
similar is the case with food and obtaining food from geese when they are kept in a pond where
there is no food that could get off the bottom. If you feed the geese alone on the shore, then
sooner or later you will see that they di$e "idle." If you feed them on the shore of some grain to
saturation % until you stop eating % and then throw the same grain in the water, the birds
immediately begin to di$e and raised out of the water to eat the food. It can be said that they "eat
to di$e." ;ou can hold back and experiment a long time to gi$e the geese feed only on limiting the
depth of information a$ailable to them, so they had to get him out di$ing with great difficulty. If you
feed them so long as they do not stop eating, and then gi$e them the same food on the beach %
they will eat e$en a fair amount, and thereby pro$e that before they had "di$ed to eat."
As a result, it is impossible any generali-ed statement about which of the two instances of
spontaneous moti$ate or encourage others dominates her.
#o far we ha$e talked only about the interaction of such partial moti$es, which together perform
some common function, in this example % the power of the body. #e$eral different sources are the
relations between the moti$es that perform different functions, and therefore belong to the
systems of different instincts. In this case, the rule is not mutual reinforcement or support, as well
as a competition: each of the well%meaning "want to be right." As first shown by +rich $on )olst,
at the le$el of the smallest muscle contractions stimulate some items can not only compete with
each other, but % more importantly % at the expense of law%go$erned mutual influence can create a
reasonable compromise. Takoe$liyanie is % in general terms % the fact that each of the two
endogenous rhythms seeks to impose its own fre!uency to another and keep it in a constant
phase shift. The fact that all the ner$e cells that inner$ate the muscle fibers kakoylibo always
rationally shoot their impulses in the same time % this is the result of such interference. If it fails,
then start fibrillar muscle spasms, which can often be seen with extreme ner$ous exhaustion. At a
higher le$el of integration with limb mo$ement % for example, fish fin % the same processes lead to
the rational interaction mshts % antagonists "that alternately mo$e the corresponding body parts in
opposite directions. +ach rhythmic cyclic motion of fins, legs or wings, which we find in any
mo$ement of animals % is the work of "antagonist", not only muscles but also stimulating the ner$e
centers. These mo$ements are always the conse!uence of a "conflict" between the independent
and competing sources of pulse energies are ordered and directed to the common good laws
"relati$e coordination" $on )olst described as a process of mutual influence, in !uestion.
#o, no "war % the beginning of e$erything," but rather a conflict between mutually independent
sources of pulses, which creates tension in the whole structure, working 'ust as hard fixture,
gi$ing the whole strength and stability. This applies not only to the simple functions such as the
mo$ement of the fin, which $on )olst opened the patterns of relati$e coordinationK tested
parliamentary rules are forcing a great $ariety of sources of $arious moti$es 'oin their $oices to
the harmony that ser$es the common good.
As a simple example, we are here to ser$e the mo$ement of facial muscles, which can be
obser$ed in the dog in the conflict between the moti$es of attack and escape. This mimicry, which
is called the menacing generally appears only in the e$ent that the tendency to attack inhibited by
fear, e$en the slightest.
If there is no fear, the dog bites without any threats with the same serene countenance, which
displayed in the upper left corner of the illustration, it produces only a small $oltage is about the
same with what the dog looks at 'ust brought a bowl of food. If the reader knows the dog, he can
attempt to interpret the dog&s mu--le expression shown in the illustration before reading on. Try to
imagine a situation in which your dog Assumed a mine. And then % the second exercise % try to
predict what it will do next.
For some images I will pro$ide the solution itself. I would guess that the dog in the middle of the
top row is opposed to roughly e!ual opponent, who seriously respects, but not too afraid, that,
like himself, hardly dare to attack. ith respect to their subse!uent beha$ior, I would say that
both of them for a moment will remain in the same position, then slowly disperse, to "sa$e face",
and finally, at some distance from each other, at the same time -aderut hind paw. @og at the top
right is also not afraid, but angrier, meeting can proceed as described abo$e, but may bounce
pass into a serious fight, especially if the second show at least some uncertainty. The thoughtful
reader % and this is the probably the one who read the book up to this point % has long been
noticed that the dog portraits are placed on an illustration in a specific order: aggression
increases from left to right, and fear % from top to bottom.
The interpretation of the beha$ior and its prediction is easiest in extreme cases, and of course,
the expression, as shown in the lower right corner, !uite clearly. This kind of fear and rage can
occur simultaneously in a single case: the dog is opposed to the hated enemy, calling her panic,
and being $ery close % but for some reason can not run. I can imagine only two situations in which
this is possible: either the dog is mechanically linked to a particular place % say, a cornered, fell
into a trap, and the like % or is a bitch that protects her brood from the approaching enemy.
2erhaps e$en a possible romantic e$ent, which is especially true dog defends his lying, seriously
ill or in'ured host.
It is e!ually clear what would happen if an enemy, no matter how he was o$erwhelmingly strong,
e$en though closer to the pitch % followed by a desperate attack, "critical reaction" 9)ediger:.
(y dog understands the reader now has done exactly what ethologists % after 8. Tinbergen and C.
$an ;erselem % called moti$ational analysis. This process basically consists of three steps, where
the information is obtained from three sources. First, try if possible to detect all kinds of
incenti$es, prisoners in some situations. @oes my dog is afraid of the other, and if so % how
much< )e hates his or honors as an old friend and "leader of the pack"< .. And so on and so
forth.
#econd, seek to expand the mo$ement into its component parts. *ur illustration of the dogs can
be seen as a tendency to escape back and pulls down the corners of his mouth and ears, while
aggression is raised when the upper lip and slightly opened mouth % both "motion design" are
preparing to bite. #uch mo$ements % and therefore poses % well amenable to !uantitati$e
analysis. ;ou can measure their amplitude and say that such and such a dog for so many
millimeters scared and angry so much. After this analysis of mo$ements followed by a third stage:
the calculated actions that follow the motion detection. If it is our conclusion drawn from the
analysis of situations and mo$ements that, say, the upper right dog 'ust furious and hardly scared
% this has expressi$e mo$ement almost always be followed by an attack, and almost ne$er
escape.
If it is true that the dog is placed in the center 9Fig. e:, rage and fear mixed in roughly e!ual, then
for such a facial expression in about half the cases should be followed by an attack, but in the
middle % the flight. Tinbergen and his staff ha$e spent a huge amount of moti$ational analy-es on
suitable sites, especially at the threatening mo$ements of gulls, compliance statements deri$ed
from three sources mentioned abo$e, pro$ed the correctness of the conclusions on extensi$e
statistical material.
hen young students are well aware of animals begin to teach the techni!ues of moti$ational
analysis, they are often disappointed: the time%consuming work, many statistical calculations in
the end only lead to that and so long known to e$ery intelligent person who can see and who
knows his animals.
)owe$er, the $ision and pro$en knowledge % are two different things, this is where the line
between art and science. #cientist looking for e$idence, the great seer too easily belie$es "the
unhappiest of mortals" % and $ice $ersa, the use of direct perception as a source of knowledge
seems to be a scientist analytics is highly suspicious. The study of beha$ior there is e$en a
school % American orthodox beha$iorism % which is seriously trying to exclude from their direct
obser$ation techni!ues animals. Jeally, is to work hard in order to pro$e "blind," but all sensible
people that we saw, so to pro$e that they had to belie$e that e$eryone belie$ed it3
*n the other hand, statistical analysis can turn our attention to the inconsistencies still eludes our
image perception. It is arranged in such a way that re$eals the patterns and therefore always
sees e$erything more beautiful and correct than it actually is.
The solution offered us the perception, often has the character although $ery "elegant", but too
simplified working hypothesis. Cust in case study of moti$ations rational analysis is often possible
to find fault with the imaginati$e perception and catch him in error.
(ost of all conducted so far moti$ational analy-es examined beha$ioral acts, which in$ol$e only
two mutually competing instinct, and, as a rule, two of the "big four" 9hunger, lo$e, flight and
aggression:. In the study of conflict between the moti$es, conscious choice of the simplest
possible case is 'ustified by the current modest le$el of our knowledge. #imilarly, classical
ethology were right when limited only to those cases in which the animal is under the influence of
a single impulse. ,ut we must be clear that the beha$ior is determined by only two components%
meaning % this is truly rare, it occurs only slightly more often than the one that is called only one
instinct acting without any interference.
Therefore, the search for a suitable facility for exemplary precision moti$ational analysis correctly
recei$es the one who chooses the beha$ior that we know with some certainty that it in$ol$ed only
two instincts of the same weight. #ometimes it is possible to use a technical trick, as did my
colleague )elga Fischer, conducting moti$ational analysis of the threat from the gray geese. It
turned out that the mother of our lake geese +ss =ee, the interaction of aggression and flight in a
pure form of study is not possible, because the expressi$e mo$ements of birds there, "speaks"
too many other moti$ations, primarily sexual. ,ut a few random obser$ations showed that the
$oice of sexuality almost completely silent when the geese are in an unfamiliar place. Then they
beha$e in much the same way as a migratory flock of the way: keep a much closer, become more
skittish, and in his social conflicts can watch displays both studied instincts in a more pure form.
5i$en all that, Fisher with training fodder managed to teach our 5oose "by order" to go to another
area for them, she chose the fence of the Institute, and to gra-e there. Then, of geese, each of
which is, of course, is known by a combination of multi%colored rings, a chosen one % usually a
gander % and for a long time seen his aggressi$e clashes with fellow herd, and recorded all the
obser$ed expressi$e mo$ements of the threat. And because of the pre$ious long%term
obser$ations of this flock were known in detail the relationship between the indi$idual birds in the
sense of hierarchy and power % especially among the higher ranks of the old ganders, % there
seemed a particularly good opportunity to accurately analy-e situations. Analysis of mo$ements
and the subse!uent conduct of registration is as follows. )elga Fischer e$er had with him
)+J+I8 "chart patterns", which was the artist of our Institute )erman ?aher on the basis of
logged accurately in cases of threats, so that in each case, she had only dictate: "(ax did @
)ermes, who was gra-ing and slowly approached the him, )ermes said, +, what (ax said F&& ". A
series of illustrations brings so subtle differences threatening gestures that only in exceptional
circumstances, had to pose as denoted noticed by @%+ or ?%6, if one were to describe the
intermediate form.
+$en so, almost ideal for a "pure culture" of the two moti$ations, sometimes there is a mo$ement
that can not be explained only by the interaction of these two reasons. About threatening motions
A and ,, when the neck is extended forward and up, we know that both impulses superimposed
independent third % the desire for security sur$eillance with his head. @ifferences between the
rows A % 4 and @ % F, each of which is increasing from left to right against the fear of social
approximately e!ual aggressi$eness is apparently only to $arying intensities of the two impulses.
In contrast, with regard to forms of (%* is !uite clear that they are attended by some more
moti$ation, the nature of which is not yet clear.
As already mentioned, to find as a moti$ational analysis of ob'ects such cases, alkaline in$ol$ed
only two sources of moti$ation % is, of course, the right strategy research. )owe$er, e$en under
such fa$orable conditions should be closely and constantly look out for the elements of
mo$ements that can not be explained only by the ri$alry of these two reasons.
,efore beginning any such analysis should answer the first and fundamental !uestion: how many
moti$ations are in$ol$ed in this action, and which ones. To sol$e this problem, many scholars,
such as 2. 7ipkema, recently successfully used the exact methods of factor analysis.
+legant example of a moti$ational analysis, which from the start had to take into account three
main components, presented in his doctoral thesis, my student ,eatrice +hlert. The sub'ect of the
study was the beha$ior of some cichlids when two unknown indi$iduals. 4hosen such species in
which males and females do not differ in appearance, which is why two strangers always react to
each other&s actions that are moti$ated both by flight, aggression and sexuality. These fish
mo$ement due to each indi$idual source of moti$ation differ particularly easy, because e$en the
smallest characteri-es the intensity of their different orientation in space. All sexually moti$ated
acts % digging holes under the nest, cleaning the nest, eggs and self ,uttonhole her insemination %
are directed towards the bottom, all flight mo$ements, e$en the slightest hints of them are
directed away from the enemy and, for the most part, while the surface of the water, and all
mo$ements aggression % except for certain mo$ements threaten to some extent "burdened flight"
% are oriented in the opposite direction. If you know these common rules, and in addition some
special moti$ation rituali-ed expressi$e mo$ements, then these fish can be $ery accurately set
the aspect ratio, which are called instincts, defining their beha$ior at the moment. It also helps
that many of them sexual, aggressi$e or timorous mood to dress up in different characteristic
colors.
This moti$ational analysis ga$e an unexpected side effect % ,eatrice +hlert opened the
mechanism of mutual recognition of e!uality, which is, of course, not only in these fish, but also a
great many other $ertebrates. e studied male and female fish are not only resemble each other,
their mo$ements, e$en during sex % when sewing and her calf insemination % match up to the
smallest detail. Therefore, until now it has been !uite pu--ling that the same beha$ior of these
animals pre$ents their appearance of same%sex couples. The most important re!uirements are
made regarding obser$ation ethologist, include the fact that he has to see if any of the
widespread effects in an animal or group of animals is not found.
For example, in birds and reptiles ha$e no coordination of a wide open mouth at the same time a
deep breath % what we call a yawn, 9<: % And it is taxonomically important fact, which no one
)eynrota noticed. There are other similar examples.
Therefore, the disco$ery that heterosexual couples ha$e cichlids arise due to the lack of certain
elements of beha$ior in males and other females % this is truly a masterpiece of accurate
obser$ation. The fish, which !uestion the compatibility of three ma'or instinct % aggression,
escape and sexuality % males and females are different: the male is not a mixture of moti$ations
flight and sexuality. If the male is 'ust a little afraid of his partner, his sexuality is turned off
completely. Females ha$e the same relationship between sexuality and aggression: if the lady is
not so much "respect" their partner to its aggressi$eness was completely suppressed, it is simply
not in a position to show respect to him sexual response. It turns into a ,runnhilde and attack him
more fiercely than would ha$e been more willing to sexual response, ie the closer it is to
spawning in the sense of the state and the le$el of o$arian hormone production. The male, on the
contrary, the aggression is !uite compatible with sexuality: it can blatantly attacking his fiancee,
chasing her around the a!uarium, but it demonstrates a purely sexual mo$ements, and all mixed,
what you can imagine. The female can be $ery afraid of the male, but she was sexually moti$ated
actions is not o$erwhelming. It can be !uite serious to get away from the male, but each time a
respite, which gi$es her the snapper will perform sexually%moti$ated marriage mo$ement. It is
these mixed forms of action due to the flight and sexuality through rituali-ation become
widespread in those ceremonies, which are called "stiff" beha$ior, and that ha$e a $ery definite
meaning.
,ecause of the different ratios of compatibility between the three sources of meaning in different
sexes, the male can mate only with a partner of lower rank, he can intimidate and female % on the
contrary % a partner with the highest rank that can intimidate her, thus the beha$ior of the
described mechanism pro$ides the creation of opposite%sex couples. In $arious embodiments, the
mutated ritualisation $arious processes, this process of recognition sex is important in $ery many
$ertebrates, including man. At the same time, it is a spectacular example of the tasks necessary
for the preser$ation of the species, can carry out aggression in harmonious cooperation with
other moti$ations. In the third chapter, we still could not talk about it, because not enough known
about the parliamentary struggle instincts. In addition, we see from this example how different
relationships can be the "main" instincts, e$en in males and females of the same species: two
motifs that ha$e same%sex practices do not interfere with each other and combined in any ratio,
the other one% off on the basis of a trigger.
As already explained, the "big four" does not always deli$er the main moti$ation for the beha$ior
of the animal, and the more human. And it is wrong to belie$e that between one of the "top" of the
ancient instincts and the more special, e$olutionarily younger instinct is always a relation of
domination, in the sense that the second off first. (echanisms of beha$ior, which, no doubt, ha$e
"recently" % for example, the social instincts of social animals, ensuring the permanence of the
pack % in many species sub'ect to separate indi$idual so that, under certain circumstances, may
drown out all other moti$es. #heep 'umping into the abyss of the leader%ram, entered into a
pro$erb3 5rey 5oose, straggler from the pack, doing e$erything possible to find her again, and
the herd instinct can e$en o$erpower the desire to escape the wild gray geese repeatedly 'oined
our tame % in close proximity to human habitation % and stayed3. ho knows how timid wild geese,
that these e$ents will gi$e an idea of the strength of their "herd instinct." The same is true for
many social animals up to chimpan-ees, which ;erkes rightly obser$ed: "*ne chimp % no chimp."
+$en those instincts that are "'ust" 9from the point of $iew of phylogeny: gained independence
through rituali-ation, and as I tried to show in the pre$ious chapter, got a place and a $oice in the
2arliament of 5reat Instincts as the youngest members % e$en they can under the right
circumstances drown out all of his opponents in the same way as hunger and lo$e. In the
triumphant cry of geese we see the ceremony, which go$erns the life of birds, more than any
other instinct. *n the other hand, of course, there are any number of rituali-ed actions that ha$e
barely stood apart from his nerituali-o$annogo prototype, their modest effect on the o$erall
beha$ior consists only in the fact that "desirable" for their coordination of mo$ements % as we saw
in the case pitting at *gar % is preferable to some extent and is used more often than others, also
possible forms.
The "strong" or "weak" $oice has a rituali-ed action in the general concert instincts % in all cases it
is extremely difficult to any moti$ational analysis, because it can simulate the beha$ior arising
from a number of independent reasons. In the pre$ious chapter we said that the rituali-ed action,
fused in some commonality of the $arious components, copies the form of a series of
mo$ements, which is not a hereditary trait, and often there is a conflict of moti$es, as
demonstrated by the incitement of ducks. And since, as already mentioned in the same place, a
copy of the original for the most part are superimposed on each other in the same mo$ement, it is
extremely difficult to figure out how many copies of it, and how much from the original. *nly when
one of the original independent components is in conflict with ritually fixed coordination % as the
direction of the "enemy", which is addressed in the e$ent of the threat of incitement % then
becomes apparent in$ol$ement of new independent $ariables.
"@ance of the 'igsaw" in male sticklebacks in which Can $an ;ersel spent most of the moti$ational
analysis of the first experiment is an excellent example of how $ery "weak" ritual can creep into a
conflict between two "main" instincts as a faint third magnitude. 7an ;ersel noticed that wonderful
dance =ig-ag which mature males ha$ing your site, perform in front of a passing each female,
and that so long considered a "courtship" % occasionally looks completely different. It turned out
that sometimes a strong emphasis on "-ig" toward the female, and sometimes the "-ag" away
from her. If this is the last mo$ement is $ery clearly, it is ob$ious that the "-ag" directed toward the
slot. In one of the extreme cases of male in the form of a floating past the females !uickly swims
up to her, slows down, turns around % especially if the female immediately put him her swollen
abdomen % and swims back to the entrance of the nest, which then shows the female through a
certain ceremony 9lying down flat on the side :. At the other extreme, especially fre!uent if the
female is not !uite ready to spawn for the first "=ig" in general should not be any "=aga" but
instead % an attack on a female.
From these obser$ations, $an ;ersel correctly concluded that "-ig" toward females is moti$ated
by the aggressi$e instinct, and "-ag" in the direction of the nest % sexual, and he was able to
experimentally pro$e the correctness of this conclusion. )e in$ented a method by which can
accurately measure the effect of aggressi$e and sexual instincts in each of the male. (ale
models offered ri$al standardi-ed si-es and recorded the intensity and duration of the military
response.
#exual instinct is measured by the female models who suddenly retracted after a certain time.
In these cases, the male "discharges" suddenly blocked the sexual instinct, performing action
courtship of offspring, ie fanning their fins like eggs or fry in the nest, and the duration of this
"replacement obmahi$aniya" gi$es a reliable measure of sexual moti$ation. 7an ;ersel learned to
predict the results of these measurements will be like in a -ig-ag dance of the male % and $ice
$ersa, the obser$ed dance form in ad$ance to assess the relation of both instinct and results of
future measurements.
,ut in addition to the two main moti$es that determine the mo$ement of the male stickleback in
general terms % they still affects some third, albeit weaker.
This connoisseur of rituali-ed beha$ior suspect immediately after seeing the rhythmic regularity
shift "-igo$" and "-ago$." The alternating dominance of one of the two contradictory impulses
unlikely to lead to such a regular change of direction, if not here enter into a new game, rituali-ed
coordination. ithout her short spurts in all directions follow each other with a typical accident, as
is the case with people in a state of extreme confusion. Jituali-ed mo$ement contrary, always
tends to rhythmic repetition exactly identical elements. e talked about this in relation to the
efficacy signal.
The suspicion that here in$ol$ed ritualisation turns into certainty when we see the dancing male
with his "-agah" at times seems to be completely obli$ious that they are sexually moti$ated and
must specify exactly 'ack. Instead, he draws around the female is $ery beautiful and the right gear
ring in which each "-ig" directed exactly towards the female, and each "-ag" % 'ust from her. 8o
matter how ob$ious the relati$e weakness of the new motor coordination, which seeks to
transform "ridges" and "-agi" in rhythm "-ig-ag" % it may, howe$er, crucially determine the
regularity of successi$e displays of the two main moti$ations.
The second important feature that rituali-ed coordination can ob$iously perform, e$en a $ery
weak in other ways % is changing the direction of mo$ement nerituali-o$annyh underlying the
ritual took place, and from other moti$es. +xamples of this we ha$e already seen in the
discussion of the classic design of the ritual % namely, by pitting drake duck.
F. ,eha$ioral analogy morality.
Thou shalt not kill.
The Fifth 4ommandment
In chapter E, where it was about the process of rituali-ation, I tried to show how this process, the
causes of which are still !uite mysterious, creating a completely new instincts dictate your own
body, ";ou should ..." 'ust as emphatically as any of the seemingly autocratic "big" instincts of
hunger, fear or lo$e. In the pre$ious chapter I I was trying to sol$e an e$en more difficult task
shortly and a$ailable to show how the interaction between the $arious autonomous instincts,
which are sub'ect to the general rules of these interactions, and how we can % in spite of all the
difficulties % to get some idea of the structure of interactions in such beha$ior, which is determined
by se$eral competing impulses.
I amuse myself with the hope, perhaps misleading, that sol$ed the pre$ious problem I was able
to, and I can not 'ust summari-e what was said in the last two chapters, but also to apply their
results to the issue, which we&ll now: how to perform the ritual is truly impossible task % to hold
intra%aggression against all acts that could se$erely damage the conser$ation of the species, but
it does not turn its functions necessary for the preser$ation of the species3 2art of the pre$ious
sentence, in italics, is already responding to the !uestion % it seems ob$ious, but it follows from
completely misunderstanding the essence of aggression % why those animals for which a close
life together is an ad$antage, aggression is simply not banned< It is because of its function, we
ha$e discussed in the third chapter, is re!uired3
#ol$ing the problems arising in this way prior both designers e$olution always achie$ed with the
same method. "seful, necessary instinct % generally remains the same, but for special cases
where it would be harmful manifestation is introduced specially designed braking mechanism.
)ere again, the cultural and historical de$elopment of the people is the same way, it is precisely
because the essential re!uirements of (oses and all the other tablets % it&s not predtisaniya and
prohibitions. e still ha$e more go$orit about what we mention here only the pre: transmitted by
tradition and habit carried taboos ha$e something to do with sound morals % Immanuel ?ant in the
understanding % is that the inspired legislator, but not by his faithful followers.
)ow innate mechanisms and rituals that pre$ent anti%social beha$ior of animals and human taboo
determine the beha$ior similar to truly moral only from a functional point of $iew, in the rest of it is
as far from morality, as an animal from a man3 ,ut e$en comprehending the nature of the dri$ing
moti$es, one has to admire again and again at the sight of the physiological mechanisms that
encourage animals to selfless beha$ior to the benefit of the community, as it is prescribed for us,
the people, the laws of morality.
An impressi$e example of this beha$ior similar to human morality, is the so%called tournament
fights. Their whole organi-ation aims to accomplish the most important task the fight % to
determine who is stronger % without causing serious harm to the weaker. #ince 'oust or sporting
e$ent ha$e the same goal, all the tournament fights will ine$itably produce e$en knowledgeable
people experience "chi$alry" or "sportsmanship." Among cichlids ha$e a $iew, 4ichlasoma
biocellatum, which because of it got its name, is widespread among American fans: they ha$e this
fish is called "Cack @empsey" on behalf of the boxer, world champion, who was known for his
impeccable beha$ior in the ring.
About the tournament fighting fish, and, in particular, on the processes of rituali-ation, which led
to them from the original authentic fights, we know !uite a lot. 8early all bony fishes of this battle
is preceded by threatening posture, which, as already mentioned, is always deri$ed from the
conflict between the aspirations of attack and escape.
Among the most noticeable item as a special ritual of the so%called full%scale demonstration of the
sides, which originally appeared likely due to the fact that the fish under the influence of fear turns
away from the enemy and at the same time, preparing for flight, turns $ertical fins. )owe$er, since
the mo$ements of the enemy presented these body contour maximum possible si-e, some of
them % through mime exaggeration when incremental changes the morphology of the fins % was
able to de$elop full%scale demonstration of the impressi$e side that knows all a!uarists, and not
only they, #iamese fighting fish and other popular species of fish.
In close connection with the threat of expanded sideways bony fish appeared $ery widespread
intimidating gesture % the so%called tail strike. From the position of the deployed side fish, straining
the whole body, and far ottopyri$aya tail fin, makes a strong kick tail in the direction of the enemy.
Although he did not blow up the enemy comes, but pressure receptors on the side lines percei$e
wa$e power which ob$iously tells him about the $alue and capability of his opponent, as well as
the si-e of the circuit as seen in the demonstration%scale side.
Another form of threat has arisen in many perch and other bony fish of the hindered by fear of the
impact. In the initial position to leap forward both opponents bent his body tensed as if #obra-nye
spring and slowly float toward each other, as much as possible bristling gill co$ers.
This is in line with the threat of fins expand sideways, as it increases the body contour, $isible
enemy. *f threat in front of so many fish sometimes it turns out that both opponents
simultaneously grab each other&s mouth, but % in accordance with the conflict situation from which
there was a threat to the $ery front % they do not always do it abruptly, without a blow, but as if
hesitating, retardation. *f this form of struggle at some % and labyrinth fish, only remotely ad'acent
to a large group of perch and the cichlids, which are typical representati$es of the perch % there
was an interesting rituali-ed fighting, in which both opponents in the most literal sense of the word
"face off" without causing each other harm. They grab each other&s 'aw % and in all species, which
are characteri-ed by the method of tournament fighting, 'aw co$ered with a thick,
trudnouya-$imym layer of the skin % and pull hard. #o there is a match, it is $ery similar to the old
belt wrestling among #wiss farmers, which could last for se$eral hours, if there are e!ual
opponents. The two are exactly e!ual in strength of male beautiful blue kind of bullheaded perch
we noted in detail once a match, which lasted from G.0D am to /.0D pm.
,ehind this "tug of mouth" % in some species it is, rather, "peretalki$anie" because the fish do not
pull and push each other % o$er time, it is $ery different for different species, should be a real
battle, in which the fish are without any restrictions tend to beat each other on the unprotected
sides to inflict serious damage as possible. Thus, pre$enting the bloodshed "tournament" threats
and immediately following the original estimation of forces must ha$e been a prelude to the real
"men +xterminating battle." )owe$er, such a detailed prologue already fulfills an extremely
important task, as it allows a weaker opponent in time to gi$e up a hopeless struggle. That is
exactly what is performed in most cases, the most important function $idosohranyayuschaya
match % the strongest choice % without ha$ing to ha$e one of the players has been sacrificed, or
e$en 'ust get hurt. *nly in those rare cases where the fighters are perfectly e!ual in strength to
the decision has to go through the blood.
The comparison of different species ha$ing less and more speciali-ed tournament battle % as well
as the study of the stages of de$elopment of the indi$idual animal from the wildly pugnacious
young fish to the precious "Cack @empsey" % gi$e us a solid foundation for understanding how to
de$elop tournament fights in the process of e$olution. 4hi$alrous noble tournament battle arises
from fierce fighting without rules primarily by three independent processes, rituali-ation, which we
saw in pre$ious chapters % only one of them, although the most important.
The first step of the bloody struggle to the tournament battle is, as already mentioned, the longer
the delay between the onset of gradually escalating threatening gestures and the final attack. In
species fighting for real 9for example, multi%colored haplohromisa:, the indi$idual phases of
threats % blooming fins, demonstration%scale side, bloating gill co$ers, wrestling mouth % last only
seconds, and then immediately followed by the first ram strokes on each side of the enemy,
causing seriously in'ured. In rapid tides excitement, which are so characteristic of this $icious fish,
some of these steps are often skipped. +specially the "wildcat" male may enter into a rage so fast
that begins hostilities immediately with serious ram stroke. In a closely related, too hemihromiso$
African species is not ne$er seen, and these fish are always strictly adhere to the se!uence of
threatening gestures, each of which perform a long time, often for se$eral minutes before mo$ing
on to the next.
This is a clear separation in time allows two physiological explanation. *r away from each other
are the excitation thresholds at which certain actions are turned on % with increasing willingness to
fight % so that their order is stored and some weakening or strengthening of rage, or a build%up of
excitement, "throttle", which leads to more shallow and properly increasing cur$e. There are
grounds for speaking in fa$or of the first of these assumptions, but discussing them here, we
would shy away too far.
)and in hand with an increase in the duration of indi$idual operations is threatening their
rituali-ation, which % as already described % leads to mimic o$erdone, rhythmic repetition, and to
the emergence of patterns and colors, these optically emphasi-ing the effect of increasing the fins
with a bright pattern that becomes $isible only in the deployed condition, flashy spots on the gill
co$ers, which become $isible only when the frontal threat, and a host of other e!ually theatrical
decorations make the tournament fight in one of the most fascinating spectacles which only can
be seen by examining the beha$ior of higher animals. The di$ersity of burning excitement of
colors, measured rhythmic threatening mo$es, bulging power ri$als % it all almost makes you
forget that there is a real struggle, and not specially choreographed performance.
Finally, the third process is $ery conduci$e to the transformation of the bloody struggle in a noble
battle and tournament competition at least ritualisation important for our topic: there are specific
physiological mechanisms of beha$ior that inhibit the mo$ement of dangerous when attacking.
)ere are a few examples.
If the two "Cack @empsey" stand for a long time against each other with the threat of expanded
sideways and tail blows, then it can happen that one of them will meet to go to the "tug%of%mouth"
for a second before the other. It comes from the "front side" and with open 'aws charges at an
opponent who still continues to threaten sideways and therefore substitutes teeth attacking
unprotected flank. *n the one ne$er uses this weakness position, he&ll stop his shot before his
teeth touch the skin of the enemy.
(y late friend )orst #ie$ert described and photographed on a film similar to the minutest detail
phenomenon in deer. They $ysokorituali-o$annomu battle of the horns % when the crown arcuate
motion of the striking one against the other, and then a well%defined way rock back and forth % is
preceded by the threat of expanded sideways, during which each of the male walks past an
opponent dashing clear steps, shaking with antlers and up downwards. ,oth then suddenly, as if
on cue, stop, turn toward each other and drop the head so that the horns collide with a crash to
the ground, interwo$en with each other. After this fight should be !uite safe, in which % 'ust like
when you drag in the mouth &Cack @empsey "% the winner is the one who will last longer. @o fallow
deer can also happen that one of the men mo$es to the second phase of the battle before the
other and thus aims his gun at the opponent&s unprotected side that when the mighty sweep of
hea$y and sharp horns looks extremely dangerous. ,ut e$en before the bass, deer slows the
mo$ement, looks up % and sees that an unsuspecting opponent continues to prance and has
already departed from him for a few meters. Then he trotted runs up to the end to end and had
calmed down again begins to prance sideways to him, shaking his horns, as long as the two do
not will go to fight a more consistent stroke horns.
In the realm of higher $ertebrates there are innumerable such bans harm kinsman. They often
play a significant role and where the obser$er humani-e animal beha$ior ne$er would ha$e
noticed the presence of any aggression, no need for special arrangements to poda$leniya.1 If you
belie$e in the "omnipotence", "error%free" instincts % 'ust seems paradoxical that the female, for
example, re!uire special mechanisms of inhibition to block its aggression toward their own
children, especially newborn or newly hatched from an egg.
In fact, these special mechanisms that impede aggression, it is extremely necessary because the
animals, caring for offspring, 'ust around the time when kids need to be especially aggressi$e with
respect to all other beings. ,ird, defending their offspring, should attack any approaching the nest
animal that she in any way commensurate. Turkey while she sits on the nest, should be
constantly ready with a maximum energy of attack not only on mice, rats, ferrets, crows, magpies,
and so on, and so on % but also for their relati$es: a turkey on a rough feet, on a turkey who seeks
nest, because they are almost as dangerous to her brood, as well as predators. And, of course, it
has to be more aggressi$e than the threat comes closer to the center of her world, to its nest.
*nly their own chick, who gets out of the shell, it should not cause any harm3
)ow to find my staff and (argret olfgang #hlyaydty, this inhibition in turkeys included only
acoustically. To study some of the reactions to acoustic stimuli samtso$indyuko$ they depri$ed of
hearing a bird through the operation of the internal ear.
This operation can be performed only on a newborn chicken, but at the moment it is difficult to
distinguish the floor more so among birds happened to be deaf and se$eral females. 8o matter
what else they were not good, but it ser$ed as a wonderful material for studying the beha$ior of
the response function, which plays such an important role in the relationship between mother and
child. e know, for example, gray geese, they are 'ust after the birth of her mother take any
ob'ect that responds to the sound of their "s!ueak of #olitude." #hlyaydty wanted to offer a newly
hatched turkey poults choice between that hears and responds correctly to them s!ueak, and the
deaf, from which it was expected that she % not hearing a peep chicks % will publish its calls
randomly.
As is often the case in the study of the beha$ior, the experiment ga$e results that no one
expected, but which pro$ed to be much more interesting than expected.
@eaf turkey perfectly normal hatched chicks, as well as before their social and sexual beha$ior is
!uite the standards. ,ut when they began to emerge into the light of their turkeys % it turned out
that maternal beha$ior in laboratory animals $iolated the most dramatic way: all deaf turkey
immediately beaten to death all their chickens as soon as they emerged from the eggs3 If the
turkey is deaf, which has stayed on artificial eggs on time and must therefore be ready to recei$e
chicks, show a one%day indyushonka % she reacts to it is not maternal beha$ior: it does not emit
sounds recruiting, when the kid walks up to her about a meter, it prepares to resist % dissol$e
feathers, hissing furiously % and as soon as he is within reach of its beak % bite it hard.
If we do not assume that the turkey is damaged anything other than hearing that this beha$ior
can only be explained by one thing: it does not ha$e the slightest innate information about how to
look her kids. #he bite anything that mo$es around its nest, if it is not large enough to escape her
reaction was stronger aggression.
Cust peep indyushonka % and nothing more % through an innate mechanism includes maternal
beha$ior, while 6ipolysis aggression.
#ubse!uent experiments with normal, hearing turkeys ha$e confirmed the correctness of this
interpretation. If a turkey sitting on a nest, to pull on a string, like a puppet, stuffed indyushonka
naturally made, it will bite him in the same way as the deaf. ,ut it is necessary to include a built in
this doll small speaker that emits sound recordings of "crying" indyushonka % attack ends abruptly
braking inter$ention is clearly $ery strong, 'ust as suddenly, as described abo$e with the cichlids
and deer. Turkey begins to make a typical call%up sounds of k$ohtane chickens.
+ach inexperienced turkey, 'ust the first time $yside$shaya chickens, attacking anything that
mo$es near its nest, the si-e, roughly, from shrews to large cat. In such a bird is not innate
"knowledge", as it looks predators who need to dri$e away. At silently approaching or petting a
stuffed hamster she attacks no more $iolently than a stuffed indyushonka, but on the other hand,
is ready to immediately take on a motherly both predators if they made a claim to the "identity
indyushonka" % the same record chick s!ueak % a built%in micro dri$ers . Feel awful feeling when
such a turkey, 'ust furiously peck silently approaching the chicken with the mother&s appeal to
dissol$e the feathers to readily accept for themsel$es s!ueak stuffed ferret baby swing in the
desperate sense of the word.
The only indication that, apparently innate way enhances the response to the enemy % it&s hair
coat, fluffy surface of the ob'ect. At least the first of our experiments we carried impression that
shaggy doll irritate turkeys stronger than smooth. In this case, poult % it has exactly the right si-e,
mo$ing around the nest, and e$en on top is co$ered with down % 'ust not a cause for maternal
permanent defensi$e beha$ior, which must be as constantly suppressed chick cheep to pre$ent
infanticide. It is, in any case, to birds of breeding for the first time and not yet knowing from
experience that look like their own children. Their beha$ior is changing rapidly for indi$idual
learning.
Cust described, notably the contro$ersial part of the "mother" of beha$ior turkey makes us think. It
is clear % there is nothing that in itself could be called a "maternal instinct" or "instinct brood care,"
e$en if there is no inherent "scheme" innate recognition of their children. #uitable from the point
of $iew of conser$ation of the species, the treatment of offspring is more a result of many
e$olutionary modes of action arose, reaction and braking, organi-ed by the great designer so that
together they operate under normal ambient conditions as a whole system, "as if" this animal
knows what he needs to do in the interests of the sur$i$al of the species and its indi$iduals. #uch
a system is already a fact that the general could be called "instinct", in the case of our turkeys %
the instinct of taking care of the offspring.
,ut e$en if we consider this notion in this way % all the same it is misleading, because there is a
strictly limited system that would perform the functions that are appropriate for that definition. *n
the contrary, in its o$erall structure and built such inducements, which ha$e completely different
functions, such as aggression and including its receptor mechanisms in our example. ,y the way,
the fact that the turkey infuriated at the sight of fluffy chickens running around the nest % this is not
an undesirable side effect. *n the contrary, for the protection of offspring is highly beneficial to
chickens % especially their beautiful fluffy coats % from the outset resulted in a mother pucker
ready to attack. Attack on the children she can not % it reliably pre$ents the inhibition caused by
them s!ueak % the easier it discharges its fury on other ob'ects, which turned up close.
The only specific structure, which is effecti$e only in this system of beha$ior % is selecti$e
response to peep chicks, braking impact.
#o, if the species, caring for offspring, the mother does not offend the kids % this is not a self%
e$ident law of nature, in each case, it should be pro$ided special mechanism of inhibition, one of
which we ha$e 'ust learned by the example of the turkey. +$eryone who worked at the -oo bred
rabbits or fur%bearing animals, tells a story about how little it takes to break a similar mechanisms
of inhibition. I know of one case where a 6ufthansa plane, ha$ing lost in the fog off course, flew
low o$er the farm 4hernoburo$ foxes and because of all females who ha$e recently whelp,
excited, ate their pups.
In many $ertebrates that does not care about posterity, or care for a limited time, kids early % often
long before the final dimensions % are the same deft, in proportion as strong and almost as smart
as adults 9howe$er, these kinds of way or otherwise can not learn too much.: Therefore, they are
not particularly in need of protection, and older relati$es dispense with them without further ado.
Things are !uite different from those of highly organi-ed beings who ha$e training and personal
experience play an important role and in which parental care should last a long time already
because the "school of life" of children re!uires a lot of time.
At the close relationship between the ability to learn and the duration of brood care already
pointed out by many biologists and sociologists.
The young dog, wolf or ra$en already reached final adult si-e % though not yet final weight %
sometimes awkward, clumsy, crude creature that would be completely unable to protect
themsel$es in the e$ent of a serious attack of its adult neighbor, not to mention the fact that
escape rapid escape from it. It would seem that young animals these species % and many similar %
and then, and more imperati$e, since they are unarmed, not only against intraspecific aggression,
but also against the hunting techni!ues of their relati$es when it comes to large predators.
)owe$er, cannibalism is a warm%blooded $ertebrates is $ery rare. In mammals, it probably is
eliminated mainly by the fact that the relati$es of the "insipid", which came to know many polar
researchers in trying to feed the dogs ali$e or dead meat slaughtered by necessity. *nly a true
birds of prey, especially hawks, may sometimes in close capti$ity, kill and eat his neighbor, but I
do not know of a single case that was obser$ed in a similar hunting grounds. hat constraints
pre$ent this % is still unknown.
To ha$e grown up, but still clumsy young animals and birds in !uestion, a simple adult aggressi$e
beha$ior, ob$iously, much more dangerous than any cannibalistic whims. This eliminates the risk
of a number of $ery well%organi-ed mechanisms of inhibition, too, almost unexplored. The
exception is the mechanism of beha$ior in the dead of night heron community, which we will
de$ote a special chapter small % it is easy to understand. This mechanism allows fledged young
birds remain in the colony, although its narrow limits $irtually e$ery branch of the tree is the
sub'ect of fierce ri$alry between the neighbors. hile the young night heron, lea$ing the nest,
e$en begging % this in itself creates her absolute protection from any attack local adult bird. ,efore
the older bird to peck at all meet the chick, the one ?wak and flapping its wings !uickly rushes to
her, trying to grab her beak and "milk" % to pull down the beak % as always are children of parents
with their beaks when they want to them belched food. A young night heron do not know of the
person of their parents, and I&m not sure that the latter will learn indi$idually of their childrenK
certainly know each other only by the young birds from the same nest. )ow old night heron,
which has not in the mood to feed, timidly flies to escape from the attack of their own child, % the
same way it flies away and from any stranger, she has no idea hit him. #imilar cases we know of
many animals that protects from intraspecific aggression infantile beha$ior.
+$en more simple mechanism allows a young bird % as an adult, is an independent, but still far
from e!ual in the fight % to get a small pri$ate area within the colony. A young night heron, which is
almost three years, is a children&s suit, striped exciting adult aggression is much less intense than
in the adult plumage of a bird. This leads to an interesting phenomenon that I ha$e repeatedly
obser$ed in Altenberg, in a colony of free slot )eron.
A young night heron completely without any intention of landing anywhere within the family plot
hatching couples % and her luck: she is not in a center it around the nest, which is fiercely
guarded, and the $illage away.
,ut she angered neighbors, who begins to tread on a stranger in a threatening position % on all
fours, as it always happens at night heron. )owe$er, the mo$ement he approaches and located in
the same direction 'ack neighbors sitting on eggs couples, and because he is their coloring and
threatening posture is much more aggressi$e than sitting !uietly and frightened young bird % that&s
it, and take aim at neighbors climbing up to the counter. *ften this goes counter to the $erge of a
young bird, and thus protects it. Therefore )eron "stripes" are always arranged between the
territories of permanent residents, growing offspring, in strictly defined limits, where the
appearance of an adult bird pro$okes attack the host, and the emergence of the young % not yet.
8ot so easy to understand the mechanism of inhibition, which reliably pre$ents adult dogs of all
+uropean breeds seriously bite young, at the age of F%G months. According to the obser$ations of
Tinbergen, in 5reenland +skimo dogs this prohibition is limited to young people&s own flocksK ban
puppy biting strangers they do not exist. 2erhaps the same is true of the wol$es. )ow to know the
youth brother in mind % it is not entirely clear. In any case, the increase does not play any role
here: the tiny, but the old and e$il fox terrier refers to a huge baby%#t. ,ernard, already terminally
bored by his clumsy in$itations to play, 'ust as patiently and kindly, as a puppy of the same age
their own breed.
It appears that the essential characteristics of causing a braking beha$ior contained in young
dogs, and possibly the smell. 6ast seen in how the young dog begs for a really nyuhkontrol: If
only an approximation of the young adult dog seems somewhat dangerous % he immediately
throws himself on his back, and thus presents a more naked puppy belly, and also produces a
few drops of that adult immediately sniffs.
2erhaps e$en more interesting and mysterious than braking, guarding is more increased, but still
helpless young people % that the inhibitory mechanism of aggressi$e beha$ior, which prohibits
"nerytsarskoe &beha$ior in relation to the" weaker sex. " e tolkunchiko$ whose beha$ior has
already been described, in mantises and many other insects % like many spiders % females are
known to be the stronger sex, and re!uire special mechanisms of beha$ior that pre$ent that
happy groom to be eaten early. e mantid % praying mantis % as it is known, the female often eats
with gusto the front half of the male, while the rear half of his serenely performs the great mission
of fertili-ation.
)ere, howe$er, we should not take these $agaries of nature, and the mechanisms that ha$e so
many birds and mammals % including man % $ery difficult beating the fairer sex, if not completely
pre$ent it. As for the person % the maxim "A woman is in$iolable" is true only in part. In ,erlin, the
humor, which is often softens actually be kind of paint gloomy, battered husband she says
chi$alrous passer%by inter$ened: "And you, what does that matter, since I hit my boy<" ,ut among
the animals there are a number of species which under normal, ie 8o pathological conditions are
ne$er to male seriously assaulted a female.
This applies, for example, to the dogs, and, no doubt, to the wol$es. I would not trust completely
male, bitten by a bitch, and would ad$ise his master extreme caution % especially when children
are present % because the social inhibition of this dog is clearly something broken.
*nce I tried to find her a bitch #tasi, the huge #iberian wolf, and when I started playing with him %
she was furious with 'ealousy and !uite seriously attacked him. The only thing he did % Framed
brutali-ed red furies his huge light gray shoulder to take it bites less $ulnerability place. +xactly
the same absolute prohibition of female offending there is some finches birds, let&s say a bullfinch,
and e$en some reptiles, such as, for example, the green li-ard.
The males of this type of aggressi$e beha$ior is caused by ri$al outfit, especially ultramarine
blue%throated green color and the rest of the body, from which came the name of li-ards. ,raking
prohibiting biting the female, is clearly based on the olfactory characteristics. It&s up to (r.
?ittslerom once learned, when the largest female from our green li-ards artfully painted by a male
with a fat colored crayons. hen we released the beautiful lady back into the cage, it is % of
course, unaware of their appearance % the shortest route ran to the territory of his wife. hen he
saw her, he rushed furiously to the alleged male%stranger, and wide open mouth for a bite. ,ut
then he caught the scent of made%up ladies and braked so sharply that it skidded and o$erturned.
)e then thoroughly examined her tongue % and after that did not pay attention to calling upon the
battle coloring, which in itself is remarkable for reptiles. ,ut the interesting thing % the incident so
impressed our emerald knight that long after he and the first of these males probed language, ie
check their smell, and only then mo$e on to the attack.
#o it struck a chord that was almost bitten by a lady3
;ou would think that in those species where the gentlemen absolutely forbidden to bite females,
ladies dispense with all the male sex is $ery bold and arrogant. It may seem pu--ling % the
situation is 'ust the opposite. Aggressi$e large female green li-ards, contri$e a fierce battle with
his sisters, literally crawling on its belly in front of the youngest, the most frail male, e$en if it is
less than three times its weight, and his manhood barely seen a blue tinge on the throat, which
can be compared with first down on the chin at school. The female raises the front legs off the
ground and shaking their peculiar, as if to start playing the piano. #imilarly, females % especially
those species that are close to the northern wolf % are elected downright male dog with humble
re$erence, although he has ne$er bitten and do not pro$e the superiority kakimlibo de force, and
they are showing here is almost the same feeling, which ha$e to a human host. )owe$er, the
most interesting and most confusing % is a hierarchical relationship between males and females in
some finches birds from a well known family of karduelid, which includes siskins, goldfinches,
bullfinches, greenfinches, and many others, including canaries.
In greenfinches, for example, according to the obser$ations of J. )inde, directly during the
breeding female is higher than the male, and in the rest of the year % on the contrary. This
conclusion leads a simple obser$ation, someone who pecks and someone who is inferior. e
bullfinches, which we know from research is particularly 8icolai, on the basis of the same
obser$ations and conclusions can be concluded that in this species, which pairs remain in$iolable
from year to year, the female is always upstream of the male. ,ullfinch%!ueen is always a bit
aggressi$e, biting spouse, and e$en in her welcome ceremony, the so%called "kiss", contains a
fair amount fraction of aggression, albeit in a strictly rituali-ed form. ,ullfinch that do not bite and
do not bite his lady, and if 'udged on their hierarchical relationships simplified % only by one who
bites someone % you can tell that she is sure to dominate him. ,ut if you look closely, you&ll come
to a contrary opinion. hen his wife bites bullfinch, he assumes the pose of submission does not,
or at least fear, and $ice $ersa % sexual readiness, e$en tenderness.
Thus, females do not bite into the male lead hierarchically lower position. *n the contrary, his
passi$e beha$ior, the manner with which he takes assaults female, not to indulge in retaliatory
aggression and, more importantly, without losing their sexual mood % apparently "impression", and
not 'ust for the human obser$er.
Auite similarly beha$ing male dogs and wol$es in relation to any attacks the weaker sex.
+$en if such an attack is !uite serious, as is the case with my #tasi % the ritual unconditionally
re!uires a male, that he not only snapped, but has steadily maintained a "friendly face" % would
keep his ears up and back and bristling hair on the back of the neck . Aueer smiling3 The only
defense is what I ha$e obser$ed in such cases % I wonder what it described and Cack 6ondon in
"hite Fang" % is a sharp turn of the back of the torso, which operates in the highest degree
"catchy", especially when a massi$e dog, keeping his friendly smile, knocks $ociferously attacked
him bitch a meter to the side.
e do not ascribe to the ladies of bird or dog tribe o$er human !ualities when he claimed that a
passi$e reaction to their aggressi$eness makes an impression on them. 8e$pechatlyaemost
makes a strong impression % it&s a $ery common principle, as the repeated obser$ations of the
struggles of male sand li-ard. In a remarkably tournament rituali-ed fights these li-ards males
primarily in a particular posture show each other their hea$ily armored head, then one of the
players grabs the opponent, but after a short struggle lets go and is waiting to he in turn grabbed
it. hen opponents e!ui$alent performed many such "mo$es" until one of them % completely
unscathed but exhausted % do not stop fighting. In li-ards, like many other cold%blooded animals,
smaller copies of "plant" more rapidly, ie the rise of a new excitement, as a rule, they are faster
than the larger and older relati$es. In the tournament fighting this almost always leads to the fact
that the smaller of the two fighters first grabs the opponent by the scruff and pulling from side to
side. ith significant differences in the si-e of males may be that the smaller % ?usa first % let go,
do not wait for a response bite, and immediately executes the abo$e posture of humility and runs
away. #o, in the purely passi$e resistance to the enemy, he noticed how he surpasses it.
These extremely comical scene always reminds me of a scene from a long%forgotten film 4harlie
4haplin 4harlie sneaks back to his enormous opponent, swings hard with a stick and struggled
hits him on the head. 5iant surprise looks upwards and gently rubs his hand in'ured spot,
apparently con$inced that he was bitten by a $olatile insect.
4harlie then turns around % and im run as soon as he is able.
In pigeons, songbirds and parrots there is a $ery remarkable ritual, in some mysterious way
connected with the hierarchical relationship of the spouses % the transfer of food. This feeding % a
cursory obser$ation of it, as a rule, take the "kiss" % as well as a host of other seemingly "selfless"
and "chi$alrous" acts of animals and humans, in an interesting way is not only a social obligation,
but a pri$ilege that is owed indi$idual of the highest rank. In essence, each spouse would prefer
to feed the other, rather than getting it from food, according to the principle of "gi$ing % more
beautiful than to take," or % when food is burped back up of goiter % feed more beautiful than it is.
In fa$orable cases one can see !uite clearly the !uarrel: #pouses find out the !uestion which of
them has the right to breastfeed, and who will play a less desirable role of a minor child who
opens his beak and can feed himself.
hen 8icolai once reunited after a long separation, a couple of one of the African species of
small finches, the wife immediately recogni-ed each other, happily flew toward each other, but the
female is ob$iously forgotten his former subordinate, because once it planned to regurgitate of
goitre and feed 2artner . )owe$er, he did the same, so the first time the meeting has been slightly
o$ershadowed by the showdown, in which the male has gained the upper hand, then the spouse
is not trying to feed, and re!uested that fed her. @o not lea$e bullfinches spouse all year, may be
that the male begins to fade before his wife, and his le$el of sexual and social claims is reduced,
while the female is still !uite "in the form of" in both senses. In such cases % and they often occur
in natural conditions % as well as in the more rare when the male loses its dominant position
because of any pathological reasons, the normal direction of the transmission feed is re$ersed:
the female feeds weakened spouse. As a rule, the obser$er seems unusually touching, so that
the wife takes care of her sick husband. As already mentioned, this interpretation is incorrect: it
before, always happy to be nursed him if it was not forbidden her to his hierarchical superior.
Thus, it is ob$ious that the social superiority of females in bullfinches, like all canines % is only an
appearance, which creates a "knight" to ban male offending his female. Auite the same, from a
formal point of $iew, the beha$ior of men in estern culture is a remarkable analogy between the
custom of the people and the rituali-ation of animals. +$en in America, the country of boundless
re$erence for women, truly submissi$e husband do not respect. hat is re!uired of the ideal man
% is that the spouse, in spite of the $ast spiritual and physical superiority, according to the ritual
and regulated by law resigned to the whims of their females. It is significant that for the despised,
truly humble man there is a definition taken from the beha$ior of animals. About this talk
"hanpecked" 9in +nglish: % "hen pecking" % and this comparison illustrates the remarkable
abnormality men&s chain of command, because the real cock does not permit any of the hen
peck, e$en his fa$orite. )owe$er, the cock has no restrictions that would pre$ent him pecking
chickens.
The strongest inhibition, which does not allow her to bite the female species, common in the
+uropean hamster.
It may be that these rodents such a ban is particularly important because they ha$e the male is
much larger than the female, and long incisors of these animals are able to inflict particularly
se$ere wounds. Able%+ybesfeldt found that when, during a short breeding season the male
in$ades the female takes a considerable period of time before these hardcore indi$idualists ha$e
become so accustomed to each other, the female begins to bear approaching male. @uring this
period % and only then % the hamster%!ueen shows timidity and shyness in front of a man. At any
other time it is % a $iolent fury, gnawing a male without any restraint. hen breeding these
animals in capti$ity need time to disconnect partners after mating, otherwise it comes to men&s
bodies.
*nly that, in describing the beha$ior of hamsters, we mentioned three facts that are common to
all the inhibitory mechanisms that pre$ent murder or serious in'ury % because they are worth to
talk in more detail. First, there is a relationship between the efficacy of weapons a$ailable to the
$iew, and a braking mechanism that prohibits the use of this weapon against relati$es. #econd,
there are rituals whose purpose is to engage in aggressi$e relati$es of these mechanisms of
inhibition. Thirdly % in these mechanisms is not rely on occasion they may fail.
+lsewhere I ha$e already explained in detail that the inhibition prohibiting killing or wounding a
neighbor, should be the most powerful and reliable in those species which, first as a professional
predators possess weapons, enough to !uickly kill a large and loyal sacrifice, and in the
%secondly % socially integrated. 2redators single % for example, some species of martens and cats
% it is enough that inhibits sexual arousal and aggression, and the hunt for a time to ensure safe
sex intercourse. ,ut if large predators li$e permanently together % like wol$es or lions % a reliable
and regular mechanisms braking should always be in the works, being totally self%sufficient and
independent of changes in mood indi$idual animal.
Thus there is a particularly touching paradox: 'ust the most bloodthirsty beasts % especially the
wolf, whom @ante called "the implacable beast" 9bestia sen-a pace:, % ha$e the most reliable
brakes against murder, which is only on +arth. hen my grandchildren play with peers %
someone from adult super$ision is re!uired. ,ut I lea$e with peace of mind of their own in the
community of our dogs, though it is a large dog, a cross between a sheep dog chow is extremely
fierce in the hunt. #ocial inhibitions, which I rely in such cases, are not something ac!uired in the
process of domestication % they, no doubt, was inherited from the wolf.
It is ob$ious that different mechanisms of social animals braking are operated $ery different
features. For example, as we ha$e seen, the prohibition of biting a female in the male green li-ard
probably depends on the chemical irritants, no doubt, as is also the case with the prohibition of
the dog biting a bitch, and his respect for any young dogs and explicitly called their beha$ior.
#ince braking % As will be shown in the future % it is an acti$e process that is opposed to some
e!ually acti$e and suppresses the urge to it, or modifies, it is entitled to say that the processes of
inhibition is released, discharged, 'ust like we talked about running of an instincti$e action. A
$ariety of transmitters incenti$es that all higher animals include the work of an acti$e response
beha$ior, in principle, no different from those which include social inhibition. In both cases, the
stimulus transmitter consists of conspicuous patterns, bright colors and rituali-ed mo$ements,
and most of all % a combination of all of these components. A $ery good example of how the same
principles underlie the designs for the transfer stimuli including acti$e and action, and braking % is
a releaser of combat beha$ior in cranes and releaser ban offend some of rails nestling birds. In
both cases, on the back of his head a little bird has e$ol$ed tonsure, bare spot, which is located
under the skin much an extensi$e network of blood $essels, the so%called "swelling body." In both
cases, the body is filled with blood, and in this state, as the con$ex ruby red cap, shows kinsman
turn heads. ,ut the function of these two releasers ha$e arisen !uite independently of each other,
as opposed to how it is at all possible: 4ranes at the signal means an aggressi$e mood and,
conse!uently, causes the opponent % depending on the balance of power % or kontragressiyu, or
the desire to escape. In water cowgirl and some other related birds % and this body, and the
gesture of his demonstrations are uni!ue to the chicks and are intended only to include adult
relati$es specific ban hurt small. The chicks water #hepherds "by mistake" tragicomic claiming
their ruby caps not only aggressors of its kind. *ne such 2tah, which I had raised at home,
prepend cap ducklings, and those, of course, this highly specific signal does not meet the water
cowgirl braking, but 'ust pecked him in the red head. And no matter how soft the tiny beak
duckling, but I had to separate the chicks.
Jituali-ed mo$ements, pro$iding inhibition of aggression from relati$es, usually referred to as
submissi$e postures or appeasement, the second term, perhaps better, because it is not so
incline to the sub'ecti$ity of animal beha$ior. 4eremonies such as rituali-ed expressi$e mo$ement
in general, there are a $ariety of ways. In the discussion of rituali-ation we ha$e seen how the
beha$ior of the conflict, the intention of the mo$ements, etc. may be a function of the signals from
the message, and what kind of power purchase these rituals. All that was needed to clarify the
nature and action of those soothing mo$ements, which will be discussed now.
Interestingly, the huge amount of appeasement gestures in a $ariety of animals emerged under
selecti$e pressure that is exerted beha$ioral mechanisms that cause struggle. The animal who
needs to calm neighbor, doing e$erything possible to % if it&s to express a human % not to irritate
him. Fish and exciting at neighbor aggression comes o$er her bright outfit opens the fins or gill
co$ers and demonstrates the highest possible contour of the body is mo$ing rapidly, showing
strength, and when she asks for mercy % all the way around, on all counts. #he is pale, possibly
presses fins and turns to the kinsman who needs to calm down, a narrow section of the body,
mo$ing slowly, stealthily, literally hiding all the incenti$es that cause aggression. Jooster,
seriously beaten in a fight, hiding its head in a corner or behind some co$er, and thus depri$es
the enemy direct incenti$es combat excitement emanating from its crest and beard. #ome of
coral fish, whose flashy%bright outfit in the manner described in the course of intra%launches
aggression, we already know that they remo$e this coloring when to peacefully come together to
mate.
ith the disappearance of the signal calling for a struggle at first a$oided only splash of
intraspecific aggression, acti$e braking is initiated by the attack is not yet acti$ated. )owe$er, it is
clear that from the point of $iew of e$olution is 'ust a step from the first to the second, and 'ust the
appearance of pacifying gesture signals struggle "with the opposite sign" is a perfect example of
that. 8aturally, many animals threat is that the enemy meaningfully "sho$ed under her breath,"
your weapon, be it teeth, claws, beak, wings fold or fist. ,ecause these types of all these sweet
gestures are among the signals, "understanding" which incorporated in heredity, then, depending
on the strength of the destination they call it a threat or a response, or flee, but the way of a
gesture to pre$ent the fight, clearly defined here: they must consist in the fact that the asylum of
the world animal turns his weapons from the enemy.
)owe$er, the weapon is almost ne$er used for an attack, it is necessary to protect and to reflect
the impact % and because this form of gestures of appeasement is a big "but": each animal is
performing a gesture, it is $ery dangerous to disarm and, in many cases, substitutes the enemy
unprotected most $ulnerable place of his body. )owe$er, this form of gesture resignation spread
$ery widely, and has been "found" independently of each other with the most different groups of
$ertebrates. @efeated wolf turns his head away and substitutes the winner extremely side of the
$ulnerable neck, cur$ed towards the bite. 5alka substitutes under the beak of that, who needs to
be appeased his unprotected back of the head: 'ust the place that are trying to get these birds
with a serious assault with intent to murder. This coincidence is so striking that I thought for a long
time, if such a protrusion of the most $ulnerable areas is essential for the effecti$eness of the
posture of appeasement. A wolf and a dog, it looks really well, because begging for mercy
substitutes the winner of the 'ugular $ein. Although the di$ersion of weapons, of course, was at
first the only acti$e element in a gesture of appeasement % in my pre$ious assumption that there
is some truth to this.
If an enraged beast suddenly tripped an opponent&s delicate part of the body most exposed,
relying only on what is happening at the same time fighting off the stimulus will be enough to
pre$ent the attack % it would be a suicidal idea.
e know all too well how slow the transition to e!uilibrium instinct of domination of one o$er the
other, and therefore we can safely say that the mere withdrawal of combat incenti$e would lead to
a gradual reduction of aggressi$eness attacking the animal.
Thus, if the sudden resignation acceptance posture immediately stop threatening to attack
another winner, then we are entitled to assume with reasonable certainty that such a position
creates a special incenti$e situation % and thus includes some acti$e braking.
This is certainly true of dogs that I ha$e seen many times that the $an!uished suddenly assumes
the pose of humility and substitutes winner unprotected neck % he does a motion lethal shake%up
"idle", ie around her neck defeated enemy, but without the bite and with a closed mouth. The
same applies to the three%toed gull % of seagulls % and a 'ackdaw birds of the crow family. Among
gulls, whose beha$ior is particularly well known from studies of Tinbergen and his students, three%
toed gull holds a special position in the sense that the ecological peculiarity % it breeds on the
edges of rocky cliffs % ties it to the nest. 4hicks are in the nest, in need of an effecti$e protection
against possible attack others gulls more than other kids the same species growing on the earth,
they also, if need be, can escape. Accordingly, the three%fingered gesture of appeasement at the
seagulls are not only more ad$anced, but also underlined the young bird special color pattern,
reinforcing its action. Turning away from the beak of the partner acts as a gesture of
appeasement at all the seagulls. )owe$er, if the herring gull and broody, like other kinds of large
gulls 6arus, such a mo$e is not too ob$ious and certainly does not look special ritual, then a
simple gulls strictly defined tantseobra-naya ceremony in which one partner is approaching to the
other, or both closer to one another % if none are plotting e$il % remo$ing the beak exactly .GD
degrees and turned to the back of the head to another. This is the "alert head," as it is called
+nglish authors, optically emphasi-ed by the fact that black%brown facial mask and a dark red
beak gulls at such a gesture of appeasement cleaned ago, and their place in a striking white
plumage neck. If the common gull plays a key role in$ol$ing the disappearance of signs of
aggression % a black mask and a red beak % then a young three%toed gull is emphasi-ed color
pattern turning back of the head: on a white background is a dark figure appears characteristic
shape, which % ob$iously % operates as a separate brake aggressi$e beha$ior.
2arallel to this de$elopment signal inhibiting aggression in gulls there and cor$ids. 2erhaps all the
big black and gray cor$ids, as a gesture of appeasement emphasi-ed turns his head away from
your partner. (any, like crows and ra$ens African white chest, occipital region, which is
substituted with a gesture to appease the partner is indicated by a bright spot.
In 'ackdaws, which by their close li$ing together in colonies, ob$iously, especially re!uires action
gesture of appeasement, the same part of the plumage differs markedly from the rest of the black
is not only a wonderful silky%gray color. These feathers are also much longer and % like feathers
adorn some herons % ha$e hooks on the beard so that they form a conspicuous lush and shiny
crown, as far as fluff as a gesture of humility substituted under the beak of the neighbor. To the
one in this situation, pecked, % there is ne$er, e$en if the weaker took the pose of submission at
the $ery moment of his attack. In most cases, a bird, 'ust in$eigh reacts social "stroking":
friendly touches and clean the feathers on the back of his head to con!uer the neighbor. Truly
pathetic form of the conclusion of peace3
There are a number of gestures of submission, which date back to the infantile, childish beha$ior,
as well as others, apparently occurred on the beha$ior of females during mating. )owe$er, in its
current functions, these gestures do not ha$e anything to do with childishness, nor with women
sexuality, but merely indicate 9in terms of human language:: "@o not touch me, please3" This
leads to the assumption that these animals ha$e special braking mechanisms prohibiting attacks
on children, or, respecti$ely, for females e$en before such expressi$e mo$ement gained general
social meaning. ,ut if so % you can assume that it was through them from couples and families
de$eloped a larger social group.
Inhibiting aggression gestures of submission, which e$ol$ed from the demanding expressi$e
mo$ements of young animals that are common in the first place for canine. This is not surprising,
because they ha$e so much braking protecting children. J. #chenkel has shown that many acti$e
gestures of submission % that is, friendly resignation to "respect", but did not cause fear kinsman
of the highest rank % come directly from the puppy&s relations with his mother. hen the dog
pokes his snout, pulls paw licking her cheek near the mouth % as we all know from the friendly
dogs % all of it, says #chenkel, deri$ed from the mo$ements of sucking, or at the re!uest of the
feed. #imilarly, as the courteous people can express each other mutual submission, when in fact
exist between them is !uite unambiguous relationship of hierarchy, and the two are mutually
friendly dogs perform for each other infantile gestures of humility, especially when a friendly
welcome after a long separation. This mutual helpfulness and the wol$es go so far as to (issouri
% during his remarkably successful field obser$ations in the mountains of (ount (c?inley % often
could not determine the hierarchical relationship of two adult males in their expressi$e
mo$ements of welcome. *n the island of Isle Joyale, located in the 8ational 2ark of the 5reat
6akes, #6 Allen and 6@ (ech obser$ed an unexpected function of the welcoming ceremony. A
flock of around /D wol$es li$ed through the winter elk, and, as it turned out, entirely by the weaker
animals. ol$es stop each elk, which can reach up to, but do not try to tear it up, and
immediately stop their attack if he starts to defend itself $igorously and powerfully. If they find a
moose, which weakened parasites, infection, or, as often in ruminants, dental fistula % then they&ll
notice that there is hope to profit. In this case, all the members of the flock suddenly come
together and fall apart in mutual ceremonies: push each other&s noses, wagging tails % in short,
beha$e with each other, as our dogs when we are going to walk with them. This common "nose%
to%nose%4onference" 9as it is called in +nglish:, without any doubt, the agreement means that the
detected only that the $ictim will be arranged !uite serious hunting. )ow not to remember the
dance of the (asai warriors, who raised the ritual dance of the spirit before hunting a lion3
+xpressi$e mo$ements of social obedience, which e$ol$ed out of a lady&s in$itation to
intercourse, are found in monkeys, especially in the baboons. Jitual turning back of the body,
often luxurious, !uite fantastically colored optical underscore the ceremony, in its modern form in
the baboons hardly has anything to do with sexuality and sexual moti$ation. It 'ust means that the
monkey producing this ritual recogni-es that a higher rank to which it is addressed "It was !uite
tiny monkey diligently perform this practice without any instruction. ?atarina )eynrot I was a
female baboon 2ius, who grew up among people with almost birth % so she when she let out a
strange room, solemnly performed the ceremony of "exposing ass" in front of each chair.
*b$iously, chairs inspired her fear. baboons treated males with females imperious and tough, and
although % according to field obser$ations and @eborah "oshberna % on the loose this appeal is
not as cruel as it can be assumed based on their beha$ior in capti$ity, it is $ery different from the
ceremonious courtesy canine and geese. therefore understandable that these monkeys are easily
identified $alues of "I % your female" and "I % am your sla$e . "*rigin of the symbolism of this
remarkable gesture shows itself in exactly how the addressee declares that he took note of it. I
once saw in the ,erlin -oo, as two strong%old male hamadryad for a moment sei-ed in a serious
fight. 8ext moment, one of them ran, and the winner was chasing after him, until he finally
cornered, % the loser left with no other option but a gesture of humility. response to the winner
immediately turned and proudly on his outstretched legs, walked away.
Then the defeated, shrieking, caught up with him and started prostotaki persistently pursue his
outstretched ass, until the fittest is not "taken note" of his resignation: pretty bored with mine sat
on it and did a few careless copulati$e mo$ements. *nly then defeated calmed down, apparently
con$inced that his rebellion was forgi$en.
Among the $arious % and coming from different sources % the ceremonies of appeasement, it
remains to consider are still those who, in my opinion, are the most important for our theme.
8amely % the rituals of appeasement or greeting, already mentioned briefly that occurred as a
result of the reorientation of attacking mo$es. They are different from all pre$iously described
appeasement ceremonies that do not inhibit agresssiyu, but it is remo$ed from certain relati$es
and sent to others. @id I mention that this reorientation of aggressi$e beha$ior is one of the most
brilliant in$entions of e$olution, but that&s not all. here$er there is refocused appeasement ritual,
a ceremony connected with the personality of partners who take part in it. The aggression of a
certain creature is remo$ed from the second, too specific, while her discharge on all the other
relati$es who remain anonymous, is not sub'ect to inhibition. #o there is a difference between a
friend and all the others, and the world&s first personal connection appears indi$iduals. hen I
ob'ected that the animal % it&s not a person, then I answer that the person begins exactly where
each of the two creatures plays in the life of another being a role that can not immediately take
any one of the other neighbors. In other words, the person begins where the first time there is a
personal friendship.
In its origin and its original features personal ties are inhibiting aggression, calming mechanisms
of beha$ior, and therefore they should be referred to the chapter on beha$ior, similar to the moral.
)owe$er, they create such an essential foundation for building human society and are so
important to the theme of the book that you need to talk about them too much. ,ut that chapter
would ha$e to precede another three, because only by knowing the other possible forms of
common life in which personal friendship and lo$e do not play any role, you can fully appreciate
their $alue to the organi-ation of human society. #o, I will describe the first anonymous flock, then
callous union at night heron, and finally causing the power and respect, and disgust social
organi-ation of rats % and only then turn to the natural history of the bonds that all beautiful and
stronger than on +arth.
G. Anonymous flock.
*$erpower the mass can only mass.
5oethe
The first of the three forms of community that we want to compare with the union, which was built
on personal friendship and lo$e % perhaps as ancient and dark background % the so%called
anonymous flock. This is the most common and certainly the most primiti$e form of community
that already found in many in$ertebrates, such as in cuttlefish and insects. )owe$er, this does not
mean that it is not found in the higher animals, e$en humans, under certain circumstances, may
truly terrible thing to fall into a state of the anonymous pack "back into it," as happens in a panic.
The term "flock" we mean not 'ust any random cluster of indi$idual creatures of the same species
that occur, for example, when a lot of flies or $ultures are going to fall, or when some particularly
fa$orable area of the tidal -one, a continuous accumulation of snails or sea anemones. 4oncept
pack determined that some kind of separate indi$iduals react to each other con$ergence, and
hence their hold together any beha$ioral acts which one or more indi$idual beings cause other
such. Therefore, for the flocks characteristic that many beings are closely closed down, mo$e in
the same direction.
4ohesion anonymous pack raises a number of !uestions physiology of beha$ior. They concern
not only the functioning of the sensory organs and ner$ous system, creating $-aimopritya-henie,
"positi$e taxis", but % abo$e all % and the high selecti$ity of these reactions.
hen the gregarious creature at all costs wants to be in close proximity to many of their own
kind, and only in exceptional cases of extreme satisfied as an ersat- of animals of another
species % this re!uires an explanation. #uch a tendency can be congenital, such as many weft
which selecti$ely react to form a color and tail fly trace, it may depend on the indi$idual training.
e will not be able to answer many "why" that arise in connection with the merger anonymous
pack, as long as it will sol$e the problem of "hy<" In the sense in which it was regarded at the
beginning of the book. hen raising this !uestion we are faced with a paradox: it turned out so
easy to find !uite a con$incing answer to a seemingly meaningless !uestion, which may be useful
to "harmful" aggression, the significance of which for the conser$ation of the species we know
already from the third chapter, but weird it is $ery difficult to say why you need the union in huge
flocks anonymous, what are the fish, birds and many mammals. e are too used to seeing these
communities, but also because we are social beings % we are all too easy to imagine that a lone
herring, starling, or a lone bison may not feel well. Therefore, the !uestion "hy<" 'ust do not
come to mind. )owe$er, the legitimacy of such a !uestion immediately becomes clear as soon as
we look to the ob$ious shortcomings of large flocks: a large number of animals is difficult to find
food, can not hide 9and this feature of natural selection in other cases, the rates $ery high:,
increased susceptibility to parasites, etc. etc.
It is easy to assume that one herring, floating in the ocean itself, or one reel, flying away on their
own in the autumn of his wanderings, or a lemming, trying to find the land alone is richer with the
threat of hunger % they would ha$e a better chance of sur$i$al. @ense swarms in which these
animals are kept, 'ust did pro$oke them up "predators one hit," up to "the 5erman company
fisheries in the 8orth #ea." e know that the instinct to collect animals, has enormous power,
and that attracting an action that has a pack on indi$idual animals and their small groups,
increases with the si-e of the pack, and perhaps e$en exponentially. As a result, many animals,
such as in finches can be fatal $icious circle. If under the influence of random external
circumstances % for example, extremely abundant har$est beech nuts in a certain area % winter
accumulation of these birds is significant, on the order exceeds the normal $alue, their a$alanche
de$elops en$ironmentally acceptable limits, and the masses of birds are dying of hunger. I had
the opportunity to obser$e a giant cluster of winter .HE. near Turen-ee in #wit-erland. "nder the
trees on which the birds were asleep, e$ery day there were many, many corpses, a few random
samples with the autopsy clearly indicated to star$ation.
I belie$e will be !uite natural, from the ob$ious and ma'or drawbacks of li$ing in large schools, we
extract the conclusion that in some other respect this life should ha$e some ad$antages that are
not only arguing with these shortcomings, but and exceed them % so much so that the selection
pressure fostered complex beha$ioral mechanisms of the pack.
If the herd animals e$en in the slightest degree armed % like, say, 'ackdaws, small ruminants or
small monkey % it is easy to understand that for them unity % is power. The reflection of a predator
or the protection of the pack grasped them do not e$en ha$e to be successful to ha$e
$idosohranyayuschuyu $alue. If a social defense mechanism crows and 'ackdaws leads to
sal$ation that has fallen into the clutches of a hawk and a falcon&s bothering so much so that he
begins to hunt crows slightly less likely than, say, forty % this is sufficient to protect a comrade
ac!uired a $ery significant role. The same applies to the "intimidation", which pursues a predator
male deer, or to $iolent outcries with which pursue a tiger or a leopard, many monkeys 'umping
on the crowns of trees at a safe height, and trying to act on the ner$es.
*f these he began by completely understandable gradual transitions e$ol$ed hea$ily armed
military orders buffalo, baboons and other peaceful heroes, before the defense power and which
baffled the worst predators.
,ut what brings the benefits of a strong cohesion of the pack unarmed % ?osyako$a herring and
other small fish, small 2tah, hordes of committing their flights, and many, many others< I ha$e
only a tentati$e answer, and I make it with doubt, as I myself hard to belie$e that a single, small,
but widespread weakness predators has such far%reaching conse!uences in the beha$ior of
animals ser$ing their prey. This weakness is that many, perhaps e$en all the predators, preying
on a single $ictim, unable to concentrate on a single target, if at the same time, many other
e!ui$alent material flicker in their field of $ision. Try to get yourself one of the birds out of the cage
in which they are many. +$en if you do not need any particular bird, but 'ust need to release a
cell, you will disco$er with surprise that the firm should concentrate on a specific, generally to
catch at least one. In addition, you will understand how difficult it is to maintain this focus on a
particular ob'ect and not allow yourself to be distracted by others who seem to be more
accessible. Another bird that seems to be climbing the arm, almost ne$er fails to grasp because
you ha$e not been following her mo$ements during the pre$ious second, and can not predict
what she&ll do next. And yet % as it is astounding % you will often suffice for the intermediate
direction between two e!ually attracti$e.
*b$iously, 'ust the same thing happens with predators when they are offered at the same time a
lot of goals. At goldfish experimentally that they paradoxically, grab a smaller amount of water
fleas, if they offered too much at once. #imilarly beha$e radar guided missile with a plane: they fly
through the resultant between two targets if they are close to each other and symmetrically in
relation to the original tra'ectory. 2redatory fish, like a rocket, lacks the ability to ignore a single
target to focus on the other. #o the reason why the herring are pulled together into a tight 'oint, it
is probably the same as that of the 'et fighters that we see in the sky, flying in tight close order,
which is not safe e$en in the highest class of pilots.
A person does not go into these issues, this explanation may seem far%fetched, but they say that
it is correct for a $ery strong case. As far as I know, there is not a single species li$ing in close
association #tein, whose indi$idual animals in the flock, being excited % for example, suspecting
the presence of a predatory enemy % not trying to tightly laced tighter. Cust with the smallest and
most defenseless animals is most clearly noticeable, so many fish do 'ust fry and adults % no
longer exists. #ome fish are in danger going into such a dense mass that it looks like a huge big
fish, as well as many pretty stupid predators, such as barracuda, $ery afraid of choking, attacking
too large prey % it could play a kind of protecti$e role.
Another $ery strong argument in fa$or of the correctness of my explanation stems from the fact
that, ob$iously, no ma'or professional predator attacks the $ictim inside the dense herds. 8ot only
large mammal predators like lion and tiger, think about the defense of their prey, before you 'ump
on the buffalo herd. #mall predators, preying on a defenseless prey, too, almost always try to
discourage someone from the pack one before will come to attack him seriously. 2eregrine
falcon, and e$en ha$e a special hobby hunting techni!ue that is used exclusi$ely to that purpose
and no other. ,. ,eebe watched the same thing in the fish in the open sea. )e saw a large shoal
of mackerel follows the fish fry%urchin and waits patiently for is any%one fish will not separate from
the dense finally failed to grasp some $ery small prey.
#uch an attempt is in$ariably ended with the death of the little fish in a big stomach.
(igrating flocks of starlings ob$iously use predator difficulties with the choice of targets for the
special educational measure inspire him an additional a$ersion to the hunting of starlings. If a
flock of birds in the air notices sparrow hawk or a hobby, it is contracted so tight that it seems %
the birds are no longer able to work the wings. )owe$er, such systems are not starlings away
from a predator, and in a hurry to meet him, and e$entually flow around it on all sides, like an
amoeba flows around the food particles by passing it into yourself in a small $oid $olume in the
"$acuoles". #ome obser$ers ha$e suggested that as a result of such a maneu$er, a bird of prey is
taken from under the wings of the air, so that it can not only attack, but generally fly. This, of
course, nonsense, but this experience is certainly painful enough for a predator to pro$ide the
said educational impact, so this beha$ior is $idosohranyayuschuyu $alue.
(any sociologists belie$e that the original form of social association is the family, and it is already
in the process of e$olution ha$e de$eloped all the $arious forms of community, which we find in
higher animals. This may be true for social insects, and possibly for some mammals, including
primates and humans, but such a statement can not be generali-ed.
The $ery first form of "community" % in the broadest sense of the word % this is an anonymous
cluster, a typical example of which we are gi$en a fish in the ocean. Inside this cluster there is
nothing like structure, no leaders and no sla$es % a huge mass of identical elements. #ure, they
mutually influence each other, and undoubtedly there are some simple forms of "mutual
understanding" between the indi$iduals that make up these clusters. hen one of them sees the
danger and flees % all the others who can see his fear of contracting the mood.
)ow common are such a panic in large shoals, whether it would be in a position to encourage the
entire herd to turn and flee % this is a purely !uantitati$e !uestion, and the answer here depends
on how many animals were frightened and how hard they were running away. Cust mo-heg react
entire herd and attracting stimulus that causes a "positi$e taxis," e$en if it saw only one indi$idual.
)er decisi$e mo$ement surely capti$ate in the same direction and other fish, and again only a
!uestion of !uantity, allow yourself to capti$ate the entire 'oint.
2urely !uantitati$e, in a sense, a $ery democratic manifestation of this "transfer of sentiment," is
that the solution is gi$en by 'amb more difficult, the more fish in it, and the more they ha$e the
herd instinct. The fish that swam for some reason in a certain direction, soon, willy%nilly, comes up
from the shoal and hits while under the influence of all the incenti$es for her to return. The larger
the fish swims in the same direction % whate$er external stimuli nor encourage each of them % the
sooner they will carry away the whole herd, the more can not % and at the same time and his
opposite effect % the smaller the distance swim his enterprising Jepresentati$es, before being
turned back, as if drawn by a magnet. Therefore, a large flock of small and tightly bunched fish is
a pathetic piece of indecision. +$ery now and then an enterprising fish form small groups that are
pulled out of the pack, as pseudopodium at amoeba.
The longer are these pseudopodia, so they become thinner, and the more clearly is tension along
them, as a rule, this search ends rapid escape into the interior of the pack. hen you see it %
ine$itably begin to get ner$ous, doubting democracy and dignity in finding the right policy.
6ittle doubt that these are 'ustified % pro$es a simple, but $ery important for the sociology of
experience, who spent one day on the ri$er minnows +rich $on )olst. )e remo$ed a single fish of
this species forebrain responsible % at least in these fish % for all the reactions of schooling
association. (innow without forebrain looks, eats and swims like normal, the only distinguishing
feature of his beha$ior is that he does not care if none of the companions did not follow him when
he comes up from the pack. Thus, it is not half%hearted "looking back" normal fish, which, e$en if
it is $ery intense swims in any direction, since the $ery first mo$ement draws attention to the
flock%mates: a swim for it, and how many of them floating behind him. (innow without forebrain
was completely indifferent, and if he saw the feed or for some other reason like kudato, he
resolutely sailed there % and, imagine the entire pack swam after him. (utilated animal 'ust
because of his defect was the clear leader.
Intraspecific aggression, separates and alienates relati$es, their action is opposite to the herd
instinct, so % needless to say % a strong aggressi$eness and close association incompatible. ,ut
not as extreme manifestations of the two mechanisms of beha$ior is by no means mutually
exclusi$e. And many species forming large clumps, some indi$iduals ne$er o$erstep certain
limits: between any two animals always maintained a permanent space. A good example of this
are the starlings, which sit on a telegraph wire with regular inter$als, like pearls on a necklace.
The distance between each pair of starlings corresponds exactly to their ability to get each other&s
beak. Immediately after landing, the starlings are placed randomly, but the ones that were too
close to each other, immediately instigate a fight, and it lasts as long as e$erywhere is
established "prescribed" inter$al is $ery well marked )ediger as the indi$idual distance. The
space, the radius of which is determined indi$idually distance can be seen as a kind of tiny
transportable territory because beha$ioral mechanisms to ensure the maintenance of this space
is in principle no different from those described abo$e, determining the boundaries of the
neighboring estates. There are also these areas % for example, boobies nesting colonies % which
occur in exactly the same way as the seats are distributed among starlings: possession of a tiny
pair of boobies has 'ust such dimensions that the two neighboring birds, being in the center of
each of his "area "9that is sitting on the nest:, 'ust do not get each other with the tip of the beak,
which both extends the neck, as soon as they can.
#o #tein&s association and intraspecific aggression is not entirely mutually exclusi$e, but we
mention it only for completeness of the picture.
In general, for the gregarious animals typically lack any kind of aggression was, but at the same
time and the lack of indi$idual distance. )erring and carp fish ?osyako$a not only anxiety, but
also in the rest held so tightly that relate to each other, and many of the fish that are spawning
during territorial and extremely aggressi$e, any aggression completely disappears as soon as the
animals, taking care of procreation, again are fa$ored by as many cichlids, sticklebacks and
others. In most cases, non%aggressi$e ?osyako$a of the fish externally manifested in their
particular color. In $ery many species of birds also dominates custom % for the time that is not
associated with the care of offspring, rallying in large flocks anonymous, as is the case with storks
and herons, swallows, and in so many other songbirds, whose wife&s fall and winter is not
maintain any links.
*nly a few species of birds and large flocks of migratory couples % or, more accurately, parents
and children % are held together, like swans, wild geese and cranes. It is clear that a huge number
of birds and distress in most large flocks of birds make it difficult to maintain linkages between
indi$iduals, but the ma'ority of these animals, and does not gi$e it any $alue. The fact of the
matter is that the form of the merger completely anonymousK each indi$idual merits of each
congener society as cute as any other. The idea of personal friendship, which is so beautifully
expressed in the folk song % "I had a friend, comrade, the best in the world could not be found" % is
inapplicable in respect of such gregarious creatures: each partner is as good as any other,
although you you will not find anyone better, but worse, too, and no one will not find, so there&s no
point in clinging to any particular member of the pack as his friend and comrade.
,onds 'oining a pack of anonymous, ha$e a completely different character than the personal
friendship, which gi$es strength and stability of our own community. )owe$er, one would assume
that personal friendship and lo$e could $ery well de$elop into the bowels of the peaceful
reunification, this idea seems particularly attracti$e because anonymous flock, of course,
appeared in the e$olution of personal relationships much earlier. Therefore, to a$oid confusion, I
want to warn that an anonymous staeobra-o$anie and personal friendship exclude each other
because the last % oddly enough % always associated with aggressi$e beha$ior. e do not know
of any li$ing being, which is capable of a personal friendship and thus de$oid of aggressi$eness.
2articularly impressi$e is the link for those animals that become aggressi$e only during the
breeding season, and in the rest of the time and lose their aggressi$eness anonymous form of
the pack.
If such creatures do ha$e personal ties % these bonds are lost, along with the loss of
aggressi$eness. That&s why couples break up with storks, finches, and other cichlids, when huge
flocks gather anonymous for autumn tra$els.
H. 4ommunity without lo$e.
And at the heart of the eternal coldness.
5oethe
At the end of the pre$ious chapter anonymous flock opposed to personal ties only to emphasi-e
that these two mechanisms of social beha$ior are fundamentally mutually exclusi$e, this does not
mean that other mechanisms do not exist. In animals, there are also relationships between
certain indi$iduals that bind them for a long time, sometimes for life, but personal ties do not
occur. As in humans, there are business partners who are working together well, but it ne$er
comes together to go for a walk or do something to be together outside of work % and in many
animal species there are indi$idual links that appear only indirectly through common interests of
the partners in a general "enterprise," or % better said % which in this $enture and are. +xperience
has shown that fans humani-e animals is surprising and frustrating to hear that so many birds,
including those who li$e in a life time "married" male and female absolutely no need each other,
they are in the most literal sense of "do not pay attention "to each other, unless they ha$e 'ointly
take care of the nest and chicks.
The extreme case of such a relationship % indi$idual, not based on indi$idual recognition and lo$e
partners % is that )eynrot called "local matrimony." For example, green li-ards, males and females
occupy the land independently of each other, and each animal is defending his land only by
representati$es of their sex. The male does not do anything in response to the in$asion of
females, he can not do anything, because the inhibition of which we spoke to did not allow him to
attack the female. In turn, the female also can not attack the male, e$en if he is young and it is
much inferior in si-e and strength, as it holds a deep respect for the innate masculinity regalia, as
pre$iously described. Therefore, males and females are setting the boundaries of their holdings in
the same matter, as do the animals of two different species that are completely unnecessary
intra%distance between them. )owe$er, they still belong to the same species, and therefore show
the same "taste" when they ha$e to take some sort of a mink or look for a place for her de$ice.
,ut within a well%e!uipped a$iary area of o$er 1D s!uare meters % and e$en in the wild % li-ards
ha$e at their disposal is not unlimited number of attracti$e opportunities to get 9the $oids between
the stones, digging holes, etc.:. And so % or simply could not be % a male and a female, which is
nothing of each other does not take away, take up residence in the same apartment. ,ut other
than that, $ery rarely are two possible homes are precisely e!ual, and e!ually attracti$e, so we
were not surprised when our a$iary in the most con$enient, facing south burrow immediately
settled the strongest male and female is the strongest of all our colonies li-ards. Animals that are
similarly in constant contact, of course, often paired with each other than with foreign partners,
accidentally hit the limits of their possessions, but that does not mean that an indi$idual is
manifested their preference for the co%owner of the home. hen one of the "local spouses" for
the sake of the experiment was remo$ed, soon among li-ards cage "was held rumor" that the
attracti$e property of the male % or female, respecti$ely % are not taken.
This led to new $iolent clashes predendento$, and % what was to be expected % usually the $ery
next day following by the power of the male or female mined afford it home with sexual partner.
Ama-ingly, almost the same as those 'ust described li-ards beha$e our home storks. ho has
not heard terribly beautiful stories to tell where$er storks nesting and hunting stories portrayed<
They are always taken seriously, and from time to time that one or another of the newspaper
appears report on how storks before flying to Africa deciding the harsh 'udgment: all offenses
punishable by storks included in the pack, and especially all aistihi, sullied themsel$es married
treason, sentenced to death and cruelly put to death. In fact, for the stork his wife does not mean
that much, e$en there is absolutely no certainty that he would ha$e recogni-ed her at all, meeting
away from their common nest. A pair of storks is not that magic is associated with a rubber band,
which in geese, cranes, ra$ens or crows ob$iously attracts spouses, the stronger the farther apart
they are. A male stork and his lady almost ne$er fly together on the same distance from each
other, as do a pair of these and many other species, and in a large flight they go in a completely
different time. A male stork always arri$es in the spring of home much earlier than his wife % or
rather, before the females from the same nest. +rnst #chPt-, being the head of Jossitenskoy
ornithological station, made a $ery meaningful obser$ation of the storks, nesting on his roof. It
consists in the following. In that year, the male came back early, and hardly two days of his stay
at home % there was an alien female. (ale standing on the nest, welcomed another lady clapping
beak, she immediately dropped to his nest and also welcomed back. (ale without hesitation let
her and treated her to a tee, to the smallest detail, as always treated males with their long%
awaited, returning spouses. 2rofessor #chut- said to me, he would ha$e sworn that the bird
appeared and has been highly anticipated, nati$e wife, if he had not understood about the ring %
or rather the lack of it % at the foot of the new female.
The two of them were already being busy repairing the nest, when suddenly appeared old female.
Aistihami between the struggle for nest % "a life%and%death" % and the male followed them without
interest, and did not e$en bother to take sides. In the end, the new female flew away, defeated by
a "legitimate" his wife, and the male after the change of wi$es continued his studies on the de$ice
socket from the $ery place where it was interrupted duel opponents. )e has not shown any signs
of what is generally obser$ed that a double substitution of one spouse to the other. As it does not
look like the legend of the court3 If the stork found his wife in the act with the nearest neighbor to
the roof % he probably 'ust could not find it.
+xactly the same as the stork is the case and night heron, but by no means all of herons at all.
*tto ?enih pro$ed that among them there are many species in which the spouses, without a
doubt, know each other personally and e$en away from the nest to keep some degree together.
)eron I know !uite well. For many years I ha$e watched artificially organi-ed a colony of free
birds of this species, so I saw up close and in great detail how they are formed couples as they
build the nest, incubate and grow as young. hen couples that make up the pair met on neutral
territory, ie at some distance from their general nesting site % they were catching fish in the pond
or feeding in a meadow, located about .DD meters from the tree%nesting sites % there was no
absolutely no e$idence that the birds know each other. They are also fiercely distilled off each
other on a good fishing spot, as fiercely fought because of scattered my feed, as any night heron,
between which there is no relationship. They ne$er flew together. 4ombining birds in a more or
less large flock when in the thick dusk night heron flew to fish on the @anube, was of a typical
anonymous community. The anonymous and the organi-ation of their nests, which is
fundamentally different from a strictly closed circle of friends in the colony of 'ackdaws. +$ery
night heron, ready to spring to procreate, satisfied with their nest, though not too close, but the
other near the nest. It seems that the bird needs a "healthy anger" against a hostile neighbor that
without this it would be difficult to carry out parental duty. The smallest nesting site are
determined by how far the nearest neighbors take out beaks in elongated necks, ie 'ust like
boobies or as if a starlings to the wire. Thus, the centers of the two nests are ne$er placed closer
than double the distance of reach. @o herons neck long, so get a decent distance.
@o the neighbors of each other % it&s safe to say I can not. )owe$er, I ne$er noticed that some
night heron accustomed to the approximation of a certain neighbor who had to pass by on the
way to his own nest.
.D. Jats.
here the de$il is celebrating his feast,
It ignites fury parties %
And the horror shakes the world.
5oethe
There is a type of social organi-ation, characteri-ed by a form of aggression, which we ha$e not
yet met % namely, the collecti$e struggle of one community against another. I will try to show that
this particular $iolation, the social form of intraspecific aggression in the $ery first play the role of
"+$il" in the proper sense of the word. That is why the social organi-ation of this kind is a model
that clearly demonstrates some of the dangers that threaten oursel$es. In his beha$ior with
members of their own community animals, which will be discussed are the true sample of all the
social $irtues. ,ut they turn into real monsters when they ha$e to deal with a member of any other
community, except his own. 4ommunity of this type is always too numerous to each animal to
personally know all the rest, belonging to a particular group is known by a particular smell,
peculiar to 8ome to all its members.
About social insects ha$e long known that their community, often numbering up to se$eral million
members, in fact, are the families, as they consist of the descendants of a single female or a
couple who founded the colony. It has long been known, and that the bees, termites and ants
such a gigantic family members to know each other by the characteristic smell of the hi$e % or,
respecti$ely, the anthill % and that ine$itably the killing, if, say, a member of the foreign colony in
error does not wander to the nest, or if the experimenter %(an will deli$er brutal experience, mix
two colonies.
As far as I know, only in .HED, it became known that mammals % namely rodents % also there are
giant family that beha$e the same way. This important disco$ery was made almost
simultaneously and completely independently of each other and F.#htayniger and Able%
+ybesfeldt, one on the gray rats, and another on the house%mice.
Abel, who at the time was still working at the biological station 7ilhelminenberg *tto ?oenig,
followed by a sound principle to li$e in as close contact with the animals studied, the mice run
around in his hut, he not only did not pursue, but fed the regular and beha$ed calmly and
carefully, that in the end completely tamed them and could no interference watch them in close
proximity. *ne day it so happened that re$ealed a large cage in which Abel kept a whole lot of
large dark laboratory mice, !uite close to the wild. *nce these animals ha$e $entured out of the
cage and ran around the room % the local wild mice immediately attacked them, downright with
unprecedented fury, and only after a hard struggle they managed to get back under the protection
of the former prison. They defended it successfully, but wild house mice and tried to break in
there.
#htayniger put the gray rats caught in different places in a large enclosure where the animals
were gi$en a completely natural conditions. From the beginning, some animals seemed afraid of
each other.
They did not want to attack. #ometimes, howe$er, it came to serious strife, when the animals
ha$e met by chance, especially if the two of them dro$e along the fence toward each other, so
that they encountered at high speeds. The really aggressi$e they became only if and when they
started to get used to di$ide the territory. At the same time, and began the formation of pairs of
strangers to each other rat found in different places. If at the same time, there are se$eral pairs,
then followed that fight could go on for a long time, but if one pair was created earlier, the tyranny
of the combined forces of both spouses 8astola with suppressed unfortunate neighbors that
further pairing was paraly-ed.
#ingle rats apparently went down in rank, and now a couple pursued them continuously. +$en in
the paddock area of I1 s!uare meters a couple of weeks d$uhtreh was enough to finish off the
rest of the inhabitants, that is, .D%.E strong adult rats.
,oth husband and wife were e!ually $ictorious pair cruel to the $an!uished brethren, though it
was ob$ious that he prefers to torment the male, and she % the females. @efeated rats barely
defended, desperately trying to run away and stretched to the limit, rushed there, slit rats can not
find sal$ation is $ery rare % up. Instead of strong, healthy animals #htayniger repeatedly seen
wounded, exhausted rats that in broad daylight, !uite openly, perched high on shrubs or trees %
ob$iously misguided, others on the site. In'ured they were located mainly on the back of the back
and tail, where the pursuer could get run o$er. They rarely die an easy death as a result of
sudden deep wounds or se$ere blood loss. (ost often death was the result of sepsis, especially
from those bites that damaged the peritoneum. ,ut most of all the animals died from total
exhaustion and ner$ous tension that led to the depletion of the adrenal glands.
+specially effecti$e and insidious method of killing relati$es #htayniger watched some females,
turned into a real professional killers. "They slowly creep up % he writes % and then suddenly 'ump
and cause an unsuspecting $ictim, who, for example, eating at the trough, a bite to the neck side
is extremely common gra-ing carotid artery. For the most part it takes a matter of seconds.
Typically , fatally bitten animal dies from internal bleeding, which are found under the skin or in
body ca$ities. "
atching the bloody tragedy, leading e$entually to the fact that the remaining pair of rats
obsesses o$er the a$iary, it is difficult to imagine that a community that soon, In $ery soon formed
from the descendants of the $ictorious killers. 2eacefulness, e$en tenderness that distinguish
mammals attitude of mothers towards their children, the rats are not uni!ue to the fathers, but
grandfathers, uncles and all kinds, aunts, great%grandparents, etc. etc. % I do not know to what
extent the relationship. All mothers bring their broods in the same nest, and one can hardly
assume that each of them only care for their own children. #erious fights inside this giant family
does not happen e$er, e$en if there are do-ens of animals. +$en in wolf packs, the members of
which are so polite to each other, the animals eat the highest rank o$erall oil first. In the rat pack
hierarchy does not exist. Flock unitedly attacking large prey, and the stronger its members
contribute more to the $ictory. ,ut then % and I !uote $erbatim #htaynigera % "it is the smaller
animals beha$e more freely, $oluntarily great pick crumbs smaller. #imilarly, in reproduction: in all
senses more frisky animals, which grew only half or three%!uarters ahead of adults. ;oung ha$e
all law, and e$en the strongest of the old does not challenge them. "
Inside the pack is not a serious fight, and in extreme cases % small friction, which allowed the front
foot strikes or stepping back, but ne$er bites. Inside the pack there is no indi$idual distance, on
the contrary, rats % by )ediger % "contact animals": they are willing to touch each other. 4eremony
friendly readiness for contact is the so%called podpol-anii, which is especially common in young
animals, while the larger ones often express their sympathy to the smaller % creeping.
Interestingly, excessi$e intrusi$eness in such manifestations of friendship is the most common
reason for a harmless !uarrels within the family. If an adult animal that is busy eating, the young
too boring for her % or creeping, the first defensi$e: has a second front foot or coming back to it.
Cealousy or greed for food is almost ne$er the reason for such action.
Inside the pack works faster transmission of news through the transfer of sentiment, and % most
importantly % sa$e one day of experience and transfer it to posterity. If rats are new, as long it is
not a familiar food, then % according to the obser$ations #htaynigera % in most cases the first
beast, who found her, decides the family will eat it or not. "It is only a few animals from flocks
stumble upon the bait and not to take it % no member of the flock to it no longer fits. If the first
does not take the poisoned bait, they labeled her urine or feces. Though raise up feces should be
$ery incon$enient , but in the highly placed bait is commonly found litter. " ,ut what is most
striking % knowledge of the danger to any particular bait is passed down from generation to
generation, and for a long time going through the other indi$idual, who had some trouble
associated with this bait. The difficulty of truly successful fight against the gray rat % the most
successful biological enemy of man % is primarily in the fact that the rat uses the same methods
as for the people: the traditional transfer of experience and its distribution within the close%knit
community.
#erious bickering between rats belonging to the same family, there is only in a single case,
significant and interesting in many ways % namely, when there is a stranger rat, intra%Awake,
intrafamily aggression.
The fact that rats do when their site gets a member of another clan rat % or sits by the
experimenter % is one of the most impressi$e, horrible and disgusting things, which can be
obser$ed in animals. Alien rat can run for a minute or more, unaware of the terrible fate that
awaited her, and as long local people can go about their business as usual % until then, until
someone else comes close to one of them so that she uchuet someone else.
Then she shudders as an electric shock, and in an instant the whole colony is off%guard by
passing mood that the gray rats is only expressi$e mo$ements, and ,lack % and e$en harsh,
satanic%pitched screaming that pick up all of the pack who heard it. From the excitement in their
eyes bulged, hair stands on end % and the rats begin to hunt for a rat. They come in such a rage
that if two of them bump each other, for the first time always with bitterness bite. "They are
fighting for three to fi$e seconds, % the #htayniger % then thoroughly sniff each other, much craning
their necks, and peacefully disperse. *n the day of someone else&s rat baiting of the pack all
relate to each other in disbelief and annoyance." It is ob$ious that the members of the rat clan did
not know each other personally, like, say, crows, geese, or a monkey, and from the smell, 'ust like
bees and other social insects.
As these insects can be put in an experiment on a member of the rat pack stamp hateful stranger,
and $ice $ersa % with the help of special measures to gi$e someone else smell a rat pack. hen
Abel took the animal out of the rat colony and transplanted it into another enclosure, then a few
days later when you return to the old corral a flock met him as a stranger. If, howe$er, together
with the rat, he took the pen out of the soil, firewood, etc. and put it all on an empty and clean the
glass substrate, so that the isolated animal recei$ed with a dowry of the things that enabled him
to keep himself on the smell of the pack, then such an animal unconditionally accepted member
of the flock, e$en after being away for weeks.
A truly heartbreaking was the fate of a black rat, which is Able to transplant from the pack the first
of the described methods, and then returned to the fold in my presence. This animal is ob$iously
not forgotten the smell of his pack, but did not know what he smells different. Therefore, being
mo$ed to the former place, he felt perfectly safe, he was at home, so ferocious bites his former
friends were to him !uite unexpected. +$en after se$eral serious in'uries, he still was not put off
and tried desperately to escape, as do other people do the rat after the first meeting with the
striker member of the local clan. I hasten to reassure hearted reader, telling him that if we did not
wait for the bitter end, and planted an experimental animal in the home paddock under the
protection of a small wire cage and kept it there for as long as he resumed his "smell%passport"
and was again admitted to a school.
ithout such inter$ention sentimental lot stranger rat truly awful. The best thing is that it can
happen % it will battle to the death of immense shock horror, #A ,arnett watched a few cases of
this kind. If not so slowly de$our her relati$es. Jarely can so clearly see the animal desperation,
panic % and at the same time knowing the terrible ine$itability of death, like a rat, ready to the fact
that rats it executed: it is no longer protected3 "nwittingly begs comparison of this beha$ior with
the other % when she meets the threat of a large predator to dri$e it into a corner, and she had no
more chance to escape from him than from someone else&s rat pack. )owe$er, the
o$erwhelmingly superior enemy it opposes deadly manly self%defense, the best defense of all,
what happens in the world % the attack. ho e$er rushed in the face with a piercing battle cry of
its kind, a cornered rat % he will understand what I mean.
For what need this party hatred between packs of rats< hat is the task of preser$ing the species
has spawned such beha$ior< #o, the worst thing % and for us, the people, are highly disturbing % is
that the good old @arwinian reasoning is applicable only where there is some external,
en$ironmental conditions emanating from reason, which makes such a choice . *nly in this case,
the selection is called adaptation. )owe$er, where the selection is made by the ri$alry relati$es in
itself % there exists, as we already know, a great danger that the relati$es in a blind competition
would dri$e each other in the darkest dead ends of e$olution. 2re$iously, we ha$e seen two
examples of such false paths of de$elopment, it had wings Argus pheasant, and the pace of work
in estern ci$ili-ation. Thus, it is likely that the party hatred between packs, reigning in rats % it is
in fact only the "in$ention of the de$il," completely unnecessary form.
*n the other hand, can not be excluded that the act % and act now % some still unknown factors
outside world. ,ut one thing we can say for sure: the struggle between flocks does not perform
those functions $idosohranyayuschih intraspecific aggression, which we already know, and the
necessity of which we discussed in the third chapter. This fight is in no spatial distribution nor the
selection of the strongest defenders of the family % they are, as we ha$e seen, are rarely fathers
offspring % nor any of those listed in the third chapter functions. In addition, it is clear that a
permanent state of war, which contains all the neighboring family of rats should pro$ide a $ery
strong selecti$e pressure for increasing the combat readiness and that the flock, which, though
$ery little of this will fall behind its neighbors, it will be $ery !uickly destroyed. It is possible that
natural selection has appointed the award as a big family. ,ecause its members will certainly help
each other in dealing with strangers % a small flock certainly plays bigger. #htayniger found on a
small island in the 8orth #ea 8orderoog that some rat swarms di$ided the land, lea$ing a strip
between man&s land, "no rat&s land", a width of about ED meters, within which there is a constant
war. #ince the defensi$e front for a small population is more stretched than for the larger, the first
is at a disad$antage. This leads to the idea that e$ery such island will ha$e less and less the rat
population, and the sur$i$ors will become more numerous and bloodthirsty, as the Award
#election imposed for strengthening the party rancor. About the researcher, who is always mindful
of the threat of the destruction of humanity, we can say exactly the same thing said in Auerbach&s
cellar Altmaier on #iebel "In misfortune, he is !uiet and meek: compared himself with a swollen
rat % and full of similarities struck."
... "nion.
(y fear was gone % shoulder to shoulder with you
I would challenge my century.
#chiller
In the $arious types of social organi-ation, which I ha$e described in pre$ious chapters, the
connection between the indi$idual entities are not entirely personal. Almost e$ery indi$idual is
e!ui$alent to an element replaces another o$er%the indi$idual community. The first glimpse of the
personal relationship we ha$e seen in the sedentary males haplohromiso$ 5af-y of which
conclude with neighbors non%aggression pact and 'ust be aggressi$e with strangers. )owe$er, it
appears only a passi$e tolerance of the familiar neighbor. #till does not work no attracti$e force,
which would encourage follow partner if he floated somewhere, or for him to stay put, if he stays,
or acti$ely seek it if it was gone.
)owe$er, it is this beha$ior that characteri-es ob'ecti$ely determinable personal relationship that
is the sub'ect of this chapter, and which I shall henceforth call it "nion or bonds. The set of
creatures bound by these ties can be termed a group. Thus, 5roup 1 by the fact that it % like a
pack of anonymous % combined reactions that cause each of its other members, howe$er, unlike
the impersonal community group combining reactions are closely connected with the personality
of the group members.
6ike the pact of mutual tolerance among haplohromiso$ 5af-y, currently trunking is a prere!uisite
for the ability of some animals to respond selecti$ely to the indi$iduality of other group members.
e haplohromisa which at one and the same place on their breeding pit, reacts differently to
neighbors and strangers % in this special process of habituation in$ol$ed a number of ad$erse
circumstances. It&s still the !uestion of how he would deal with the familiar neighbor if both
suddenly found themsel$es in an unusual place. Trunking is currently characteri-ed as a time of
their independence from the site. The role that each member plays in the life of each other, is the
same in many of the most striking $ariety of external situations, in short, is a prere!uisite for any
personal recognition multiplex partner in all possible circumstances. Thus, the formation of a
group can not be based only on the innate responses, as is the case with almost $sescha
education anonymous flocks. It goes without saying that the knowledge of partners must be
learned indi$idually.
4onsidering the lifestyle of animals in the ascending series from simpler to more complex, we
$per$ye$strechaem trunking 9in 'ust one sense of the word: at the top of bony fish, or more
precisely % the igloperyh, and among them, particularly in cichlids and other relati$ely close to
them perch such as angelfish, butterfly fish and Q@emoiselleR. These three groups of marine fish
we already know from the first chapter, and % what is $ery important % as being the particularly
high le$el of intraspecific aggression. Cust talking about an anonymous staeobra-o$anii, I
categorically stated that the widest distribution and the oldest form of community does not come
from a family of unity of parents and children, in contrast to the pugnacious rat clans and packs
many other mammals. In a somewhat different sense from an e$olutionary great%form personal
connections and multiplex, no doubt, is the union of couples together caring for the offspring.
Although of a couple, as we know, there is easily a family % communication in !uestion now, it&s
something else.
First of all, let&s see how these relationships occur in cichlids, worthy of gratitude taught us
lessons.
hen the obser$er who knows the animals and thoroughly understanding their expressi$e
mo$ements, watches $semiranee described the e$ents that led to the formation in cichlids of
different sexes couple % he may not be easy, it&s frightening how much e$il in relation to each
other future spouses. Time after time, they almost fall upon each other, and this is a dangerous
outbreak of aggression barely slows down, so it did not come up to the murder. #uch fears are
not based on an incorrect interpretation of the expressi$e mo$ements of fish: e$ery practitioner
@iluting fish knows how dangerous plant in the a!uarium one of the male and female cichlids, and
how !uickly there are dead bodies, if not follow the pair constantly. In $i$o addicti$e significantly
helps stop the fight between the future bride and groom.
8atural conditions are reproduced in the a!uarium well, if the maximum possible capacity to put a
few fry, which from the outset is !uite li$able, so they grew up together. Then, pairing occurs in
such a manner that at puberty some fish tend male portion itself captures and dri$es the rest of it.
6ater, when some female is ready to mate % she cautiously approached the owner of the land, and
he attacks her % at first !uite seriously % it is, for it recogni-es the primacy of the male, answers
this manner already described: the so%called prim beha$ior, consisting of, As we already know,
from the elements, which often is the desire to mate, but part % from the desire to escape. If a
male, despite the apparent inhibitory effect of these aggressi$e gestures, beha$ing too
aggressi$ely, the female may at any time withdraw from his possessions.
,ut sooner or later it comes back. This is repeated for a certain period of time % of different
lengths % as long as they both are so accustomed to the presence of a partner that bound stimuli
emanating from it, causing aggression significantly lose their effecti$eness. As in many similar
cases of special addiction, here in this process initially in$ol$es all circumstances occasional side
of the o$erall situation, to which the animal is finally getting used to the whole. And the imputation
of any of these circumstances, and ine$itably in$ol$es a $iolation of the general operation of all
habits. This applies particularly to the beginning of peaceful co%existence, so that the original
partner should appear familiar way, with the usual side lighting should be the same as always,
etc. and so on % otherwise e$ery fish percei$es the other as a cause aggression alien. At this time,
transfer to another a!uarium can completely destroy a pair. ith the consolidation of the dating
relationship partners become more independent from the background on which it de$elops, this
process of isolating the main well%known 5estalt psychologists and researchers of the
conditioned reflex. In the end, communication between partners is becoming so independent of
the ad$erse conditions that can be transplanted couple, e$en to transport them to a considerable
distance, and do not break their bond. In an extreme case, this pair of old "regradiruyut" to early
stage, i.e. they again begin courtship and reconciliation ceremony that the couple, married for a
long time, ha$e long disappeared from the daily routine.
If pairing is going smoothly, then the male is gradually more and more comes to the fore sexual
beha$ior. It can be mixed by the $ery first, it is a serious assault on a female, but now the sexual
manifestations begin to dominate in terms of fre!uency and intensity, but the expressi$e
mo$ements of aggression does not disappear.
That disappears $ery !uickly % this willingness females to escape her "humility." +xpressi$e
mo$ements of fear % or, more precisely, ready to flee % to the strengthening of the female couples
disappear more and more, often it happens so !uickly that at his first obser$ations of cichlids I did
not notice these mo$ements a year and was confident that these fish there is no hierarchical
relationship between the spouses. e already know the role actually played by the hierarchy of
the mutual recognition of e!uality. It remains latent, and when the female finally stops the
execution of their gestures obedience to her husband. *nly in rare cases, if an old pair suddenly
fell out % female remembers these gestures.
Initially shy and submissi$e female my fear depri$es male opportunities to show what else
inhibition of aggressi$e beha$ior. #uddenly, her shyness goes, and she boldly and arrogantly
appears right in the middle of her husband&s possessions % with outstretched fins, in the pose of
the most impressi$e and luxurious attire, which in this species is not $ery different from the male
attire. As might be expected, the male becomes enraged because the situation presented to him
flaunts his wife, ine$itably carries with it a key stimulus, including fighting beha$ior, we already
know from the analysis of incenti$es. Thus, the male rushes to his lady, also assumes the pose
threats deployed sideways, and a split second, it seems that he is about to destroy it % and here is
what prompted me to write this book. (ale, female threatening to linger for a split second or
delayed at all: he can not wait, he&s too excited, so that almost immediately begins a $iolent attack
... ,ut not on his female, and % within an inch of her past % to some other neighbor. "nder natural
conditions, this other is, as a rule, the nearest neighbor. This is % a classic example of the
phenomenon that we call Tinbergen reorient the action.
It is determined by the fact that some action is in$oked by a single ob'ect, but the ob'ect emits
and inhibitory stimuli % and because it is directed to another ob'ect as if it was the cause of the
action. For example, a man was angry at the other, rather hit his fist on the table than that in the
face % 'ust because such an action inhibited by certain restrictions, and re!uires going fury like
la$a in a $olcano. (ost of the known cases reoriented action relates to aggressi$e beha$ior,
which is triggered by some ob'ect at the same time causing fear. In this particular case, which he
called a "reaction cyclist", ,. 5r-imek was first recogni-ed and described the principle of re%
focusing. As a "cyclist" is suitable anyone who bends back up and pushes his feet down.
2articularly e$ident mechanism of such beha$ior in those cases where the animal is attacking the
ob'ect of his anger from some distance, and then drew near, notice how that terrible, and then %
because it can not slow down the already wound%up car attack % pours out his rage on what%
some harmless creature, happened to be near.
*f course, there are countless other forms reoriented the action, and they may be the result of
$arious combinations of competing moti$es. A special case of the male cichlid is important for our
topic because similar phenomena play a crucial role in the family and social life of many of the
higher animals and humans. *b$iously, in the realm of $ertebrate repeatedly and independently
done the "disco$ery" that aggression is caused by a partner, can be not only depressed, but also
used to combat with hostile neighbors.
2re$ention of unwanted aggression caused a partner and its drainage in the desired direction % to
the neighbor&s plot % in the obser$ed and dramatically described the case of a male cichlids, of
course, is not the in$ention of this critical moment that the animal can do and can not do . *n the
contrary % it&s a long time ago and has become a rituali-ed instincti$e essential attribute of this
kind. All that we ha$e learned in 4hapter E on the process of rituali-ation, is primarily an
understanding of the fact that the actions of the reoriented ritual may be hard, and with it the need
for an autonomous, self%moti$e actions.
In ancient times, probably in the late 4retaceous period 9million years back and forth here does
not matter3:, *ne day, was to take place in exactly the same story as with the Indian chiefs and
snorkel in the Eth chapter, or any ritual could arise. After all, one of the two great designers of
e$olution % selection % to be able to inter$ene, always in need of some kind of accident occurred at
the support, and this support gi$es him his blind, but diligent colleague % $ariability.
)ow many bodily signs or instincti$e actions and rituali-ed ceremony in the process of indi$idual
de$elopment of the animal, in ontogeny, are, in general terms, the same way as they were in the
course of e$olutionary de$elopment. #trictly speaking, it is not repeated in the ontogeny of the
whole number of ancient forms, and only a series of ontogeny % as rightly pointed out already ?arl
+rnst $on ,aer, % but for our purposes it is sufficient and more simplistic $iew. Thus, the ritual
arising from the reorientation of the attack, in its first manifestation is much more similar to
nerituali-o$anny sample, rather than later, in its final de$elopment. Therefore, the male cichlids
only enters into married life, you can clearly see % especially if the intensity of the reaction is not
too high % that, perhaps, he $ery willingly paid to his young wife, a hea$y blow, but at the last
moment some other moti$e pre$ent him, and he prefers to defuse his anger at his neighbor. In
the fully de$eloped ceremony "symbol" walked away from symboli-ed much further, so that its
origin is disguised not only the "theatricality" of all the action, but also by the fact that it is
ob$iously done for its own sake. The function and symbolism of the ceremony is much more
noticeable than its origins. A thorough analysis to make sense of how much of the original
meaning of conflict is still contained in the ceremony, in this particular case. hen my friend and I
by Alfred #eit- !uarter of a century ago for the first time spotted a ritual described here, the
functions of ceremonies "change" and "welcome" in cichlids ha$e become $ery clear to us $ery
soon, but for a long time we could not recogni-e their e$olutionary origin.
hat we, howe$er, immediately caught my eye % on the first, while other better%studied form of
African%precious fish % this is a great similarity between gestures and threats "welcome." e
!uickly learned to distinguish between them and correctly predict whether a gi$en action will lead
to a fight or to the formation of a pair, but, to the chagrin of his long time could not find out what
exactly we were signs of the basis for this. *nly when we ha$e carefully analy-ed the gradual
transitions through which the male changing a serious threat to the bride&s welcoming ceremony %
we had become clear difference: the threat of fish slows down to a stop right in front of that which
threatens, especially if she is so excited that e$en without the cost impact tail, not to mention a
gross bokeh. At the welcoming ceremony, or change, in contrast, it is not a partner of 4elite, and
the emphasis is floating past him and at the same time, sailing past, it addresses the threat of
expanded sideways and hit the tail. The direction in which the male has a ceremony also
highlighted different from that in which the mo$ement began to attack.
If, howe$er, before the ceremony, he stood motionless in the water near his wife, he begins to
$igorously $sescha go forward before performing a threat to deployed sideways and hit the tail.
#o $ery clearly, almost immediately, "symboli-ed" the wife 'ust is not the ob'ect of his attack that
the ob'ect to be found somewhere farther in the direction in which he was sailing.
The so%called change of function % a tool that is often used by both the great designer to put at the
ser$ice of the new targets obsolete in the course of e$olution illi!uid fund. ith bold imagination
they % to take 'ust a few examples % from the water conducting gill slits made the ear canal, filled
with air and conducting sound wa$es, the two bones of the 'aw 'oint % the ossicles, of the parietal
eye % ductless gland 9pineal gland: from the front paws reptile % a bird&s wing, etc. etc.
)owe$er, these alterations seem to be $ery modest in comparison with a brilliant little
masterpiece: from beha$ioral act that is not only moti$ated by the original, but in its present form
is moti$ated by intraspecific aggression % at least partially % a simple way to ritually fixed redirect
turned calming effect. This is nothing more and nothing less than the treatment of aggression in
the repulsi$e action of its opposite. As we saw in the chapter on the rituali-ation, marginali-e the
ceremony turns into a co$eted goal in itself in need, like any other instincti$e action, and at the
same time she turns and strong bonds that connect one partner to the other.
The ceremony of this kind of appeasement by its $ery nature is such that each of the partners in
the union can do it only with the second % and no one else from the brothers in mind.
Cust imagine what a nearly unsol$able problem sol$ed here the simplest, most complete and
most elegant way3 The two animals that its external form, coloring and beha$ior will ine$itably
affect each other, like a red rag to a bull 9which, howe$er, only in the saying:, you must cause
them to get along peacefully in a confined space on the nest, so is 'ust at the point you are both
considered the center of their possessions, and in which their intraspecific aggression reaches
the highest le$el. This task is in itself a difficult, complicated further by the fact that intraspecific
aggression of each spouse has no right to decline: we already know from the third chapter that for
the slightest weakening of readiness in relation to their own kind neighbor immediately ha$e to
pay loss area, and thus loss of the power supply for future progeny. In such circumstances, the
form "can not afford" for the sake of the ban fights between the couple to address such
ceremonies of appeasement, which ha$e as their premise % a gesture of submission, or infantile
beha$ior % reducing aggression. Jituali-ed re%orientation not only gets rid of these unwanted
effects, but more than that % ine$itably arising from the use of key spouse irritation causing
aggression to draw partner against neighbor. In my opinion, the beha$ior of this mechanism is
truly a genius, and in addition much more noble than the similar % with the opposite sign % the
beha$ior of a man who returns home in the e$ening, full of inner rage of communicating with the
"fa$orite" neighbors or with the authorities and drains all my ner$ousness and irritation to the poor
wife.
Any particularly successful design solution is usually found in the great Tree of 6ife, repeatedly,
!uite independently at its $arious branches and twigs. ing in$ented insects, fish, birds and batsK
faired % cuttlefish, fish, ichthyosaurs and whales. ,ecause we are not too surprised that the fight
to pre$ent beha$ior mechanisms based on rituali-ed re%ad'ustment of the attack, the same way
there are $ery many different animals.
There is, for example, an ama-ing ceremony of appeasement % e$eryone knows it as the "dance"
of cranes % which, since we ha$e learned to understand the symbolism of her mo$ements, and
downright begs to translate into human language. ,ird dangerously high and pulled in front of the
other, and deploys powerful wings, beak aimed at the partner, his eyes looking straight at him ...
This picture is a serious threat % and in fact, still appeasing facial expressions !uite similar
preparations for the attack. ,ut in the next moment the bird directs this disturbing demonstration
away from the partner, and perform a "%turn exactly .GD degrees, and now % still with
outstretched wings % substitutes partner your defenseless head, which, as we know, the common
crane and many other decorated ama-ingly beautiful ruby red cap. For a second, "dancing"
4rane pointed free-es in this position % and thus in a clear symbolism expresses that his threat is
not directed against a partner, but !uite the contrary, as time away from him, against a hostile
outside world, and this has already heard the moti$e of protection other. 4rane then turns back to
the other and repeat to him a demonstration of its greatness and power, then turns away again
and now % more significantly % makes a feint against some ersat- ob'ect, it is best if the stranger
standing next to a crane, but it can be harmless goose or e$en if there is no one stick or stone,
which in this case taken up by the beak and three to four times thrown in the air. All taken
together clearly says, "I&m mighty and terrible % but I&m not against you, but against that one o$er
there, that and that."
2erhaps less theatrical in his body language, but e$en more meaningful is the appeasement
ceremony in ducks and geese, which *scar )eynrot described as a triumphant cry. The
importance of this ritual for us is, first of all, in the fact that different representati$es of these birds
from a $ery different degree of complexity and completeness, and the se!uence of gradual
transitions gi$e us a good picture of how here % in the course of e$olution % of di$erting furious
gestures embarrassment turned bonds, showing a mysterious relationship with others, with those
that bring people together and we seem to be the most beautiful and the strongest on +arth.
In its most primiti$e form of what we see, for example, in the so%called "rebreb%chatter" in (allard,
the threat is $ery little different from the "elcome". At least to me the most insignificant
difference in orientation rebreb%!uack % the threat in one case, and welcome to another % became
clear only after I learned to understand the principle of appeasement ceremony rede$eloped
during the scrutiny of cichlids and geese, in which it is easier recogni-e. @ucks face each other
with their beaks, raised slightly abo$e the hori-ontal, and $ery !uickly and excitedly pronounced
d$uhslogo$y $oice signal, which is usually at the drake sounds like "Jeb%Jeb"K duck utters a few
more in the nose, something like "k$eng %k$eng ". ,ut these ducks are not only the social
inhibition of attack, and the fear of a partner can also cause a de$iation from the direction of the
threat to its purpose, so that the two are often the drake, seriously threatening each other % crack,
with a raised beak % but it does not direct beaks at each other.
If they still do, then the next thing will start a real fight and at each other&s feathers on his chest.
)owe$er, usually it aims slightly past e$en the most hostile meeting.
If drake "chats" with his duck % and e$en more so if it meets this ceremony for inciting his future
bride % it is $ery clear how "something" the more it turns away from the beak of ducks, for which
he cares, The more he excited in his courtship. In extreme cases it can lead to the fact that he,
more and more cracks, turns to the female neck. In form it is exactly the appeasement ceremony
gulls described earlier, although there is no doubt that that ceremony came exactly as described
there, but not at the expense of re%focusing. This is % a warning against hasty identifications3 From
'ust described loosen head drake % in the course of further rituali-ation % the great number of
ducks ha$e e$ol$ed their gestures, substituting the back of the head, which play an important role
in courtship in mallard, teal, pintail ducks and other real%life as well as in eiders. The couple
mallard with a special ceremony celebrating the passion "rebreb%babble" in cases where they lost
each other and found again after a long separation. +xactly the same applies to gestures of
appeasement with the demonstration unfolded sides and tail strikes, which we already know the
couple%cichlids. Cust because e$erything is so often the case at the reunion of separated partners
before the first obser$ers often percei$e such actions as "welcome."
Although this interpretation is not wrong for certain $ery speciali-ed ceremonies of this kind, most
of the fre!uency and intensity of gestures of appeasement is in situations like this certainly has
initially another explanation: the blunting of aggressi$e reactions by the habits of your partner has
been held partly on a brief break in the situation that has led to the emergence of such a habit.
7ery impressi$e examples of this are obtained when you ha$e to isolate for a purpose % e$en if
'ust for an hour % an animal from the flock together ha$e grown $ery accustomed to each other,
and therefore more or less tolerable to get along with each other young males, cichlids fighting
fish , (alabar thrushes or other e!ually in$asi$e species. If after trying to return the animal to his
former comrades, the aggression begins to boil, as the superheated water at a delay of boiling,
with the slightest push.
As we already know, the effect of habits can disrupt others, e$en the slightest change in the
o$erall situation. (y old pair of (alabar blackbirds in the summer of .HI. his son was suffering
from the first brood, who was in a cage in the same room as their nesting box, much longer than
the period of $alidity when these birds are usually grown%up children being kicked out of their
possessions. )owe$er, if I rearranged his cell from a table on the bookshelf % the parents began
to attack her son is so intense that e$en forgot to take off at will to bring food small chicks that
appeared at this time. The sudden collapse of the prohibitions of aggression built on habit, is an
ob$ious danger that threatens relations between the partners, each time when the couple is
separated e$en for a short period of time. It is also clear that appeasement ceremony underlined
that e$ery time there is a pair at the reunion, used for no other purpose, as to a$oid the danger.
ith this assumption is consistent and that the "welcome" is that exciting and intense than longer
was separation.
*ur human laughter is probably also in its original form was a ceremony of appeasement or
greeting. A smile and a laugh, of course, correspond to the different degrees of intensity of the
same beha$ioral act, that is, they occur at different thresholds of specific excitation !ualitati$ely
the same. *ur closest relati$es % chimpan-ees and gorillas % not, unfortunately, a welcoming facial
expressions, which in form and function would be consistent with laughter. ,ut there are many
monkeys that as a gesture of appeasement grin % and from time to time, smacking his lips,
twisting his head from side to side, clutching his ears badly. It is noteworthy that some people in
the Far +ast, welcoming smile, doing the same thing in exactly the same way. ,ut the most
interesting % the intensi$e smile they keep the head so that the face is drawn not 'ust to the one
welcome, and a little to the side, past him. In terms of functionality of the ritual does not care what
part of it lies in the form of genes, and which is secured by cultural tradition of courtesy.
In any case, it is tempting to consider a welcoming smile ceremony of appeasement that has
arisen % like the triumphant cry of geese % by rituali-ation rede$eloped threat. hen you look at
the call by the interlocutor friendly grin sua$e Capanese tempted to assume that this is so.
For this assumption is the fact that for $ery intense, e$en ardent welcome two friends their smiles
suddenly turn into a loud laugh that each of them seems too inconsistent with his feelings, when
at a meeting after a long separation, he suddenly erupts from somewhere in the autonomic
depths. An ob'ecti$e obser$er would ha$e likened the beha$ior of such people goose triumphant
cry.
In many ways similar to the situation and causing laughter. If a few innocent people % say, young
children % along ridicule someone else or others who do not belong to their group, in this reaction,
as in other reoriented gestures of appeasement, contains a fair share of aggression directed
outward, not on member of the group. And laughter, which is usually $ery difficult to understand %
occurs when a sudden discharge of any conflict situation % also has analogies in the gestures of
appeasement and welcome many animals. @ogs, geese, and probably many other animals burst
into thunderous cheers, when suddenly discharged agoni-ing situation of conflict. After watching
them, I can safely say that laughter not only acts as a $ery powerful means of di$ersion of
aggression, but also brings a palpable sense of social cohesion.
The original, and in many cases e$en the main function of all the 'ust mentioned rituals can be as
simple as pre$enting the struggle. )owe$er, e$en at a relati$ely low le$el of de$elopment % as
shown, for example, "rebreb%chatter" in (allard % these rituals are autonomous enough to turn
into an end in itself. hen drake mallard, continuously publishing their prolonged odnoslogo$y
call % "reeeeeb ...", "reeeeeb ..." % looking for his girlfriend, and when finding it finally empties into
the genuine ecstasy "rebreb%babble", with scoring outstretched neck and beak % it is hard to resist
the sub'ecti$ity and not think that he was terribly happy, ha$ing found it, and that his intense
search was largely moti$ated by the desire for the welcoming ceremony. ith more
$ysokorituali-o$annyh forms itself a triumphant shout as we find in peganok and e$en more so in
these geese, this experience is greatly enhanced, so that the word "welcome" does not want to
be !uoted.
2robably all of these ducks, as well as in shelduck, which more than any other related species
similar to them in respect of the triumphant cry % or rather, rebreb%babble % this ceremony has a
second function, by which only the male performs the ceremony of appeasement while the female
is inciting it as described abo$e. Thin moti$ational analysis tells us that there is a male guide their
threatening gestures toward the ad'acent male of his species, in the depths of the soul and
aggressi$e towards one&s own female, while it actually is aggressi$e only in relation to the
stranger and did not has against her husband. This ritual is combined from rede$eloped threat of
male and female incitement, in a functional sense, is !uite similar to the triumphant cry of geese,
in which each of the partners threatened by the other. In particular, he de$eloped a beautiful
ceremony % probably no % the +uropean communication and shelduck. Interestingly, the 4hilean
connection, on the contrary, there is as highly speciali-ed ceremony, similar to the triumphant cry,
at which reoriented threat perform both spouses like real geese and most ma'or peganok.
Female 4hilean connection is male attire, with iridescent green head and bright red%brown breast,
and this is the only case in these ducks.
e *gar, +gyptian geese and many related species of the female performs the same actions as
pitting, but the male often do not respond to this threat by his rituali-ed female, and this assault
on his wife, said the hostile neighbor. That&s when he defeated % or, at least, the fight is not o$er a
crushing defeat for couples % only then does the incessant cry of triumph. In many species %
Andean goose, *rinoco goose, etc. % that cry is not only composed in a $ery amusing musical
picture due to the different sounds of male and female $oices, but turns into a funny idea because
of the extremely exaggerated gestures. (y film with a pair of Andean geese, scored an
impressi$e $ictory o$er my belo$ed friend 8iko Tinbergen % this is a real comedy. It began with the
female incited his wife to the famous ethologist short feinted toward himK gander wound up not
once, but gradually fell into a rage and beat cornification folded wings so fiercely that at the end
8ico was running away $ery con$incing. )is feet and hands with which he fought off the gander,
were beaten and iskle$any a solid bruise. hen the enemy, the man was gone, began an
endless triumphal ceremony abounded too human expression of emotion and the way is really
$ery funny.
+$en more than in other species peganok, the female +gyptian goose inciting their male relati$es
at all, to what one can get % and if there are none, then, alas, and to the birds of other species, to
the chagrin of the owners of -oos that ha$e to depri$e these beauties being able to fly in pairs
and isolate them. Female +gyptian goose keeps track of all her husband&s struggles with interest
the professional referee, but it ne$er helps, as sometimes make gray goose and always % female
cichlids. hat&s more % she is always ready with banners unfurled go to the winner if her husband
would ha$e to be defeated.
This beha$ior should significantly influence sexual selection, because there #election Award is
granted for a maximum combat effecti$eness and readiness of the male. And it is again tempting
to think that we ha$e held at the end of the third chapter. (aybe e$en !uite likely that the
pugnacity of +gyptian geese, which seems downright cra-y obser$er, is the result of intra%
selection and in general is not so important for the conser$ation of the species. This possibility
should trouble us, because % as we will see in the future % such considerations apply e$olutionary
instinct of aggression in humans.
,y the way, the +gyptian goose belongs to the few species that ha$e tirumfalny cry in his
appeasement ceremony features may not work. If two pairs of transparent, but irresistible grid,
they yaryatsya each other through it, more and more are included in a rage % and not infre!uently
happens that suddenly, as if on cue, the wife of each couple turn to each other and to instigate a
fierce a fight. Almost certainly the same can be achie$ed in the e$ent that put him in a paddock to
a pair of "whipping boy" of the same kind, and then when the beating is in full swing, possibly
discreetly remo$e it.
Then a pair of runs in the first genuine ecstasy triumphant cry, which is becoming more and more
$iolent, less different from nerituali-o$annoy threat % and then, suddenly, lo$ing wife grab each
other by the scruff of the neck and threshed by all the rules that usually ends with the $ictory of
the male, because it is much bigger and stronger than females. ,ut I&$e ne$er heard of the
accumulation of unspent aggression due to the long absence of the "e$il neighbor" has led them
to the murder of a spouse, as is the case with some cichlids.
8e$ertheless, and +gyptian geese, and the species of greatest importance Taaogpa triumphant
cry is a function of the lightning rod. It is necessary first of all, where the storm is coming, that is,
and the internal state of the animal, and the external situation is cause intraspecific aggression.
Although the triumphant cry, especially in our +uropean shelduck, and is accompanied by low
grade, ballet exaggerated gestures % he is less free from the original moti$es underlying the
conflict, rather than, say, already described, is not as de$eloped in the form "welcome" in many
these ducks. It is clear that peganok triumphant cry still draws most of the energy of the original
meaning, which was once the conflict has gi$en rise to reorient action.
+$en when there are clear, conspicuous desire to attack % the ceremony remains associated with
these mutually opposing factors. Accordingly, these species it is sub'ect to strong seasonal
fluctuations, during the breeding season, it is most intense in the !uiet periods weakens, and % of
course % is completely absent in young birds, before the onset of puberty.
In greylag geese, perhaps e$en all of these geese, all completely different. First of all, they ha$e
a triumphant cry is no longer solely a matter of the couple, he brings not only the whole family, but
in general, any group of birds closely to make friends. This ceremony has become nearly or
completely independent of the sexual impulses, so that is performed throughout the year and
e$en characteri-ed as a tiny hatchlings.
The se!uence of mo$ements are longer and more complex than in all described so far rituals of
appeasement. hile in cichlids, and often ha$e peganok, aggression, which is drained from the
partner greeting ceremony, leading to a subse!uent attack by a hostile neighbor % the geese in
rituali-ed se!uence is preceded by a heart attack greeting. In other words, the typical pattern of a
triumphant cry is that one partner % usually the strongest member of the group, because it is
always in a pair gander % attacks the real or imaginary enemy, fights him, and then % after a more
or less con$incing win % with a loud welcome back to his. From this typical case is schematically
shown )elga Fischer, and the name itself is a triumphant cry.
The time se!uence of the attack and fairly rituali-ed greetings to the whole ceremony as a whole
can be held at a high intensity and excitement, e$en if for this reason there is no aggression. In
this case, the attack turns into a simulated attack in the direction of some harmless standing
nearby gosling or generally done in $ain, amid much fanfare so%called "peal" % a dull%sounding
hoarse pipe that accompanies this ceremony, the first act of the triumphant cry. Although the
attack under the right conditions, the lag can be moti$ated only autonomous moti$ation ritual,
such an attack is much easier when the gander is in a situation, it is really causing aggression. As
the detailed moti$ational analysis, the lag occurs more often if the bird is a conflict between the
attack, fear, and social obligations. The ties that bind the gander with his wife and children, hold it
in place and do not allow to run, e$en if the opponent makes him a strong desire to escape, not
'ust aggression. In this case, it falls into the same position, like a cornered rat, and the "heroic" %
seemingly % the courage with which a father throws himself on a superior opponent % it is the
courage of despair, the familiar critical reaction.
The second phase of the triumphant shout % turn to a partner, to the accompaniment of silent
cackle % in the form of motion is !uite similar gesture of threat and differs only in that the focus
slightly to the side, due to the reorientation of fixed ritual.
)owe$er, this "threat" past each other under normal circumstances has been $ery little or does
not contain aggressi$e moti$ation, and self%moti$ation is only called the ritual itself, a special
instinct that we ha$e the right to call social.
Free from aggression tenderness gogochuschego greeting significantly enhanced by the contrast.
)usak during a false attack and a peal has released a solid charge of aggression, and now %
when he suddenly turned away from the enemy and turned to his belo$ed family % a radical
change in the mood, which is in line with the well%known physiological and psychological patterns
of pushing the pendulum in the opposite direction of aggression . If a pri$ate ceremony moti$ation
is weak, in the welcoming cackle may contain se$eral large proportion of the aggressi$e instinct.
hen certain conditions, which we discuss later, the welcome ceremony may "regress", ie return
to an earlier stage of e$olution, and it can enter and genuine aggression 9typical of the early
stages:.
As a gesture of greeting and threats are almost the same, it is $ery difficult to see this rare and
not !uite normal admixture of moti$es for the attack in the mo$ement itself. )ow similar are these
friendly gestures, facial expressions of the ancient threat % despite the radical difference of
moti$ations % can be seen from the fact that they may be confused. A slight de$iation "threat" can
be clearly seen in front of the recipient, but the side % in profile % this de$iation is completely
transparent, and not 'ust a human obser$er, but another wild goose. In the spring, when family
ties are weakening gradually and young ganders begin to look for a bride % it often happens that
one of the brothers still connected to the other family triumphant cry, but it tends to make
marriage offers some strange young goose. They are not expressed in the in$itation to mate, but
the fact that he is attacking other people&s geese and then, with the greeting, rushing to his
belo$ed. If his faithful brother sees this side % it usually takes for the beginning of courtship attack
on another goose, and since all the males in the group&s triumphant shout bra$ely face each other
in a fight, he throws himself $iolently on the future bride of his brother and starts pounding . )e
does not experience any feelings for her, and this is !uite consistent with a beating expressi$e
mo$ement, the groom&s brother, if it is not carried a greeting, a threat. hen the female flees in
terror, her fiance is in the greatest confusion. I did not attribute human !ualities to geese: an
ob'ecti$e physiological basis for any embarrassment is the conflict of contradictory impulses, and
in that state % without a doubt % and there is our young gander. The young gray goose incredibly
strong determination to defend the chosen female, but 'ust as strong and the prohibition to attack
his brother, who was at that time still is his companion on the brotherly triumphant cry. )ow
irresistible the ban, we will see in the future for impressi$e examples.
If triumphant cry and contains any significant charge of aggression against a partner, it is only in
the first phase with the peal, in gogochuschem greeting she probably already a$ailable. #o % and
)elga Fischer of the same opinion % the greeting is not a function of appeasement. Although it is
"more" is exactly copies the symbolic form rede$eloped threats % between partners, most
definitely, there is no strong enough aggressi$eness that she needed in lead.
*nly one, a $ery special and !uickly passing the initial stage of de$elopment of indi$idual moti$es
underlying the redirect, and are clearly $isible in the greeting. 9)owe$er, the indi$idual
de$elopment of the triumphant cry of the gray geese % also a detailed study of )elga Fischer % is
not a reproduction of its e$olutionary de$elopment, one should not o$erestimate the limits of
applicability of the law of repetitions.: 8ewborn goose % e$en before he could walk, stand, or is % is
able to draw neck forward, which is accompanied by a "gaggle" on the thinnest fistula note. From
the beginning, the sound d$uhslogo$y, 'ust as "rebreb" or the corresponding s!ueak ducklings.
After a couple of hours, he turns into a mnogoslogo$oe "pipipi" which the rhythm is exactly the
welcoming cackle adult geese. #tretching the neck and this peep, of course, are the first step,
from which, if de$eloped goose growing up and expressi$e mo$ement of the threats and the
second phase of the triumphant cry. From a comparati$e study of the origin of the species, we do
know that during the e$olution of the threat was welcome due to its reorientation and rituali-ation.
)owe$er, in the indi$idual de$elopment of the same in shape first gesture is welcome. hen
5osling 'ust made and unsafe work birth and is a wet lump of grief, with nothing elongated neck %
it can be pulled out only one single reaction. If you lean o$er it and issue a couple of sounds,
imitating the $oice of geese % it hardly raises a swinging head, neck and pulls welcomed. Tiny wild
goose nothing else can, but welcomes their social en$ironment3
As the meaning of expressi$e mo$ement, and in terms of pro$oking situations stretching neck
and peep the gray geese correspond exactly greeting, not a threatening gesture adults. It is
noteworthy, howe$er, that its shape is similar to the mo$ement of the threat 'ust as the
characteristic de$iation in the direction of the elongated neck of a $ery small partner gus'at
absent. *nly when they turn a few weeks % are already $isible fu-- of real feathers % then it
changes. ,y this time, the chicks become markedly more aggressi$e with respect to the geese of
the same age from other families: come to them with shrill, craning their necks and try to tweak.
,ut since in such fights childhood family teams threatening gestures and greetings still exactly the
same % it is clear that there are often misunderstandings and some of the brothers and sisters of
his burns. In this particular situation, for the first time in ontogeny, apparently rituali-ed greeting
reorientation motion: 5osling, offended by someone of their own, not in response to burns and
intensi$e s!ueaks and stretches his neck, which !uite clearly directed by the offender, albeit at a
smaller angle than the it will be later, when fully mastered the ceremony. The inhibitory effect of
this aggressi$e gesture unusually clear: only the attackers brother or sister immediately behind
and in turn go to the welcome, directed by. @e$elopment phase, during which the triumphant cry
of ac!uiring such a noticeable calming effect lasts only a few days. Jituali-ed re%orientation is
fixed !uickly and pre$ents future % with rare exceptions % any misunderstanding. In addition, with
the final assimilation of rituali-ed ceremony welcoming falls under the authority of the
autonomous social instinct and already does not contain aggression toward the partner, or
contains a tiny fraction of it, there is no need for a special mechanism, which is braked to attack
him. In the future, the triumphant cry of functions exclusi$ely as the bonds that unite the members
of the family.
It is striking that the group united cry of triumph, is closed. )atchling ac!uires membership in the
group by right of birth and adopted "without looking" e$en if he was not a goose, a foundling,
slipped for the sake of the experiment, such as (usco$y duck. A few days later the parents know
their children and the children also get to know the parents and from then on did not appear ready
to a triumphant shout from the other geese.
If you put a rather cruel experiment with the transfer of a gosling in someone else&s family, the
poor child is adopted into a new community triumphant cry more difficult than later pulled out of
his hometown of the family unit. The child is afraid of strangers, and the more it e$inces the fear,
the more they are located lash out at him.
Touching children&s credulity with which !uite inexperienced, newly hatched gosling $yshepty$aet
offer of friendship % a tiny s!ueak triumph % the first such, which is close to it, "the assumption"
that it must be one of his parents.
,ut it is !uite another&s % 5rey 5oose offers a triumphant cry 9and with it the eternal lo$e and
friendship: only in a single case: when a temperamental young man suddenly falls in lo$e with
another girl. This is without any !uotes3 These initial proposals timed to coincide with a time when
almost one year old young people should mo$e away from their parents, who are going to deri$e
new offspring. Family ties with weakened by necessity, but ne$er completely torn.
@o geese triumphant cry e$en more connected with the personal ac!uaintance than that
described abo$e ducks. @ucks also "talk" only with certain familiar companions, but they ha$e
ties arising between the participants of the ceremony, is not strong, and do belong to a group they
are not as difficult as in geese. In this case that the goose, who flew back to the colony % or
bought, when it comes to home % literally re!uire years to be accepted into the group sharing a
triumphant cry.
#tranger is easier to ac!uire membership in the group&s triumphant shout roundabout way, if one
of the partners of the group falls in lo$e with him, and they form a family.
+xcept in special cases, of lo$e and of belonging by birth % a triumphant cry is more intense, and
the bonds that arise from it, the stronger the longer the animals know each other. All things being
e!ual it can be argued that the strength of the link is proportional to the degree of the triumphant
shout dating partners. #e$eral exaggeration, we can say that the ties between the triumphant cry
of two or more geese occur whene$er the degree of familiarity and trust are sufficient for this
purpose.
In early spring when the old geese de$oted care for the offspring, and the young, same age, and
the two%year, thoughts of lo$e % is always a certain amount of unpaired geese of different ages,
who as the "odd man out" erotically not busy, and they are always merged into larger or smaller
groups . "sually, we will briefly refer to them childless. This expression is inaccurate, since many
of the young bride and groom ha$e already formed a strong pair, has also not hatch chicks. In
these groups, there may be childless truly strong triumphant shouts, without the slightest regard
to sexuality. 4ircumstances forced each of the two single geese to communicate with others, and
can occasionally be childless community of male and female. That&s what happened this year
when the old widowed goose returned from our sister colony of gray geese on Ammersee and
teamed up with a widower who li$ed on =ee$i-en whose wife died shortly before an unknown
reason. I thought that here begins the formation of a new pair, but )elga Fischer, from the $ery
beginning was con$inced that it was a typical childless triumphant cry that can once again
connect an adult male with a female. #o % in spite of a different $iew % between men and women
and relationships are genuine friendship that ha$e nothing to do with lo$e. )owe$er, from such a
friendship could easily be the lo$e and geese too.
There is a long%known trick in the breeding of wild geese: two geese who want sparo$at together
transplanted to another -oo or to another company waterfowl. There they both do not like how the
"ugly duckling" and they ha$e to find each other&s company. Thus achie$ing a minimum of a
childless triumphant cry % and it is hoped that he will make a pair. )owe$er, in my experience,
there were many cases where such communications are forced immediately destroyed when the
birds return to the pre$ious en$ironment.
The relationship between the triumphant cry and sexuality, ie actual copulation instinct is not so
easy to understand. In any case, this relationship is weak, and all the sex itself plays in the li$es
of wild geese strictly subordinate role. hat unites a pair of geese for life % it tritsmfalny cry, not
sex spouses. The presence of strong bonds between the triumphant cry of two indi$iduals,
"pa$ing the way", that is, to some extent facilitate the emergence of a sexual relationship. If two
goose % it may be two goose % a $ery long linked "nion of the ceremony, in the end, they usually
try to copulate. In contrast, sexual relationships, which often occur at the yearling birds already %
long before the onset of puberty % apparently does not fa$or the de$elopment of ties of a
triumphant cry. If the two young birds copulate repeatedly, this can not be done any conclusions
about the origin of the future couple.
*n the contrary, we need only the smallest hint of a proposal triumphant cry of the young goose %
unless he finds the answer in a female % to predict with high probability that these two will de$elop
a strong pair. These tender relationship in which sexual responses do not play any role in late
summer or early autumn seem to ha$e completely disappeared, howe$er, when the second
spring of his life, young geese begin serious courtship % they are strikingly often find their last
year&s first lo$e. eak and somewhat one%sided relationship that exists between a triumphant cry
and copulation in geese, pretty much similar to what happens in humans, % the connection
between lo$e and crudely sexual responses.
"2ure" lo$e through physical affection leads to con$ergence, which in this case is not seen as
something essential in this respect, while at the same time, exciting situations and partners,
causing a strong sexual desire, does not always lead to a passionate lo$e. In greylag geese, the
two functional areas can be 'ust as out of touch and are independent from one another, as in
humans, although, of course, "in the normal case," to carry out its task of preser$ing the species,
they must be the same and relate to one and the the same indi$idual.
The term "normal" is one of the most trudneopredelimyh throughout biology, but at the same time,
unfortunately, it is also necessary so as in$erse pathological concept. (y friend ,ernhard
)ollman, when he came across something particularly bi-arre or inexplicable in the structure or
beha$ior of an animal, usually asking seemingly innocent !uestion: "The designer wanted<" And
in fact, the only way to determine the "normal" structure or function is that we affirm they are 'ust
for what the pressure of selection had to de$elop it in this form % and not in any other % for the
sake of conser$ation goals species "nfortunately, this lea$es aside all that has e$ol$ed this way
and not otherwise, by pure chance % but should not fall within the definition of abnormal,
pathological. )owe$er we mean by "normal" is not a mean of all of the obser$ed cases, but rather
is drawn e$olutionary type, which % for ob$ious reasons % in its pure form is rarely, or ne$er.
)owe$er, this purely ideal construction, we need to ha$e something to compare real cases. In the
textbook of -oology ine$itably ha$e to describe % as a member of the species % some perfect,
perfect moth, moth, which in this form is not found anywhere else, because all copies of which
can be found in the collections are different from him, than each something their own. #imilarly,
we can not do without "ideal" structure of normal beha$ior gray geese or any other type of animal,
such beha$ior, which would be done without the influence of any interference and which occurs
more fre!uently than perfect type of moth. 2eople gifted with a good capacity for imaginati$e
perception, see the ideal type of structure or. beha$ior are directly, ie they are able to isolate the
essence of a typical background of random minor inconsistencies. hen my teacher *scar
)eynrot in his, now classic, work on a family of ducks 9.H.D: described a lifelong and
unconditional fidelity of gray geese as "normal" % he !uite correctly abstracted free from $iolations
of the ideal type, though he could not watch it in fact, if only because the geese li$e sometimes
more than half a century, and their married life 'ust two years shorter. )owe$er, his statement is
true, and a certain type of them is as necessary for the description and analysis of beha$ior would
be useless as far as the a$erage rate, deri$ed from a $ariety of indi$idual cases. hen I recently
been working on this chapter, browsing along with )elga Fischer her crow&s protocols, then % in
spite of all the abo$e considerations % was somehow disappointed that my teacher described the
normal case of absolute "loyalty to the gra$e" of a great many our geese was relati$ely rare.
Indignant to my disappointment, )elga said the immortal words:
"hat do you want from them< After the geese are 'ust people, too3" In wild geese, including % it is
pro$en % and li$ing in the wild, there are $ery significant de$iations from the norm of marriage and
social beha$ior. *ne of them, $ery often, is particularly interesting because it is striking geese
contributes, and does not harm the conser$ation of the species, although people in many cultures
se$erely condemned, I mean the relationship between the two men. 8either in appearance nor in
the determination of both sexes in geese are no sharp, !ualitati$e differences. *nly in the
formation of pairs ritual % so%called bending neck % which ha$e significantly different sexes is
performed only when the future partners do not know each other and therefore somewhat afraid.
If this ritual is omitted, nothing pre$ents )usak address his proposal is not a triumphant shout
female and the other male.
This happens particularly often, but not only in those cases where all the geese are all too aware
of each other because of the close of capti$ity. hile my unit 2lanck Institute of 2hysiology of
beha$ior was located in ,ulderne, in estphalia, and we had to keep all our waterfowl on one,
relati$ely small pond % it has happened so often that we ha$e long been mistaken, as if finding the
opposite%sex partners are the gray geese only by trial and error. *nly much later, we disco$ered
the function of the ceremony bending the neck, the details of which we will not go into here.
hen a young gander offers a triumphant cry of another male and he agrees, then each of them
becomes a much better partner and friend % as far as it concerns this functional area % than could
be found in the female. #ince intraspecific aggression in ganders is much stronger than the
geese, e$en stronger predisposition to a triumphant shout, and they inspire each other to do great
things. #ince none of opposite%sex couple is not able to resist them, a pair of ganders gets $ery
high, if not the highest position in the hierarchy of the colony. They keep for life faithful to each
other, at least not less than opposite%sex couples. hen we parted our oldest pair of ganders.
(ax and ?opfshlitsa, citing (ax&s sister colony of gray geese on Ah #tausee in FPrstenfeldbrPck,
in a year of mourning both sparo$alis with females, and both pairs raised chicks. ,ut when (ax
returned to the +#)A % without a spouse and no children, we were not able to catch % ?opfshlits
immediately left his family and went back to it. ?opfshlitsa spouse and his sons, apparently, !uite
accurately assessed the situation and tried to banish the (ax $iolent attacks, but they did not
succeed. Today, the two are held together by the gander, as always, a deserted wife ?opfshlitsa
sadly hobbling after them, keeping a certain distance.
A concept that is commonly associated with the word "homosexuality", defined and $ery bad, and
$ery widely.
")omosexual" % which is dressed as a woman, touch up the boy in the den, and the hero of 5reek
mythology, although the first of them coming in his beha$ior toward the opposite sex, and the
second % in all that relates to his actions % the real #uperman, and differs from normal man only by
the choice of ob'ects of their sexual acti$ity. Fall into this category and our "homosexual" ganders.
They per$ersion more "forgi$able" than Achilles and 2atroclus, for the simple reason that males
and females differ in geese less than that of men. In addition, they beha$e much more "in a
human" than most people are gay because they ha$e ne$er copulate and produce substitute
action, or do it in $ery rare and exceptional cases. )owe$er, in the spring you can see how they
perform solemn ceremony prelude to copulation: a beautiful, graceful neck di$e into the water,
which I ha$e seen with swans and glorified in $erse the poet )Nlderlin. hen, after this ritual,
they intend to mo$e to copulation, then % of course % e$eryone is trying to climb up on the other,
and neither thinks prostrate on the water in the manner of the female. The case, therefore, comes
to a standstill, and they are more angry at each other, but his attempts to lea$e without much
disturbance or frustration. +ach one of them to some extent relates to the other as his wife, but if
it is somewhat frigid and does not want to gi$e % it does not cause any noticeable damage to their
great lo$e. ,y early summer ganders are gradually getting used to the fact that copulation they
fail and cease their efforts, but it is interesting that during the winter, they manage to forget it and
next spring with new hope trying to trample each other.
*ften, though not always, the sexual urges of ganders related to each other a triumphant cry, find
an outlet in a different direction. These ganders are incredibly attracti$e for single females, which
is probably due to their high hierarchical rank, which they ac!uire through the 'oint combat power.
In any case, sooner or later, is the goose, which is a short distance follows two such characters,
but in lo$e % as shown by detailed obser$ations and the subse!uent course of e$ents % in one of
them. At first, this girl is standing or floating side by side, respecti$ely, as the poor "odd man out"
when the ganders taking their unsuccessful attempts to intercourse, but sooner or later she
in$ents trick % i$e when her lo$er tries to climb up on a partner, she !uickly s!uee-ed in between
in a posture of readiness. )owe$er, she always in$ites himself to the same )usak3 "sually, he
climbs on it, but immediately after that % also as a rule % turns to his friend and then executes the
final ceremony:
",ut then I thought, at the same about you3" *ften a second gander takes part in this final
ceremony, according to the rules. In one of the cases of logged goose is not followed e$erywhere
for both gander, and about noon, when the geese especially strong sexual excitement, waiting for
her lo$er in a certain corner of the pond.
)e sailed it in a hurry, and immediately after copulation was shot and flew across the pond back
to his friend, to perform with him epilogue pairing that seemed particularly unfriendly to the lady.
)owe$er, she did not look "offended."
For such a gander sexual intercourse may gradually become a "fa$orite habit" and a goose from
the $ery beginning was ready to add my $oice to his triumphant cry. ith the consolidation of
dating decreases the distance at which you want the goose to a couple of males, so that the other
that it is not trampled, too, more and more used to it. #he then $ery slowly, timidly at first, then
with increasing confidence begins to take part in the triumphant cry of the two friends, and they
are more and more used to her constant presence. In this roundabout way, through a long, long
familiarity, the female of the more or less undesirable makeweight to one of the ganders becomes
almost a full%fledged member of the triumphant shout, and after a $ery long time % e$en in a
completely full.
This lengthy process can be shortened by one extraordinary e$ent. If a goose, do not get from
anybody help protect gae-do$ogo site itself produced a spot, she arranged the nest and
incubates the eggs % here it can happen that both gander find it and adapt 9or during incubation,
or after the appearance of the chicks: . That is, strictly speaking, they&$e adapted brood of
goslings, but put up with the fact that they ha$e a mother and that she, along with all the noise
when they shout in triumph with their foster children, who are actually the offspring of one of
them. To guard the nest and dri$e for the kids % it&s like already written )eynrot truly top life
gander, apparently more laden with emotion and affectation rather than a prelude to intercourse,
and it itself, because this creates a better bridge to establish closer ac!uaintance participating
indi$iduals and for the emergence of common triumphant cry. Jegardless of the path, in the end
after a few years, they ha$e come to this marriage way in which the earlier or later than the
second gander is also beginning to tread on the goose and all three birds together participate in
the game of lo$e. The great thing about this triple marriage % and we were able to obser$e a
number of cases % is its biological success: they are constantly kept at the $ery top of the
hierarchy in their colony, $sescha retain their nesting area and from one year to grow sufficiently
numerous offspring. Thus, the "homosexual" ties triumphant cry of the two ganders can not be
regarded as something pathological, especially since they are found in geese li$ing in freedom:
2eter #cott obser$ed in wild geese in Iceland korotkoklyu$yh significant percentage of
households consisted of two males and one female. There&s a biological ad$antage that results
from the doubling of the fathers defense might ha$e been e$en more pronounced than that of our
geese, largely protected from predators.
I ha$e described in some detail, as a new member can be admitted to the closed circle of the
triumphant cry because of a long ac!uaintance. It remains to show another such e$ent at which
the bonds triumphant shout occur suddenly, like an explosion, and instantly connect two
indi$iduals e$er. e say in this case % without any !uotation marks % that they are in lo$e with
each other.
+nglish "to fall in lo$e" and hated me because of its $ulgarity 5erman expression "crush on" %
both $isually con$ey the suddenness of the e$ent.
The females and young males are $ery changes in beha$ior % because of a "shameful" restraint %
are not as ob$ious as in adults ganders, but no less profound and fatal, !uite the contrary. A
mature male same ad$ertises his lo$e fanfares and timpaniK&s incredible how much can change in
appearance an animal has neither bright breeding plumage, as bony fish, raspalennye this state,
no special structure of feathers like peacocks and many other birds are showing at matchmaking
its splendor. )appened to me that I literally did not recogni-e the familiar gander, if he had time to
"fall in lo$e" from yesterday to today. (uscle tone is increased, the result is an energetic, intense
posture, I usually outline poultry e$ery mo$e made with excess power, a takeoff on that in another
state is difficult to decide, in lo$e )usak possible, as if he did not goose, a hummingbird, a tiny
distance that e$ery reasonable goose would pass on foot, he flies to noisy, with a triumphant cry
of near collapse of his belo$ed. #uch a gander accelerates and brakes, as a teenager on a
motorcycle, and in search of fights, as we ha$e seen, too, beha$es $ery similarly.
6o$ing young female has ne$er imposed his belo$ed, ne$er runs after himK most % it is "as if by
chance" is in those places where it is often the case. hether it is fa$orable to his courtship,
gander will only find on the game of her eyes, and when he makes his exploits, she is not looking
directly at him, and the "as if" off to the side. In fact, she looks at him, but do not turn your head to
not gi$e out the direction of their ga-e, and watching him corner of my eye, 'ust as is the case
with the daughters of men.
As it is, unfortunately, happens in humans, sometimes magical arrow of 4upid gets only one.
According to our protocol, it is more often the case with boys than with the girl, but he can fail due
to the fact that subtle symptoms girl&s lo$e in geese also harder to see than the more ob$ious
manifestations of man. The male courtship is often successful and when the ob'ect of his lo$e, he
does not respond in the same sense, because it allowed the most bra-en way to pursue his
belo$ed ward off all other contenders and immense tenacity of permanent, full of expectations
presence gradually achie$e what she getting used to it and makes its $oice in his triumphant cry.
"nhappy and finally hopeless lo$e happens mainly when its ob'ect is already firmly attached to
someone else. In all obser$ed cases of this kind ganders soon abandoned their claims. ,ut on
one hand $ery goose, which I myself grew, the protocol means that it is more than four years in
the unchanging lo$e went behind his happy marriage gander. It is always "as if by chance"
modestly attended a few meters away from his family. And e$ery year, pro$ed true to his belo$ed
laying unfertili-ed.
Fidelity to the triumphant cry and sexual fidelity uni!uely correlated, albeit differently in females
and males. Ideally, the normal case, when e$erything goes well, and there are no noise % i.e.
when a pair of healthy, temperamental gray geese falls in lo$e on his first spring, and none of
them is lost, is not co$ered in the teeth to the fox, do not kill the worms, not break wind in the
telegraph wires, etc. % both goose, are likely to be lifelong faithful to each other as in the triumphal
cry, and in a sexual relationship. If fate destroys the bonds of first lo$e, and the gander and goose
can start a new alliance triumphant shout % the more easily than before disaster struck % although
with markedly impaired monogamous sexual acti$ity, and ha$e a gander more than a goose. This
male is !uite normal to celebrate the triumphs and his wife, honestly stands guard near the nest,
protects his family also bra$ely as any other, in short, it is in all respects a model family man %
only occasionally trample other geese. In particular, he is prone to this sin in those cases where it
is not around females, for example, it is alkaline in the distance from the nest, and she sits on the
eggs. ,ut if his "mistress" is close to the center of the brood or their nesting site, gander $ery
often attacks her and dri$es away. 7iewers tend to humani-e the beha$ior of animals, in such
cases, accused gander in an effort to maintain its "relationship" a secret from his wife % that is, of
course, is an exaggeration of his extraordinary mental abilities.
In fact, near the family nest or he reacts to someone else&s goose as well as any goose that does
not belong to their group, while in neutral territory no reaction to the protection of the family, which
would pre$ent him from seeing in it a female. Alien is the only female partner in sexual
intercourseK gander does not show any inclination to linger near her, walk with her, and e$en
more so to protect her or her nest. If a seed, then grow their illegitimate children she has herself.
"(istress", for its part, is trying to carefully and "as if by chance" to be closer to his friend. )e
does not lo$e her, but she % yes, that is she readily accepted his offer to the triumphant cry if he
did it. The females of gray geese willingness to ha$e sex much more associated with lo$e, than in
males, in other words, the well%known dissociation between the bonds of lo$e and sexual desire
in geese too easily and fre!uently proya$letya among men than among women. And enter into a
new relationship when the former was torn, the goose is also much more difficult than )usak.
First of all, it refers to her first widowhood.
The more often it becomes a widow or her partner lea$es % the easier it becomes to find new,
howe$er, the less there are, as a rule, the new bonds. The beha$ior of multiple $do$e$shey or
"di$orce" 5oose is far from typical. (ore sexually acti$e, less inhibited stiffness than young
female % e!ually ready to enter into a new union and the triumphant shout, and in a new sexual
relationship % such a goose becomes the prototype of the "femme fatale". It pro$okes a really
serious courtship of a young goose, which would be ready for life in the union, but after a short
time of his chosen plunges into the mountain, throwing him for a new lo$er.
,iography of the oldest of our gray goose Ada % a wonderful example of all this, her story ended
late "great passion", and a happy marriage, but it&s pretty rare. (inutes Ada reads like an exciting
no$el % but it is not a place in this book.
The longer the couple li$ed in a happy marriage, and the closer fit to their marriage delineated
abo$e the ideal case, the harder it is, as a rule, widowed spouse to 'oin the new union triumphant
cry. Female, as we ha$e said, is e$en more difficult than the male. )eynrot describes cases
where the widowed goose until his death remained lonely and sexually passi$e. e ganders we
ha$e not seen anything like this:
e$en late widowed kept mourning no more than a year, and then began to engage in the
systematic sexual relationships, which ultimately resulted in a roundabout way all ties to the same
triumphant cry. From 'ust described, there are many exceptions to the rules. For example, we
ha$e seen a goose, long li$ed in a perfect marriage, immediately after the loss of a spouse has
entered into a new, complete in all respects marriage. *ur explanation is that, well, in a former
marriage still something was probably not in order, it is $ery similar to the "root cause
harassment" 9"petitio principii":.
2obnye exceptions are so rare that I probably would be better to say nothing at all about them, so
as not to spoil the right impression of the strength and persistence that characteri-e the bond
triumphant cry, not only in the ideali-ed "normal" case, but in a statistical a$erage of all the
obser$ed cases.
If you use a pun, the triumphant cry % that is the leitmotif of all the moti$ations that define the daily
li$es of wild geese. )e constantly sounds barely noticeable o$ertones in normal $oice contact, % in
the cackle that =elma 6agerlof ama-ingly true translated the words: ")ere I am, where are you<" %
Intensifying at se$eral hostile meeting of two families and disappearing completely only at feeding
grounds in the pasture, and especially % in alarm, with a total flight or flights in large flocks o$er
long distances. )owe$er, barely passed a thrill, temporarily o$erwhelming the triumphant cry, like
geese immediately sees % in opredlenii degree as a symptom of contrast % a !uick greeting cackle,
which we already know as the weakest degree of triumphant cry. (embers of the group, united
by ties of these, the whole day and at e$ery opportunity, so to speak, say to each other: "e are
one, we are together against all others."
For other instincti$e actions we already know about the wonderful spontaneity of the outgoing
themsel$es producing stimulus that is specific to any particular beha$ioral act and mass are
precisely tuned to the "consumption" of the action, ie production of more abundant than most
animal has to perform this action. (ice should chew, chicken peck, and proteins to 'ump. "nder
normal conditions of life they need to support themsel$es.
,ut when in capti$ity under laboratory conditions such needs not % it is still necessary, it is
because of all the instincti$e actions are generated by domestic production incenti$es, and
external stimuli only direct implementation of these actions in a particular place and time.
#imilarly, the gray goose is necessary to shout in triumph, and if you take away his ability to meet
this need, it becomes a pathological caricature of himself. )e can not discharge the accumulated
instinct at some ersat- ob'ect, as does the mouse gnawing horrible, or protein stereotypically
prancing around the cage to get rid of their needs on the mo$e. 5rey 5oose, ha$ing no partner
with whom you can triumphantly shouting, sitting or wandering sad and depressed.
If ;erkes once so aptly said of chimpan-ees, chimps that one % this is not a chimpan-ee, then to
the wild geese it applies to an e$en greater extent, e$en then % 'ust, especially at a time % when a
lone goose is located in a densely populated colony, where he no partner for triumphant cry. If
such a sad situation deliberately created in an experiment in which a single gosling grow as
?aspar )auser, isolated from neighbors, we ha$e seen the creation of this unfortunate series of
characteristic beha$ioral abnormalities. They % his mysterious origins.
Appeared in 8uremberg in (ay .G/G as called ?aspar )auserK talked about himself, he was
sitting alone in a dark room, as long as I can remember. )is story has spawned a number of
literary works, so the 5erman reader "?)" speaks $olumes. apply to the inanimate, and % e$en
more % to animate the surroundings and $ery pointedly similar to deflection established Jene
#pit- in hospitali-ed children who are depri$ed of ade!uate social contacts. #uch a being is not
only depri$ed of the ability to respond appropriately to stimuli from the en$ironment, it tries,
whene$er possible, to a$oid any external influences.
The pose lying down facing the wall is in such conditions "patognomicheskoy", ie it is in itself
sufficient for diagnosis. #imilarly, the geese are mentally mutilated in this way, sit down, burying
his beak into the corner, and if put in the same room two % as we did once % that in the two corners
are located on the diagonal. Jene #pit-, which we showed this experiment was blown away by
this analogy between the beha$ior of our experimental animals and the children whom he had
studied in an orphanage. In contrast to the children about the geese, we still do not know how to
treat a cripple, because it takes years to reco$er. 2erhaps e$en more dramatic than this
experimental obstacle appearance bond triumphant cry, acting $iolent rupture of these bonds,
which naturally happens all too often. The first reaction to the disappearance of a partner is that
the gray goose is struggling to find it. )e constantly, literally day and night, publishes trehslogo$y
distant call, !uickly and excitedly runs around the usual places, which was usually with missing
and more and more extends the range of their search, circling a large space with a continuous cry
of enlistment. ith the loss of the partner immediately lost whate$er that may be ready to fight,
orphaned goose ceases to defend themsel$es from their relati$es, running away from the
younger and weaker, and because of his condition immediately "start rumors" in the colony, it
instantly turns on the lowest le$el of the hierarchy. The threshold of stimulation, causing the flight,
drop and bird exhibits extreme cowardice, not only in relation to neighbors, she responds to the
irritation of the external world with more frightened than before. 5oose, formerly a manual can
become afraid of people like wild.
#ometimes, though, in geese grown man, it may be the opposite: the orphaned bird again tied to
his guardian, who is not paying any attention to while I was happily connected with other geese.
This happened, for example, with the gander ?opfshlitsem when we sent in a link to his friend
(ax.
ild geese, normally reared by their own parents, in the case of loss of a partner can return to
their parents, their brothers and sisters with whom they before did not support any significant
relationship, but % as shown by these obser$ations % remained latent affection thereto.
"ndoubtedly, for the same field of phenomena is the fact that the geese that we as adults ha$e
mo$ed into our daughter colonies goose the economy % the lake Ammersee or ponds
Ampershtau$ayer in FPrstenfeldbrPck % returned to the former colony on +ss #ee exactly when
lost their spouses or partners triumphant cry.
All of the abo$e symptoms related to the autonomic ner$ous system and the beha$ior is $ery
similar and appear mourners. Cohn ,aulbi in his study of grief in young children ga$e a touching
$isual picture of these phenomena, and simply incredible detail to what extend the analogy
between man and bird3 Cust as the human face in protracted described depression is marked
permanent immobility % ")eartbroken" % the same thing happens with a person of gray goose. In
both cases, at the expense of long%term reduction in sympathetic tone are particularly $ulnerable
to changes in the lower okologla-ya, which is typical for the external manifestations of "regretful."
(y fa$orite old goose )ell I know from a distance of hundreds of other geese on this sorrowful
expression of her eyes, and I once recei$ed an impressi$e confirmation that it is not a figment of
my imagination. *ne $ery experienced connoisseur of animals, especially birds, who knew
nothing about the history of Ada, suddenly pointed at her and said:
"This is the goose must ha$e drank grief3" (atter of principle, the theory of knowledge, we belie$e
unscientific, illegal any statements about the sub'ecti$e experiences of animals, except one: the
sub'ecti$e experience of the animals ha$e. The ner$ous system of an animal is different from
ours, as well as processes occurring in it, and you can take it for granted that the experiences
that go along with these processes is also !ualitati$ely different from ours. ,ut this theoretical
sober setting about sub'ecti$e experiences animals, naturally, does not mean that their existence
is denied. (y teacher )eynrot to the reproach that he would like to see the animal instead of a
machine, usually answered with a smile:
"Auite the contrary, I belie$e animals are $ery emotional people with weak intellect3" e do not
know and can not know what is happening in sub'ecti$ely goose that exhibits all the ob'ecti$e
symptoms of human misery.
,ut we can not help feeling that it is akin to our misery3
2urely ob'ecti$e % all beha$iors which can be obser$ed in the wild%goose, de$oid of ties
triumphant shout, has the greatest similarity to the beha$ior of animals is $ery attached to the
place of residence when they pull out of their familiar en$ironment and transplanted into someone
else&s situation. )ere begins a desperate search for the same, and 'ust lost e$ery battle readiness
as long as the animal does not find their homes. For an experienced person communication
characteristic gray goose with a partner on a triumphant cry will be e$ident and the mark to say
that the goose is a partner as well % from all points of $iew % as is the center of its territory is
extremely attached to his site animal in which this the stronger the attachment, the greater the
"extent of his lo$e" with her. In close proximity to this center not only intraspecific aggression, but
also many other autonomous life manifestations corresponding species reach the highest
intensity. (onika (eyer%)ol-apfel has identified a partner at the personal friendship as "animal
e!ui$alent of the house," and thereby introduced the term, which successfully a$oids the
sub'ecti$ity of anthropomorphic animal beha$ior, but in this case in its entirety co$ers the $alue of
feelings caused by a true friend.
2oets and psychoanalysts ha$e long been aware of how close neighbor lo$e and hate, know that
we, the people, the ob'ect of lo$e is almost always, "ambi$alent", and is the ob'ect of aggression.
A triumphant cry from geese % I emphasi-e again and again % it&s only analog, in the best case,
only bright, but a simplified model of human friendship and lo$e, but this model is ominously
shows how there can be such a duality. +$en if % under normal conditions % in the second act of
the ceremony, a friendly welcome turn to each other&s aggression in gray geese completely
absent, in general % especially in the first part, followed by a "peal" % ritual contains the full
measure of autochthonous aggression, which aims , though co$ertly, against the belo$ed friend
and partner.
hat is it that&s right % we know not only the e$olution of the considerations discussed in the
pre$ious chapter, but also from the obser$ation of the exceptional cases that highlight the
interaction of primary aggression and become autonomous moti$ation triumphant cry.
*ur oldest white goose 2aulhen, in the second year of life mated with a goose of its kind, but at
the same time maintained a bond with another triumphant shout the same gander, #hneerotom
who, although he was not his brother, but became such a life together. I used to ha$e a white
ganders % widespread at present and di$ing ducks, but $ery rare in geese % rape of foreign
females 9especially when they are on the nest, hatching eggs:. #o, when in the following year
2aulhena wife built a nest, laid eggs and became their hatching, there was a situation 'ust as
interesting, how awful: #hneerot raped a female constantly and cruelly, but nothing on the
2aulhen could do against it3 hen #hneerot was on the nest and grabbed the goose, 2aulhen
with great fury rushed to the libertine, but then she reached up to him, he went around a sharp
-ig-ag and e$entually attacked some innocuous ersat- ob'ect, such as our photographer, who
was filming the scene . 8e$er before ha$e I seen so clearly this go$ernment redirect enshrined
rituali-ation: 2aulhen wanted to attack #hneerota % he will no doubt doubt aroused his anger % but
could not because Jolled road rituali-ed actions carried by the ob'ect of his rage by the same
tough and reliable as the shooter, installed properly, sends the locomoti$e on the ad'acent track.
The beha$ior of the white goose shows !uite clearly that e$en incenti$es definitely cause
aggression, do not lead to an attack, and to a triumphant cry, if coming from a partner. In white
geese whole ceremony is not di$ided into two acts so clearly as the gray, whose first act contains
more aggression and sent out, and the second consists almost exclusi$ely in socially moti$ated
appeal to the partner. hite geese probably e$en stronger charged aggressi$eness than our
friendly gray. Also their triumphant cry that in this respect the white geese primiti$e than their gray
relati$es. Thus, in the abo$e case, abnormal beha$ior could occur, which is fully consistent with
the mechanics of the original moti$ations to reorient attack aimed by a partner, what we ha$e
seen in cichlids. It is well applicable Freud&s concept of regression.
#e$eral different process regression can make certain changes and a triumphant cry of the gray
geese % namely, in his second, non%aggressi$e phase, and in these changes is clearly manifested
the initial part of aggressi$e instinct. This is a highly dramatic e$ent can only happen if the two
strong gander ally triumphant shout as described abo$e. e ha$e said that e$en the most battle%
worthy goose inferior to fight the weakest )usak, so that no normal pair of geese can not stand
against two such friends, and because they stand in the hierarchy of the goose colony is $ery
high. ith age and with a long habit of this high rank among them is growing, "confidence", ie
confident of $ictory, but at the same aggressi$eness. At the same time the intensity of the
triumphant cry grows together with the degree of dating partners, ie the duration of their union.
"nder these circumstances, it is understandable that such a unity ceremony couples ganders
ac!uires the degree of intensity that couples of different sexes ha$e not achie$ed e$er. It has
been repeatedly mentioned (ax and ?opfshlitsa who "married" for nine years, I know from a
distance by the mad enthusiasm of their triumphant cry.
#o, sometimes it happens that the triumphant cry of ganders out of any framework, comes to
ecstasy % and then there is something $ery remarkable and eerie.
The cries are getting louder, and compression and faster, neck stretched more hori-ontally, and
thus lose the characteristic of the ceremony, the raised position and the angle at which de$iates
from the direction of re%directing the traffic to a partner, it becomes less and less. In other words,
rituali-ed ceremony with excessi$e build%up of its intensity motor loses those characteristics that
distinguish it from nerituali-o$annogo prototype. Thus there is a real Freud&s regression: the
ceremony goes back to an earlier e$olutionary, original state. For the first time such a
"ra-rituali-atsiyu" disco$ered by 8ikolai I. ,ullfinch. elcome ceremony at the females of these
birds, as well as a triumphant shout from geese, made up of the rituali-ation of the original
threatening gestures. If enhance sexual urges female bullfinch long loneliness, and then put it
together with a male, then it pursues its gestures of welcome that take aggressi$e the more
pronounced the stronger the pull of the sexual instinct.
The couple ha$e a ganders excitement ecstatic lo$e%hate can stop at any le$el and die down
again, and then de$elops though still extremely excited, but normal triumphant cry, ending a !uiet
and gentle cackle, e$en if their gestures 'ust dangerously approaching the manifestations of
$iolent aggression. +$en if you see it for the first time without knowing anything about the process
'ust described, % watching such displays of o$erly passionate lo$e, you experience some
unpleasant feeling.
In$oluntarily come to mind phrases like "lo$e you so much, that would eat" % and remember the
old saying goes, so often emphasi-ed Freud that it is in common usage it has a reliable and true
instinct to the deepest psychological relationships.
)owe$er, in rare cases % a decade of obser$ations in our protocols, all three of these %
ra-rituali-atsiya, which reached the highest ecstasy, do not turn back, and then the e$ent occurs,
irreparable and entailing an extremely dire conse!uences for life participants: threatening and
fighting poses both ganders becoming a purer form, the excitement comes to a boiling point % and
old friends suddenly grabbed each other, "the collar" and cornification folded wings bring down
barrage, the roar of which is posted on the district. A deadly serious battle 'ust heard from a mile
away. 8ormal fight between two ganders, which erupted because of the ri$alry o$er females or
place under the nest, rarely lasts more than a few seconds, and more than a minute % ne$er. In
one of the three fights between the former partners in the triumphant cry of the duration of the
battle we are so recorded in the !uarter of an hour, then rushed him to the anxious noise of battle.
The terrifying, the fierce wrath of labor only to a small extent due, perhaps, to the fact that the
opponents are all too familiar and therefore ha$e to each other less fear than to a stranger. The
extreme bitterness of marital conflicts, too, is drawn not only from this source. I think, rather, in
e$ery real lo$e hidden such a charge latent aggression disguised ties partners, which at break
these chains that there is a disgusting phenomenon that we call hatred. There is no lo$e without
aggression, but there is no lo$e and hate3
The winner ne$er pursued the defeated, and we ha$e not seen that between them there was a
second clash. *n the contrary, in the future, these ganders intentionally a$oid each other, and if a
large herd of geese gra-e on marshy meadow behind the fence, they are always at diametrically
opposite points. If they accidentally % when not notice each other in time % or in our experiment are
close, the show is perhaps the most noteworthy is the beha$ior of what I ha$e seen in animals is
difficult to decide to describe it, at the risk of being suspected in an unbridled imagination.
5ussaki % embarrassed > In the true sense of the word3 They are not able to see each other, see
each other, e$ery glance restlessly wandering around, magically attracted to the ob'ect of his lo$e
and hate % and bounces like a finger drawn aside from the hot metal.
And in addition to being both constantly 'ump through something, craps plumage, beak shake
nonexistence, etc. Cust walk away, they too are unable, for whate$er that might look like in flight,
prohibited the ancient co$enant "sa$e face" at all costs. *ne can not help feel sorry both of them,
felt that the situation is extremely painful. A researcher in$ol$ed in the problem of intraspecific
aggression, many would ha$e gi$en an opportunity through precise !uantitati$e analysis of
moti$ations to establish proportional ratio in which the primary aggression and self%contained, the
impulse to marginali-e the triumphant cry interact with each other in $arious special cases, such a
ceremony. It seems that we are getting closer to sol$ing this problem, but considering the rele$ant
studies here would take us too far.
Instead, we would like once again to take a look all the things you ha$e learned from this chapter
about aggression and about the uni!ue mechanisms of inhibition, which not only eliminate any
sort was !uite a struggle between certain indi$iduals are constantly connected to each other, but
also create between them a special kind of union. ith an example of such a union, we take a
closer look at the triumphant cry of the geese. 8ext, we want to explore the relationship between
the union and such other mechanisms of social life together, which I ha$e described in pre$ious
chapters. 8ow when I re%read the rele$ant chapters for this, I was sei-ed by a feeling of
powerlessness: I reali-e that I was not able to pay tribute to the greatness and importance of
e$olutionary processes, which % I think % I know how they happened, and I&$e decided to describe.
2resumably, more or less gifted speech scientist who has spent his life doing some matter,
should be able to present the results of their labors in such a way as to con$ey to the listener or
the reader not only what he knows, but what in doing so he feels. I can only hope that the feeling
that I could not express in words, the reader will blow out a summary of the facts, when I use here
properly means to me a brief summary of the research.
As we know from chapter G, there are animals that are completely de$oid of intraspecific
aggression, and life kept tightly bound flocks. *ne would think that these creatures are destined
to the de$elopment of a permanent friendship and fraternal union of separate indi$iduals, but 'ust
at such a peaceful herd animals nothing like this e$er happens, their union is always completely
anonymous. 2ersonal ties, personal friendship we find only in animals with highly intraspecific
aggression, and these bonds the stronger, the more aggressi$e the appropriate type. There is
hardly a more aggressi$e cichlid fish and poultry aggressi$e geese. It is well known that the wolf %
the most aggressi$e animal of any mammal 9"bestia sen-a pace" of @ante: he is % the most loyal
of all your friends. If an animal, depending on the time of year that alternately becomes territorial
and aggressi$e, the non%aggressi$e and sociable % and any possible personal connection to it is
limited to a period of aggressi$eness.
2ersonal ties emerged in the course of becoming great, no doubt, at a time when the need for
aggressi$e animals appeared in the 'oint acti$ity of two or more indi$iduals for the sake of sa$ing
some kind of problem, probably mostly for the sake of posterity care. There is no doubt that the
personal bond of lo$e and in many cases ha$e arisen out of intraspecific aggression in certain
cases this was through rituali-ation reoriented attack or threat. #ince emerged thus rituals
connected personally with a partner, and as subse!uently turned into a stand%alone instincti$e
actions, they become a necessity % they turn to the urgent need for the permanent presence of a
partner and himself % in the "animal e!ui$alent of the house."
Intraspecific aggression in the millions of years older than the personal friendship and lo$e.
@uring long periods in +arth&s history certainly appeared animals exclusi$ely fierce and
aggressi$e. Almost all reptiles, which we know today, it is such, and it is difficult to imagine that in
ancient times it was different. )owe$er, personal ties, we know only in teleost fish, birds and
mammals, ie the groups, none of which is not known until the late (eso-oic. #o intraspecific
aggression without its counter%partner, without lo$e, is as much as necessary, but lo$e does not
happen without aggression.
)atred, ugly little sister lo$e, must be clearly separated from intraspecific aggression. In contrast
to con$entional aggression, it is directed at an indi$idual, 'ust like lo$e, and apparently lo$e is a
prere!uisite for its occurrence: truly hate can be, perhaps, is that once lo$ed and still lo$e, though
and deny it.
2erhaps too point to the analogy between the abo$e%described social beha$ior of some animals %
especially wild geese % and humans. All the truths of our pro$erbs seem to be as much as suitable
for these birds. ,eing e$olutionists and @arwinians from the cradle, we can and should learn from
these important findings. First of all, we know that the most recent common ancestor of birds and
mammals were primiti$e reptile 6ate @e$onian and early 4arboniferous period, which certainly
did not ha$e a highly de$eloped social life and is unlikely to ha$e been smarter than frogs. It
follows that the similarity of social beha$ior in gray goose and a person can not be inherited about
common ancestors, they are not "homologous" and emerged % it is beyond !uestion % at the
expense of so%called con$erged de$ices. And 'ust as surely, that their existence is not accidentalK
chance % or rather, impossibility % of such a coincidence can be calculated, but she put it to the
astronomical number of -eros.
If a highly complex beha$iors % such as lo$e, friendship, hierarchical aspirations, 'ealousy, sorrow,
etc. etc. % The gray geese and humans are not only similar, but 'ust the same, exactly the same to
the funny things % it certainly tells us that each such instinct performs some $ery definite role in
the preser$ation of the species, and, moreo$er, one that is in geese and people, or almost
completely identical. ,eha$ioral matches may be the only way.
As genuine natural scientists who do not belie$e in the "infallible instincts" and other miracles, we
belie$e self%e$ident that each of these beha$ioral act is a function of the respecti$e ad hoc body
structure consisting of the ner$ous system, sensory organs, etc., in other words % the function of
the structure, occurred in the organism under selecti$e pressure. If we % by any electronic or
simply a mental model % try to imagine what must ha$e physiological complexity of the apparatus
of this kind, to produce e$en, for example, the social beha$ior of a triumphant shout, then was
surprised to find that such ama-ing bodies as the eye or ear, seem to be something $ery
unpretentious in comparison with this unit.
The more complex and speciali-ed two bodies, similarly arranged and perform the same function,
the more reason we ha$e to unite their common, functional definition of the concept % and to
designate one and the same name, although their e$olutionary origins are !uite different. If, for
example, s!uid or cuttlefish, on the one hand and the $ertebral the other, independently in$ented
eye are built in one and the principle of the camera lens and in both cases are made from one
and the same constructi$e element % the lens, aperture , the $itreous and the retina % that there is
no reasonable argument against the fact that the two bodies % the cuttlefish and $ertebrates %
called eyes, without any !uotation marks. ith the same right we can afford it and the elements
of social beha$ior in higher animals, which at least in many ways similar to the beha$ior of man.
Arrogant wiseacre said in this chapter should ser$e as a serious warning. The animal, not e$en
belonging to the pri$ileged class of mammals, the study re$eals the mechanism of beha$ior,
which connects certain indi$iduals for life and becomes the strongest moti$e that defines all the
actions that o$erpowers all the "animal" instincts % hunger, sexuality, aggression and fear % and
creates social relations in the forms characteristic of the species. #uch a union on all points
similar to those relationships, which we, the people, are formed on the basis of lo$e and
friendship in their most pure and noble manifestation.
./. The preaching humility.
2lane does not pass here %
In the board bitches stick anywhere %
;our arrogance is.
And you always % always
5artsuesh it in check.
4hristian (orgenstern
All that is contained in the pre$ious ele$en chapters % science is science. These facts sufficiently
tested as anyone can say about the outcome of such a young science as comparati$e ethology.
8ow, howe$er, we will lea$e a summary of what was re$ealed in obser$ations and experiments
with aggressi$e beha$ior of animals, and turn to the !uestion: is it possible to extract from all of
this something applicable to a person, which is useful to pre$ent the dangers that arise out of his
own aggressi$e instinct .
There are people who are already in this $ery !uestion percei$e an insult to the human race. (an
too would like to see themsel$es as the center of the uni$erse, something that by its $ery nature
does not belong to the rest of nature, as opposed to it as something different and higher. To
persist in this error % for many people need. They turned a deaf ear to the wisest of the mandates
that e$er ga$e them sage % the call of "know thyself", are the words of 4hilo, although they are
usually attributed to #ocrates. hat pre$ents people listen to them<
There are three obstacles in the way, reinforced the powerful emotions. The first of these can be
easily eliminated any sensible person, and second, with all its e$ils, is still worthy of respect, and
the third is understandable in the light of spiritual e$olution % and because it can be forgi$en, but
to cope with it, perhaps, the most difficult in the world. And they are all inextricably linked and
intertwined with those of human $ices, which the ancient wisdom has it that he is stepping ahead
of the fall % with pride. I want first of all to show these obstacles, one after the other, to show how
they are harmed. And then I will try to the best of help to address them.
The first obstacle % the most primiti$e. It pre$ents human self%knowledge that forbids him to see
the history of their own appearance. The emotional coloring and the stubborn strength of such a
ban, paradoxically, arise from the fact that we are $ery similar to our closest relati$es. 2eople
would ha$e been easier to con$ince their origin if they were not familiar with chimpan-ees.
Inexorable laws of image perception does not allow us to see a monkey % especially in
chimpan-ees % 'ust an animal, like all others, and forced to see in her face human face. In this
aspect, the chimpan-ee, measured by human standards, seems to be something terrible,
diabolical caricature of us. Already with a gorilla, separated from us a few more in the sense of
kinship, and e$en more so with an orangutan, we experience less difficulty. Indi$iduals old %
bi-arre de$il mask % we take $ery seriously, and sometimes e$en find in them some kind of
beauty. ith chimpan-ees is !uite impossible. It looks irresistibly funny, but it is so $ulgar, so
repulsi$e % so can only be completely scum. This sub'ecti$e impression is not so mistaken: there
is reason to assume that the common ancestor of humans and chimpan-ees in terms of
de$elopment were much higher than today&s chimpan-ees. 8o matter how ridiculous in itself, this
defensi$e reaction of man to chimpan-ee, its hea$y emotional burden bowed $ery many
scientists to build a completely baseless theories about the origin of man. Although the origin of
the animals is not denied, but closely related to chimpan-ees or sprung a series of logical
somersaults or manages sophisticated detours.
The second obstacle to self%knowledge % is an emotional a$ersion to admitting that our beha$ior is
sub'ect to the laws of natural causation. ,ernhard )assenshtayn ga$e this definition of
"antikau-alnaya assessment." Troubles, like a claustrophobic feeling of lack of freedom that fills
many people when thinking about the uni$ersal causal determinism of nature, of course, due to
their 'ustified demand in free agency and an e!ually 'ustifiable desire that their actions are not
determined by accidental causes, and lofty goals .
The third great obstacle to human self%knowledge % at least in our estern culture % a legacy of
idealist philosophy. It di$ides the world into two parts: the world of things, which is idealistic
thinking belie$es in principle indifferent with regard to $alues, and the human inner world of the
law, which alone deser$es recognition $alue. #uch a di$ision is remarkably self%centered human
li$es, it is going to meet his antipathy to his dependence on the laws of nature % and therefore
there is nothing surprising in the fact that it is so deeply ingrained in the public consciousness.
)ow deep % this can be 'udged by the way has changed in our 5erman meaning of "idealist" and
"materialist", they originally meant only philosophical setting, and today contain and moral
'udgment. 8eed to understand oursel$es, how familiar it became, in our estern thinking e!uate
the term "a$ailable scientific research" and "basically an assessment and indifferent." +asy to
blame me, if I am against these three obstacles of human self%knowledge only because they are
contrary to my own scientific and philosophical $iews % I&m here to warn against such accusations.
I speak not as a hardened against the re'ection of @arwinian e$olutionary theory, and not as a
professional researcher of reasons % against unpro$oked feelings of $alue and not as a staunch
materialist % against idealism. I ha$e other reasons. 8ow scientists are often accused of, if they
were courted by the terrible scourge of mankind and ascribe too much power o$er nature. This
criticism would be 'ustified if scientists could be blamed, that they did not ob'ect of his in!uiry, and
the man himself. ,ecause the threat to modern humanity is not so much of his ability to dominate
the physical processes of how many of his inability to intelligently guide the social processes.
)owe$er, at the heart of this failure is lack of understanding of the reasons is, that is % as I would
like to show % a direct conse!uence of the $ery noise of self%knowledge.
They pre$ent the in$estigation is precisely those phenomena of human life, which seem to be
people of high%$alue, in other words, those which we are proud. It can not be o$er%sharpen the
following statement: if today we thoroughly know the functions of our digesti$e tract % and on the
basis of this medicine, especially intestinal surgery, annually sa$es the li$es of thousands of
people % we are re!uired to only the fortunate circumstance that the work of these bodies in
anyone does not cause much re$erence and awe. If, on the other hand, the weakness of
humanity stops in front of a pathological expansion of its social structures, if it is % with a nuclear
weapon in the hands % in social terms, do not know how to beha$e more intelligently than any
animal species % is largely due to the fact that their own beha$ior is arrogant and o$errated as a
result, is excluded from the natural phenomena that can be studied.
The researchers % indeed % absolutely not to blame for the fact that people refuse to self%
disco$ery. hen 5iordano ,runo told them that they and their planet % it&s 'ust a speck among
countless other dust clouds % they burned it. hen 4harles @arwin disco$ered that they were the
same root with the animals, they would ha$e gladly finished off and him trying to silence him was
enough. hen #igmund Freud tried to analy-e the moti$es of human social beha$ior and explain
the reasons for it % albeit with a sub'ecti$e psychological point of $iew, but it is the scientific
method in the sense of setting problems % he was accused of nihilism, in a blind materialism and
e$en pornographic tendencies. )umanity pre$ents self by all means, and indeed it is appropriate
to call him to humility % and seriously try to blow up these blockages in the path of self%conceit.
Today, I no longer ha$e to deal with those resistance that opposed the disco$ery of 5iordano
,runo % is an encouraging sign of spread of scientific knowledge % so I&ll start by saying that
opposes the disco$eries of 4harles @arwin. I think there is an easy way to bring people together
with the fact that they ha$e emerged as a part of nature, without breaking the law: you ha$e only
to show them how great and beautiful uni$erse, how worthy of the greatest re$erence for the laws
pre$ailing in it. First of all, I am more than sure that the person who knows enough about the
e$olutionary formation of the organic world, can not resist the internal reali-ation that he himself
owes his existence to this beautiful of all natural processes. I do not want to discuss that
possibility % or, rather, cogency % the doctrine of the origin of species, many times greater than the
probability of all of our historical knowledge. All that we know today, organically fits into this
teaching, it does not contradict anything, and he has all the ad$antages of what may ha$e the
doctrine of creation: persuasi$e power, poetic beauty and impressi$e grandeur.
ho had learned it in its entirety, can not ha$e an a$ersion to any disco$ery of @arwin, that we
ha$e a common origin of animals, nor the conclusions of Freud, as we are led by the same
instincts which go$ern our pre%human ancestors. *n the contrary, well%$ersed people feel only a
new re$erence for the (ind and Jesponsible (orality, which first came into this world with only
the appearance of a man % and it might gi$e him the strength to subdue the animal heritage in
itself, if it is in his pride did not deny itself the existence of such heritage.
Another reason for the general failure of the theory of e$olution is the high regard that we humans
feel towards their ancestors. ")appens" in 6atin sounds "aehsepoege", ie literally "descend,
descend", and in Joman law was customary to put at the top of the ancestors ancestry and draw
the family tree branches out from top to bottom. The fact that a person has at most two parents,
but /EI great%great%great%great%great%great%grandfathers and grandmothers % it was not reflected
in the pedigrees, e$en in cases where they co$er the appropriate number of generations. It turned
out it&s because of all those ancestors were recruited not so many that you can brag about.
According to some authors, the term "descend", possibly due to the fact that in ancient times liked
to display their descent from the gods. That the tree of life grows not from the top down and the
bottom up % it&s up to @arwin, escaped the attention of people. #o the word "descent" means
something, 'ust the opposite of what it would like to refer to: it can be attributed to the fact that our
ancestors in their time in the most literal sense, came down from the trees.
That is what they did, though % as we know now % long before they became men.
#lightly better is the case with the words "de$elopment", "e$olution". They also came into use at a
time when we did not ha$e a clue about the origin of species through e$olution, and only knew
about the origin of an indi$idual organism from the egg or seed. The chicken or the egg de$elops
out of sunflower seeds in the most literal sense, ie, of the embryo does not appear anything that
was not in it&s hidden from the start.
5reat Tree of 6ife grows !uite differently. Although the ancient forms are a necessary precondition
for the emergence of more ad$anced descendants, these descendants in no way be deduced
from the initial forms, predicting them based on the features of these forms. The fact that the
dinosaurs came out of a bird or monkey people % is in each case a historically uni!ue
achie$ement of the e$olutionary process, which although generally directed upwards % according
to the laws that go$ern all of life % but in all its details is determined by the so%called accident, that
is countless side of reasons, which in principle can not be co$ered in their entirety. In this sense,
the "accident" that in Australia, from primiti$e ancestors turned eucalyptus and kangaroos, and in
+urope and Asia % oak and people.
The new ac!uisition % which can not be deduced from the pre$ious stage, from which it takes its
origin % in most cases it is a bit higher compared to what it was. The nai$e estimate, expressed in
the title of "lower animals" % it ottisneno in gold letters on the first $olume of the good old "6ife of
Animals" ,ram % for e$ery unbiased person is an ine$itable regularity thoughts and feelings. ho
wants at all costs to remain &ob'ecti$e& naturalist and a$oid $iolence by their sub'ecti$e perception,
one can try % of course, only in the imagination % to destroy one by one radish, fly, frog, guinea pig,
cat, dog, and finally , the chimpan-ee. )e will reali-e how differently it is difficult to kill him would
be gi$en at different le$els of life. 2rohibitions that are opposed to each such murder % a good
measure of the different $alues, which represent to us the $arious forms of higher life, whether we
like it or not.
The slogan of freedom of assessments in science should not lead to a con$iction, if the origin of
species % this sumptuous of all circuits naturally explainable e$ents % unable to create new $alue.
The emergence of a higher form of life from a simpler ancestor means to us increment $alues %
it&s 'ust as ob$ious reality of how our own existence.
8one of our estern languages are not an intransiti$e $erb, which could indicate a phylogenetic
process, followed by an increment $alue.
If something new and higher results from the pre$ious stage, which does not ha$e that, and from
which it does not appear that is the $ery essence of this new and higher % such a process can not
be called de$elopment. In principle, this applies to each significant step made by the genesis of
the organic world, including the first % to the emergence of life % and the latest to date % to the
transformation of the anthropoid in person.
@espite all the ad$ances of biochemistry and $irology, a truly great and deeply disturbing, the
origin of life remains % for now3 % The most mysterious of all the e$ents. The distinction between
organic and inorganic processes can explain only a "inyunkti$nym" definition, ie such that it
encompasses se$eral signs of the li$ing, creating life only in their total combined. +ach of them
separately % such as metabolism, growth, assimilation, etc. % )as inorganic counterparts. hen
we say that life processes are the physical and chemical processes, it is certainly true. There is
no doubt that they are, in principle, be explained as such !uite naturally. For an explanation of
their features do not need to turn to a miracle, as the complexity of molecular and other structures
in which these processes occur, it is sufficient for such an explanation.
,ut not often true%sounding assertion that life processes % this is the essence of the chemical and
physical processes. This statement contains an incorrect assessment unnoticed, resulting from
the illusory representations of which ha$e already talked a lot. Cust "in essence" % that is, from the
point of $iew of what is typical for these processes and only for them % they are something
completely different from what is usually meant by the physical and chemical processes. And
looking down saying they "only" are also incorrect. These are processes which % because of the
nature of the matter, in any way they happen % perform a $ery special feature of self%preser$ation,
self%regulation, data collection % and, most importantly, the playback function needed for all of this
structures. These processes may ha$e a causal explanation, but in the matter of structured
differently or less difficult, they can not proceed.
In principle the same as the structure and processes correspond to the processes of li$ing and
non%li$ing structures inside the organic world any higher life form that corresponds with a lower,
from which occurred. +agle&s ing, which has become a symbol for us all stri$ing upwards % is
"basically 'ust a" front paw reptile< #imilarly, the people % not "essentially 'ust a" monkey.
*ne sentimental misanthrope has spoken often%repeated aphorism: ")a$ing known people, I lo$e
animals." I argue the opposite: who really knows animals, including higher and most of our
relati$es, and, moreo$er, has any idea about the history of the animal world, only he can
appreciate the uni!ueness of the indi$idual. e % the most supreme achie$ement of the great
designer of e$olution on +arth, what they ha$e achie$ed so far, we ha$e their "last cry", but
certainly not the last word. For the naturalist prohibited any absolute determination, e$en in the
field of epistemology. They % the sin against the )oly #pirit "pagta pei", the great doctrine of
)eraclitus, that there is nothing static, but e$erything flows in an eternal becoming.
In the absolute and declare the crown of creation of today&s man at this stage of his march
through time % it is hoped that this step will be performed as soon as possible % this is the
naturalist for puffy and most dangerous of all the unfounded dogma. Assuming the person final
image of 5od, I made a mistake in 5od. ,ut if I do not forget that almost yesterday 9in
e$olutionary terms:, our ancestors were still the most common monkeys of the closest relati$es of
chimpan-ees, % then I can see a glimmer of hope.
@o not need too much optimism as to suggest that one of us, the people, it may be something
better and higher.
.0. ,ehold the man.
I&m out with my legs taking off his boots, he said: "This demon, scary symbol of man: that&s leg out
of the rough skin that is no longer nature, but in the spirit does not turn, something between an
animal paw and sandals of )ermes" .
4hristian (orgenstern
#uppose that a dispassionate ethologist sits on some other planet, say (ars, and obser$es the
social beha$ior of people through the telescope, the increase is too small to be able to recogni-e
indi$iduals and track their indi$idual beha$ior, but it is enough to watch ma'or e$ents such as the
migration of peoples, battles, etc. )e ne$er would ha$e thought that human beha$ior is guided by
reason, much less responsible morality.
If we assume that our extraterrestrial obser$er % is a purely intellectual being, which is itself
de$oid of any instincts and knows nothing about how to operate all the instincts and aggression in
particular, and how their functions can be broken, it would be $ery difficult to understand the
history of mankind. Jecurring e$ents of this story can not be explained on the basis of the human
mind. To say that they are caused by what is usually called "human nature" % these are empty
words. Jeasonable, but illogical human nature makes two nations compete and fight with each
other, e$en when they are not forced to this no economic reason, she pushes to the fierce fighting
two political parties or religion, despite the striking similarity of their programs of general well%
being, it makes what someday Alexander or 8apoleon to sacrifice millions of their sub'ects for the
sake of trying to unite under his scepter of the world. It is noteworthy that in school we learn to
treat people who had committed these sa$age, with respect, e$en re$ere them as great men. e
are conditioned to obey the so%called political leaders the wisdom of go$ernment % and are so
used to all these phenomena is that most of us can not understand how stupid, how harmful to
human historical beha$ior of nations.
,ut if you reali-e this, you can not a$oid the !uestion: how is it that supposedly intelligent beings
can beha$e so unreasonable<
It is clear that there must be some act suppressing strong factors that can completely pull control
the human mind and, in addition, it is not able to learn from experience. As )egel said, the
lessons of history teach us that people and go$ernments learn nothing from history and do not
benefit from it any lessons.
All these striking contradictions find a natural explanation and totally unclassifiable, if you force
yourself to reali-e that social beha$ior is dictated not only by reason and cultural tradition, but is
still sub'ect to the laws by the fact that inherent in any phylogenetically arisen beha$ior, and these
patterns we are well learned by studying the beha$ior of animals.
e now assume that our obser$er is an alien % an experienced ethologist who thoroughly knows
all that is summari-ed in the preceding chapters. Then he must make the ine$itable conclusion
that the human society is the case in much the same way as with the community of rats that are
as socially and peaceful inside a closed clan, but mere de$ils against kinsman, not belonging to
their own party. If our obser$er on (ars and learn more about the population explosion, the fact
that the weapon is getting worse, and humanity was di$ided into se$eral political camps % he
would rate our future is more optimistic than the future of a hostile rat swarms on almost
de$astated the ship . hile this prediction would ha$e been too good since about rats can be
predicted that after the 5reat Annihilation them will ha$e enough to keep the form and in respect
of the people will be used if the hydrogen bomb, is $ery problematic.
As a symbol of the Tree of ?nowledge lies a profound truth.
The knowledge that has grown from an abstract thinking, man banished from paradise, in which
he mindlessly following their own instincts, could do whate$er he wanted. hat is happening to
this thinking to in!uire of experimentation with the world ga$e man his first guns: Fire and #tone,
s!uee-ed in the hand. And he immediately traded with them in order to kill and cook their fellows.
It is the disco$ery of the parked #inanthropus: Around the earliest traces of fire use are crushed
and burned human bones clearly. Abstract thinking ga$e man dominion o$er all $ne$ido$ym
en$ironment and thereby unleash intraspecific selection, and we already know what that usually
leads. In the "track record" of such selection should probably bring o$erblown and that
aggressi$eness, from which we suffer today. After gi$ing the man a $erbal language, abstract
thinking bestowed on him to transmit o$er%indi$idual experience, the possibility of cultural
de$elopment, but it has caused so drastic changes in his life that the adapti$e capacity of his
instincts failed.
;ou might think that e$ery gift from the man took out his thinking, in principle, to be paid a
dangerous disaster that ine$itably comes next.
Fortunately for us, it&s not because of abstract thinking grows and that a reasonable person&s
responsibility, which is based only hope to cope with the e$er%increasing dangers.
To gi$e some $isibility of my idea of a modern biological condition of humanity, I want to consider
some dangers threatening him in the same se!uence in which they are listed abo$e, and then go
on to discuss the responsibility of morality, its functions and limits its effecti$eness.
In the chapter on moralepodobnom beha$ior we ha$e already heard about the inhibitory
mechanisms that inhibit aggression in $arious social animals and pre$ent in'ury or death of the
neighbor. As it says, of course, that these mechanisms are most important and therefore the most
de$eloped in those animals that are able to easily kill the creature about the si-e. Ja$en can beat
the other eye at one stroke the beak, the wolf can only bite one another rip the 'ugular $ein. If
reliable prohibitions do not pre$ent it % for a long time would not be neither ra$ens nor wol$es.
2igeon, rabbit and e$en a chimpan-ee can not kill his own kind by a single blow or a bite. Also
added the ability to escape, de$eloped in these creatures are not too armed so that allows them
to go away, e$en from the "professional" predators that in the pursuit of murder and more
powerful than e$en the most rapid and powerful kinsman. #o on a free hunting track usually does
not happen that such an animal could seriously damage their own kind, and accordingly there is
no selecti$e pressure that would be produced by the prohibitions of murder. If the one who keeps
the animals in their distress and to trouble their pets, do not take seriously the intraspecific
struggle completely "innocent creatures" % he makes sure that such bans do not exist. In the
unnatural conditions of capti$ity, where the loser can not escape, is constantly the same: the
winner diligently finishes it % slowly and horribly. In my book, "The Jing of #olomon" in "(orals
and weapons," describes how the turtle % the $ery symbol of peace % not ha$ing these prohibitions
can torture to death of his brother.
It is easy to imagine what would happen if some freak of nature has endowed do$e crow beak.
The position of such a geek, perhaps, it would be !uite similar to that of a man who has 'ust
disco$ered the possibility to use a sharp stone as a weapon. #odrogneshsya in$oluntarily at the
thought of being, excitable, like chimpan-ees, such as sudden outbursts of rage % and with a
stone clutched in his hand.
*f the more common $iew held e$en many experts in the field, is to ensure that all human
beha$ior is not ser$ing the interests of the indi$idual and society is dictated by the conscious
responsibility. #uch a $iew is mistaken: that we will show specific examples in this chapter. *ur
common ancestor with chimpan-ees must ha$e been at least as loyal to his friend, a wild goose
or a crow, but e$en more so a wolf or a baboon, and undoubtedly it with the same contempt for
death was ready to gi$e his life, standing up to defend their community, as gently and carefully
applied to young relati$es and en'oyed such bans murder, as well as all the animals. Fortunately
for us, we are also fully inherited the rele$ant "animal" instincts.
Anthropologists who were engaged in a lifestyle of Australopithecus and African people claim that
these ancestors % because they li$ed by hunting big game % handed to humanity dangerous
legacy of "nature predator." This statement made dangerous confusion of two concepts % the
predatory animal and cannibal % while these concepts almost entirely mutually exclusi$eK
cannibalism among predators is extremely rare exception. In fact, one can only regret the fact
that the person 'ust does not ha$e "nature predator."
(ost of the dangers that threaten it, comes from the fact that by nature it is relati$ely harmless
omni$ore, it has no natural weapons belonging to his body, which he could kill a large animal. It is
because he does not ha$e security mechanisms and those that ha$e arisen in the course of
e$olution, which hold all the "professional" predators from using weapons against the relati$es.
)owe$er, lions and wol$es sometimes kill other people&s relati$es, who had in$aded the territory
of their group, may e$en happen that in a sudden fit of rage, reckless bite or paw kill members of
their own group, as is sometimes the case, at least in capti$ity. )owe$er, such exceptions should
not obscure the important fact that all hea$ily armed predators of this kind must ha$e highly
de$eloped mechanisms of inhibition, which % as already mentioned in the chapter on
moralepodobnom beha$ior % pre$ent the self%destruction of the species.
In the prehistory of man no particularly highly de$eloped mechanisms to pre$ent accidental
killings were not needed: a murder was impossible.
Forward, killing his $ictim could only scratch, bite, or strangle, and the $ictim had more than
enough opportunity to appeal to the brakes aggressi$e hitter % gestures of submission and
frightened scream. It is clear that in the poorly armed animals has not acted selection pressure
that could call into being those strong and reliable bans the use of weapons, which is simply
necessary for the sur$i$al of species, possessing a dangerous weapon. hen the in$ention of
artificial arms opened up new opportunities for the murder % the former balance between the
relati$ely weak prohibitions of aggression and as weak capabilities murder was fundamentally
broken.
)umanity would destroy itself already with the $ery first of his great disco$eries, if not a
remarkable coincidence: the possibility of disco$eries, in$entions, and the great gift of
responsibility are e!ually the fruits of the same purely human ability, the ability to ask !uestions.
The man did not die as a result of their own disco$eries % at least until now % 'ust because he is
able to ask oursel$es about the conse!uences of their actions % and respond to it. This uni!ue gift
is not brought to humanity guarantees against self%destruction. Although since the disco$ery of
the stone grew and moral responsibility, and resulting bans murder, but, unfortunately, in e!ual
measure, and increased ease of murder, and most importantly % a sophisticated techni!ue
assassination led to the fact that the conse!uences of the act are not worried about who his
committed. The distance at which operates all firearms, sa$es the killer of an annoying situation
that otherwise would ha$e been sensiti$e to proximity, in all the terrible conse!uences of
hideousness. +motional depths of our souls simply do not take note of that flexing the index
finger when shooting unfolds the inside of another person. 8one of mentally normal person would
not go on the hunt e$en if he had to kill the game tooth and nail. It is only by fencing off our
feelings it is possible that a person who hardly dared to gi$e a well%deser$ed slap hamo$atoe
child, it can press the start button, missile or bomb to open the hatches, condemning hundreds of
the most beautiful children in the terrible death by fire. ,omb carpets spread out kind, good,
decent fathers % a terrifying fact, today almost unbelie$able3 The demagogues ha$e, ob$iously, a
$ery good, though, and only a working knowledge of instincti$e beha$ior % they purposefully as an
important tool, used to cordon off the party instigated annoying situations that inhibit aggression.
ith the in$ention of weapons associated dominance of intra%selection and all its terrible
manifestations. In the third chapter, where it was about $idosohranyayuschey function of
aggression, and in the tenth % the organi-ation of community rats % I explained in detail how
competition relati$es, if it acts without regard to the $ne$ido$ym en$ironment, may lead to the
most bi-arre and inappropriate deformities.
(y teacher )eynrot to illustrate the harmful effects of such !uoted the example of the wings
Argus pheasant, and the pace of work in estern ci$ili-ation. As already mentioned, I belie$e that
hypertrophy of the human aggressi$e instinct % is a conse!uence of the same reason.
In .HEE, I wrote a small article "about the murder of neighbor": "I think % experts in human
psychology, especially deep, and psychoanalysts should check this % that today&s ci$ili-ed people
generally suffer from a lack of aggressi$e discharge of instinctual impulses. (ore than likely that
the ad$erse manifestations of human aggressi$e instinct to explain that #igmund Freud
suggested a special instinct of death, based simply on the fact that intraspecific selection in
ancient times, man has supplied a certain measure of aggressi$eness, for which he does not find
an ade!uate yield in the modern organi-ation of society. " If these words felt easy reproach, now I
ha$e to strongly take it back. ,y the time I wrote this, there were already psychoanalysts, it is not
belie$ed in the death instinct, and explains the self%defeating aggression as a $iolation of instinct,
which in principle should support life. I e$en met a man who is already at the time % in full
compliance with the newly described formulation of the problem % the problem studied
hypertrophic aggressi$eness due to intraspecific selection.
#ydney (argolin, a psychiatrist and psychoanalyst in @en$er, 4olorado, had a $ery precise
psychoanalytic and social%psychological research on the prairie Indians, in particular, of the tribe
of the poop, and showed that these people were hea$ily affected by excess aggressi$e impulses
that they ha$e no place to put in a regulated life of today&s Indian Jeser$ation in 8orth America.
According to (argolin, within a comparati$ely few hundred years % during which the Indians were
prairie wild life, which consisted almost exclusi$ely of wars and robberies % an extremely strong
selection pressure was significantly increase their aggressi$eness. It is possible that significant
changes in the hereditary patterns ha$e been achie$ed in such a short period, with the selection
of the hard rock pets are changing so fast.
Also in fa$or of the assumption (argolin says that Indians poop, which grew at a different
education suffer as their older compatriots % as well as the fact that the pathological
manifestations in !uestion, known only to the Indians of the 2lains , the tribes which were sub'ect
to the said selection process.
"te Indians suffer from neuroses are more likely than any other group of people, and (argolin
found that the common cause of the disease is constantly repressed aggression. (any Indians
feel sick, and say that they are sick, but the !uestion of what is the disease they can not gi$e any
answer, except for one: ",ut I % poop3" 7iolence and murder in relation to others % in the order of
things, against the tribesmen, on the contrary, it is extremely rare, as is forbidden taboo ruthless
se$erity of which is as easy to understand from the pre$ious stories ute tribe, is in a state of
continuous war, with white and neighboring tribes, had to stop at any cost !uarrels among its
members. ?illed a fellow tribesman was re!uired, according to tradition, to commit suicide. This
commandment was in force, e$en for "tah police officer who tried to arrest the tribesmen, shot
him during a forced defense. )e got drunk, hit his father with a knife and hit the femoral artery,
causing death from loss of blood. hen the police recei$ed orders to arrest the killer % although
on first%degree murder was not the !uestion % he turned to his pale%faced head with the report. )e
reasoned thus: the criminal wants to die, he must commit suicide and now probably make it in a
way that will resist arrest and compel him, a police officer to shoot him. ,ut then the police will
ha$e the most to commit suicide. #ince more than a short%sighted sergeant insisted on its
disposal % the tragedy de$eloped, as predicted. This and other reports (argolin read like ancient
5reek tragedy in which the ine$itable destiny compels people to be guilty and $oluntarily atone for
sins committed in$oluntarily.
*b'ecti$ely and con$incingly, e$en con$incingly speaks for the correctness of the interpretation of
this beha$ior margolinskoy poop their susceptibility to accidents.
It is pro$ed that the "predisposition to accidents" is the result of repressed aggression, the
Indians%ute rate of automobile accidents monstrous exceeds the norm of any other group of
motorists. ho e$er had to lead a high%speed car, being able to rage, he knows % if only it was in
when it is capable of self%obser$ation % as far as pronounced in this situation, the tendency to self%
destruct action. Apparently, the phrase "death instinct" is deri$ed from such special cases.
*f course, the intraspecific selection and today operates in the wrong direction, but the
discussion of all these phenomena would lead us too far from the topic of aggression. #election
as intensi$ely promotes instincti$e hoarding moti$ated, $anity, and so on., The $ast plain decency.
The current commercial competition threatens to cause at least as terrible hypertrophy mentioned
moti$es, which at the intraspecific aggression by military contest of #tone Age people.
)appiness is only in the fact that the gain wealth and power does not lead to the large number of
offspring, or the position of mankind would ha$e been e$en worse.
In addition to the weapon and intraspecific selection, di--ily growing pace of de$elopment % this is
the third source of troubles that humanity must take into account, using the great gift of his
abstract thinking. *f abstract thinking and all its results % especially the symbolism of $erbal
speech % people increased capacity, which is not gi$en to any other creature. hen a biologist
says the inheritance of ac!uired characteristics, he is referring to a change of ac!uired hereditary
genome. )e did not think about the fact that "inheritance" has been % has for many centuries
before 5regor (endel % the legal sense, and that the word was first applied to biological
phenomena at the net analogy. Today it is the second meaning of the word has become so
familiar to us that I probably would not understand if I 'ust wrote: "*nly a person has the ability to
be!ueath ac!uired !ualities."
I am referring here to the following: if a person, say, in$ented the bow and arrow % or stole them
from a more de$eloped neighbor % that in the future not only of his offspring, but all of its
community is at the disposal of this weapon as e$er, as if it were a bodily organ that arose as a
result of mutation and selection. The use of this weapon is not easily forgotten, it becomes
rudimentary as any $ital organ.
+$en if only one indi$idual becomes !uite important for the conser$ation of the species
characteristic or ability, it immediately becomes the common property of the whole population,
this is what causes the thousand%mentioned acceleration of the historical process, which
appeared in the world, along with abstract thinking. Adapting processes, so far swallowed eons
now can occur during se$eral generations. *n the e$olution on phylogeny % flowing slowly, almost
imperceptibly, in comparison with the new processes % now superimposed historyK
phylogenetically arisen o$er the treasure of heredity stands the huge building historically and
traditionally ac!uired transmitted culture.
)ow to use weapons and tools % and it grew out of the international rule of man % and the third,
most beautiful gift of abstract thinking entails its own risks. All the cultural achie$ements of the
people ha$e one big "but": they apply only to those of his !ualities and actions that are sub'ect to
indi$idual modifications influence learning. 7ery many of the innate beha$ioral acts characteristic
of our species, do not include: changes in the rate of change of the process remains the same,
with some changes all the physical attributes with which the whole process was becoming before
appeared on the scene abstract thinking.
hat could happen when man first picked up a stone< It is likely that something similar to what
can be obser$ed in children as young as two or three years, and sometimes older: no instincti$e
or moral prohibition does not keep them from getting all his strength to beat each other o$er the
head with hea$y ob'ects that they barely can raise. 2robably, the disco$erer of the stone as little
hesitated to knock his friend, who had 'ust been angry. After all, he could not know about the
terrible effect of his in$entionK congenital ban murder, then as now, was set up by his natural
weapons. hether he was embarrassed when his brother in the tribe fell in front of him dead<
e can assume it&s almost certain.
2ublic higher animals often react to the sudden death of neighbor in dramatic fashion. 5ray
geese stand o$er a dead friend with a hiss, at the highest readiness for defense. It describes
)eynrot, who once shot a goose in the presence of his family. I saw the same thing, when the
+gyptian goose bumps to the head of a young gray, he staggered, ran up to the parents, and
immediately died of a cerebral hemorrhage. 2arents could not see the impact and therefore
reacted to the fall and death of her child in the same way. (unich elephant 7astl that without any
aggressi$e intent, playing, seriously wounded his minister % came in the greatest excitement, and
stood o$er the wounded man, defending him, what, unfortunately, ha$e pre$ented his timely help.
,ernhard 5r-imek told me that a male chimpan-ee who was bitten and seriously in'ured him,
trying to pull the wound edges with your fingers when he was a flash of rage.
It is likely that the first 4ain immediately understood the awfulness of his act. 2retty soon had to
go talk that if killing too many members of his tribe % it will lead to an undesirable weakening of its
combat potential. hate$er the educational 'udgment, pre$ents the smooth implementation of the
new weapon, in any case, there is some, albeit primiti$e, form of responsibility, which is already
protected mankind from self%destruction.
Thus, the first function, which carries out a critical morality in the history of mankind, was to
restore the lost balance between the military and the innate prohibition of murder. In all other
respects, the re!uirements of reasonable liability could be in the first men still !uite simple and
easily implemented.
The argument will not be too far%fetched, if we assume that the first real people, what we know of
the prehistoric eras % for example, the 4ro%(agnons % had almost exactly the same instincts, the
same natural inclinations that we do, that the organi-ation of their communities and in collisions
between them they beha$ed in much the same way as some still li$ing today and tribes, such as
the central 2apuans of 8ew 5uinea. They ha$e each of the tiny $illages is in a constant state of
war with its neighbors, in a relationship of mutual moderate bounty hunting. "(oderation," as it is
defined by (argaret (ead, is not taken trips organi-ed bandit with the purpose of the co$eted
people&s heads, but only for an occasion, accidentally met on the border of its domain some old
woman or a couple of kids, "with a name "their heads.
And now % assuming our assumptions are correct % imagine that a man li$ing in a community with
a do-en of your best friends, with their wi$es and children.
All men are bound to be twinned, and they % friends in the truest sense of the word, e$eryone has
sa$ed another life. And although there may a ri$alry because of the rule, because of the girls and
so on % as is the case of, say, the boys in the school % it ine$itably takes a back seat to the
constant need together to defend themsel$es against hostile neighbors . And fight with them for
the $ery existence of their community had so often that all the moti$es of intraspecific aggression
were saturated with excess. I think that under the circumstances in this community of fifteen men,
all of us ha$e the natural inclination to comply with the Ten 4ommandments of (oses in relation
to his friend and would not kill him or slander him or steal his wife, or that hate$er it was, he
owned. ithout any doubt, e$eryone on the natural inclination would be not only to honor his
father and mother, but also for all the old and wise, and this is happening at Fraser @arling,
already in deer, and especially in primates, as is e$ident from the obser$ations "oshberna ,
@e$ore and 4ortlandt.
In other words, the natural inclinations of man are not so bad. From the birth of man is not that
bad, it 'ust was not good enough for the demands of modern society.
The sheer increase in the number of indi$iduals belonging to the same community, is to ha$e two
results, which upset the balance between the main instinct of mutual attraction and repulsion, that
is, between personal ties and intraspecific aggression. First, the personal ties harmful when they
become too much. An old wise saying has it that really good friends with a lot of people can not
be.
6arge "option ac!uaintances," which ine$itably appears in e$ery larger community, reduces the
strength of each connection. #econdly, the crowding of many indi$iduals in a small space leads to
a blunting of the social reactions. +ach inhabitant of a modern city, o$erfed with all sorts of social
ties and obligations familiar disturbing disco$ery that do not feel the 'oy, as expected, from $isiting
a friend, e$en if you really lo$e it and ha$e not seen him for a long time. ;ou notice a distinct
tendency to and grouchy frustration when, after dinner, the phone is still ringing. Increasing
willingness to aggressi$e beha$ior is typical conse!uence of crowding, sociologists
experimenters it has long been known.
These undesirable effects are added increasing our community and the inability to discharge the
entire amount of aggressi$e intentions, "pro$ided" to the species. orld % it is the first duty of the
citi-en, and hostile neighboring $illage that was once offered to ob'ect to the release of
intraspecific aggression, went into the distant past.
The more de$eloped ci$ili-ation, all the less fa$orable conditions for the normal expression of our
natural inclination to social beha$ior, and the re!uirements for it are increasing: we should treat
our "neighbors" as a best friend, though, perhaps, in his lifetime he has seen and moreo$er, with
the help of his mind, we can perfectly aware that we are obliged to lo$e e$en our enemies % the
natural inclination would ne$er ha$e we had not brought ... All preaching austerity, warning
against letting go of the reins of instinctual impulses, the doctrine of original sin, stating that a
person at birth is flawed % it all has to do a grain of truth: the understanding that people do not
dare to blindly follow their innate inclinations, and should learn to rule o$er them and
responsibility to control their appearance.
It can be expected that ci$ili-ation will de$elop increasingly accelerated pace % it is hoped that the
culture is not from it to lag behind, % the same as the willow will grow and become hea$ier burden
on the responsible ethics. The discrepancy between what a person is willing to do for the
community, and what the company is re!uired of it to grow, and the responsibility will be
increasingly difficult to maintain a bridge across the gulf. This idea is $ery disturbing, because if
they wanted to not see any selecti$e ad$antage that at least one person today could learn from a
keen sense of responsibility, or of a kind of natural inclinations. Jather, it should seriously fear
that the current profit organi-ation of society to their diabolical influence of ri$alry between people
directs selection in the opposite direction. #o that the problem of responsibility has become
increasingly complex and from this side.
e did not make it easy for responsible moral solution to all these problems, o$erestimating her
strength. Far better to humbly recogni-e that it is % "'ust" compensation mechanism that fits our
instincti$e cultural heritage to the demands of life and forms with it a functionally integrated
system. This point of $iew explains a lot of things, it is not clear if a different approach.
e all suffer from the need to suppress their impulses, some more, some less % because of the
$ery different innate tendency to social beha$ior.
According to the good, old psychiatric definition, a psychopath % a person who is either suffering
from the re!uirements to him by society, or society itself causes suffering. #o, in a sense, we are
all psychopaths, as imposed by the common good of the renunciation of their own moti$es
causes suffering each of us. ,ut especially this definition refers to those people who are broken
and as a result are either neurotic, ie sick or criminals. According to the precise definition of
"normal" person is different from a psychopath % or the good citi-en from the criminal % not as
dramatically as the healthy from the sick. The difference is rather similar to that which exists
between a person with compensated heart failure patients suffering from "non%compensated $ice"
whose heart muscle with increasing load is no longer able to cope with not closing the $al$e or its
contraction. This comparison is 'ustified by the fact that compensation re!uires energy.
#uch a point of $iew on a responsible morality can resol$e the contradiction in ?ant&s conception
of morality, which is already hit by Friedrich #chiller. )e said that )erder % is "soulfully of all the
?antians"K rebelled against the denial of any $alue to the natural inclinations of the ethics of ?ant
and abused her in a remarkable epigram: "I am happy to ser$e others, but, unfortunately, I do it
out of inclination because I often gnawing thought that I was not $irtuous3 " )owe$er, we will not
only ser$e to his friend on his own inclinations, we also appreciate his friendly beha$ior from the
point of $iew of whether in the business warm natural inclination led him to such beha$ior3 If we
had been absolutely consistent ?antians, it would ha$e to do the opposite % and appreciate,
abo$e all, a man who by nature ha$e absolutely can not stand, but is "responsible for the issue
itself," contrary to his heart addiction causes to beha$e well against us. )owe$er, in reality, we
take these benefactors at best, with a $ery cool attention, and lo$e only those who apply to us as
a friend because it gi$es him pleasure, and when does something for us, does not think like done
something worthy of appreciation.
hen my unforgettable teacher Ferdinand )ohshtetter at age F. deli$ered his farewell lecture,
then Jector of the "ni$ersity of 7ienna cordially thanked him for his long and fruitful work. At this
gratitude )ohshtetter ga$e a response that focuses the entire paradox of $alue % or lack thereof %
of natural inclinations. )e said this:
";ou are here to thank me for what I do not deser$e any recognition whatsoe$er. #hould thank
my parents, my ancestors who ga$e me 'ust such a legacy, and not other inclinations.
,ut if you ask me what I was doing all my life and in science and teaching, I ha$e to answer
honestly: I actually always did what ga$e me the greatest pleasure3 "hat a wonderful ob'ection3
This great naturalist who % I know for sure % ne$er read ?ant, here it takes its point of $iew on the
$alue of indifference natural inclinations, but at the same time, the example of his most $aluable
life and work leads ?ant&s doctrine of $alues to still greater absurdity than #chiller in his epigram.
And the way out of this contradiction is a $ery simple solution to the apparent problem, if you
recogni-e a responsible moral compensation mechanism and does not deny the $alue of the
natural inclinations.
If you ha$e to e$aluate the beha$ior of some people, including my own, then % ob$iously % they
are priced higher, the less consistent with a simple and natural inclinations. )owe$er, if you want
to appreciate the person % for example, choice of friends, % with the same clear preference for one
whose friendliness is determined not reasonable grounds % as though they were highly moral %
and only a feeling of warm natural inclination.
hen we use this way to assess human beha$ior and the people themsel$es are !uite different
criteria % is not only not a paradox, but a manifestation of simple common sense.
ho beha$e socially is the natural inclination, that under normal circumstances, almost do not
need the compensation mechanisms, and in case of need, it has a powerful moral reser$es. ho
is in e$eryday terms is forced to spend all of the restraining forces its moral responsibility to keep
abreast of the cultural re!uirements of society % that, of course, much before breaking load
increases. +nergy aspect of our comparison with heart disease and here comes $ery accurately
as load increase, in which social beha$ior becomes a "non%compensated" may be $ery different
nature, but somehow the "saps the strength." (orality is not the easiest to refuse under the
influence of a single, sudden and excessi$e testing, it is easier to 'ust under the influence of
debilitating, long%term ner$ous breakdown, of whate$er kind it may be. 4are, po$erty, hunger,
fear, fatigue, frustration, etc. % It all works the same way. ho had the opportunity to obser$e a lot
of people in a kind % a war or in prison % he knows how unexpectedly and suddenly there comes a
moral decompensation. 2eople, which seemed like you can rely on a stone mountain, suddenly
break down, and in others, no particular trust, open 'ust the same inexhaustible sources of
strength, and they are 'ust by their example help sa$e countless other moral fortitude. )owe$er,
sur$i$ors know something like that, and that the power of good will and its stability % two
independent $ariables. Jeali-ing this, thoroughly learn not to feel superior to someone who broke
down earlier than you are. The best and noblest in the end comes to a point that they no longer
can, "+li. +li, lama assahfani<"
In accordance with the ethics of ?ant, only the internal law of the human mind itself creates the
categorical imperati$e as a response to "the responsible !uestion to himself." ?ant&s notion of
"mind, reason" and "the mind, the intellect" is by no means identical. For him, it stands to reason
that intelligent creature simply may not want to harm others, like myself. At the word "mind" is
etymologically lies the ability to "'udge", "enter into an agreement", in other words % the existence
of $alued social ties between all sentient beings. For ?ant, it is clear and self%e$ident that, for the
ethologist needs clarification: the fact that a person does not want to harm another. The great
philosopher suggests something ob$ious here that re!uires explanation, and it is % though
introduces some inconsistency in the course of his great thoughts % making it more acceptable to
the teaching of biology. Then there is a small loophole through which a mar$elous building his
reasoning % a purely rational % can sneak sense, in other words % the instincti$e moti$ation. ?ant
did not belie$e that a person is pre$ented from taking any action which it encouraged the natural
inclination purely rational understanding of logical contradictions in the rules of his actions. It is
clear that we need more and the emotional factor to con$ert some of the pure awareness in the
imperati$e or a ban. If we remo$e from our experience a sense of emotional $alues % for example,
the $alues of the different stages of e$olution % if we will not be worthless person, human life and
humanity as a whole, the most perfect of our intelligence apparatus would remain a dead car
without a motor. ,y itself, it is only able to gi$e us the means to achie$e this goal in any way, but
can neither define this goal, nor gi$e the order to achie$e it. If we were nihilists such as
(ephistopheles, would consider that "there is a world of things, which stands for mercy," % we
could push the start button of the hydrogen bomb, and it does not contradict the norms of our
intelligent beha$ior.
*nly a sense of $alue, only a sense assigns "plus" or "minus" the answer to our "categorical
samo$opros" and turns it into an imperati$e or a ban. #o he and the other does not arise from
reason, but from the breakthroughs of the darkness in which our minds can not penetrate. In
these layers, only indirectly accessible to the human mind that is inherited and assimilated form a
highly complex structure, which not only has a $ery close relationship with the same structure of
the higher animals, but in large part it is simply identical. In essence, our differs from that in so far
as the person enters into a learned cultural tradition. From the structure of these interactions
occurring almost exclusi$ely in the unconscious, grow moti$ation to all of our actions, including
those that are most strongly sub'ect to the management of our samo$oproshayuschego mind.
#o there are lo$e and friendship, all the warm feelings, the concept of beauty, the desire for
artistic creati$ity and scientific knowledge. A man has been freed from e$erything so to say
"animal", de$oid of subconscious desires, man as a purely rational being would be no angel, but
on the contrary3
)owe$er, it is easy to understand how it could establish the opinion that all the good % and only
good % that is the human community, owes its existence to morality, and all the "selfish" moti$es of
human beha$ior that is inconsistent with the social demands, grow out of the "Animals" instincts.
If people ask themsel$es the !uestion ?ant categorical: "4an I rate their beha$ior to raise the
le$el of natural law, or in this case there would be something that is contrary to reason<" % That all
beha$ior, including the gut, will eminently sensible, pro$ided that it fulfills tasks of preser$ing the
species for which it was created by the great designer of e$olution.
2roti$ora-umnoe arises only in the e$ent of a $iolation of an instinct. To find a $iolation % a
problem categorical !uestion, and to compensate % the categorical imperati$e. If instincts are
right, "according to the designers& plans," the !uestion to him will not be able to distinguish them
from the #apiens. In this case, the !uestion, "4an I raise the rate of my actions to the le$el of the
natural law<" % Is undoubtedly a positi$e answer, because the rule itself is already such a law3
A child falls into the water, the man 'umping o$er it, pulls it explores the norm of the act and finds
that it is % being ele$ated to the natural law % would sound like this: "hen an adult male )omo
#apiens sees that his kind of life a baby in danger, from which he can sa$e him % he does it. " Is
such an abstraction in any conflict with the mind<
*f course not3 #a$ior can pat yourself on the back and be proud of how reasonable and morally
he beha$ed. If he had actually engaged in these arguments, the child would already drowned
before he would 'ump into the water. ,ut the man % at least belonging to our estern culture %
$ery reluctantly learns that he acted instincti$ely that e$ery baboon in a similar situation would
ha$e done the same thing.
Ancient 4hinese wisdom says that not all people ha$e in the beasts, but all the animals ha$e in
people. )owe$er, this does not imply that this "beast in man" from the $ery beginning is an e$il
thing and a dangerous, possibly sub'ect to elimination. There is a human reaction, which is best
seen how necessary it can be certainly "animal" beha$ior is inherited from the anthropoid
ancestors, and it is for actions that are not only considered to be a purely human and high moral,
but in fact are not. This reaction % the so%called inspiration. The name itself, which had created for
her 5erman, said that the man possessed something $ery high, especially a human, that is % the
spirit. The 5reek word "enthusiasm" means e$en more than that man has a god. )owe$er, in
reality enthusiastic person takes possession of our long%time friend and recent foe % intraspecific
aggression in the form of ancient and perhaps how%e$er free-e%dried reaction of social protection,
in accordance with this spirit is awakened to the predictability of external reflex in all situations
that re!uire entry into the fight for what %that social $alues, especially for those who are sanctified
by cultural tradition. They can be represented concretely % the family, the nation, Alma (ater or
sports team % or abstract concepts, like former greatness student corporations, artistic integrity or
professional ethics of inducti$e research. I call the spirit of one row are different things % that
seem to be most $aluable to me, or it is not clear why these other people are seen % with a special
intent to show a lack of selecti$ity, which on occasion can become so dangerous inspiring.
In radra-hayuschih situations that best cause excitement and purposefully created by
demagogues, first of all there must be a threat to highly re$ered $alues. The enemy, or a dummy
can be chosen almost at random, and % like the endangered $alues % can be concrete or abstract.
"These" Cews ,oches, the )uns, the exploiters, tyrants, etc. suitable as global capitalism,
,olshe$ism, fascism, imperialism, and many other "isms." #econd, to the annoying situation of
this kind is possible and carries with it the figure of the leader, without which, as we know, can not
get e$en the most anti%fascist demagogues, because in general the same methods of different
political trends facing the instincti$e nature of human reaction of inspiration that you can use to
your ad$antage. The third, and almost the most important factor is still inspiring and possibly the
most enthusiastic. 2atterns of enthusiasm at this point are identical laws +ducation anonymous
flocks described in 4hapter G: carrying away flocks of action is growing, apparently exponentially
with the number of indi$iduals in it.
+ach how%e$er sensiti$e person knows what kind of sub'ecti$e sensations accompany this
response.
First of all, it is characteri-ed by a sense of !uality, known by the name of inspiration. *n the back
and % as it turns out, on closer obser$ation % on the outer surface of the hands runs "awe." The
man feels released from all bonds of the e$eryday world and rise abo$e them, and he is willing to
gi$e up e$erything to obey the call of the sacred duty. All of the obstacles standing in the way to
fulfill this duty, lose all importance, instincti$e inhibitions maim and kill relati$es lose,
unfortunately, much of its power. Jeasonable considerations, any criticism or counter%arguments
that speak against the actions dictated by the enthusiasm muted by the fact that a remarkable
re$aluation of all $alues makes them seem not only thorough, but also 'ust worthless and
shameful.
In short, as it is beautifully expressed in the "krainian pro$erb: "4oke 2rapor $&etsya, about
neydetsya head."
From these experiences are correlated ob'ecti$ely obser$able phenomena: the tone of the
striated muscles, posture becomes more intense, hands lifted in a few hand and gently turn
inwards, so that your elbows to extend it. )ead held high, chin pushed forward and the face
muscles creates a $ery specific facial expressions, we all know from the mo$ies % "heroic face."
*n the back and on the outer surface of the hands skin bristling hair % this is the ob'ecti$e side of
the notorious "awe."
In the sanctity of the thrill and excitement of spirituality doubt one who has seen the rele$ant
beha$ioral acts of male chimpan-ees, which comes with unparalleled courage to defend their
herd or family.
It also puts forward the chin, straining the whole body and raises your elbows out to the side, he
also has hair stands on end, leading to a sharp increase in the terrifying and certainly the contour
of his body from the front. Jotate hands inside clearly intended to bring out the most o$ergrown
and thus strengthen the side effects mentioned. *$erall the combination of bearing and rearing of
wool is the same "bluff", that of the humping cats: it has the task to portray an animal bigger and
more dangerous than it actually is. #o that our "awe" % is nothing more than an attempt to ruffle
the remnants of the once former fur.
hat is going through a monkey with its social defense response, we do not know, but it is likely
that it is 'ust as heroically and selflessly put their li$es at stake, like a man inspired. There is no
doubt genuine e$olutionary homology reactions protect the herd of chimpan-ees % and
enthusiasm of a man more than that, you can $ery well imagine how one is deri$ed from the
other. After all, we are the $alues to be protected are we rise with enthusiasm, are primarily social
significance. If you recall what was said in the chapter "The habit of ceremony and magic" seems
almost incredible that the reaction which originally ser$ed as a protection of indi$idual
ac!uaintance, a particular member of the community, more and more took up the defense of the
indi$idual%transmitted tradition of cultural property of longer life than a group of indi$iduals.
If our courageous statement for what we think the highest $alue, flows along the same neural
pathways that social and protecti$e reactions of our anthropoid ancestors % I see this not as a
sobering reminder as well as a $ery serious appeal to self%knowledge. A person with such a
reaction, no % it&s crippled in terms of instincts, and I would not want to ha$e him as a friend, but
one who is blind reflexi$ely draws this reaction is a threat to humanity:
he was easy prey of those demagogues who know how to pro$oke annoying situations of human
aggression, as well as us % to understand the physiology of the beha$ior of our laboratory
animals. hen the sound of an old song, or some of the march on me want to run awe % I defend
themsel$es from temptation and say to myself that chimpan-ees also make popping noise, in
preparation for a 'oint attack. #ing along % then put your finger in your mouth the de$il.
The 7er$e % a real stand%alone human instinct, like, say, the instinct of a triumphant cry from the
gray geese. It has its own search beha$ior, his own pro$ocati$e stimuli, and deli$ers % as
e$eryone knows from personal experience % so strong satisfaction that resist its alluring action
almost impossible. As the triumphant cry of a $ery significant impact on the social structure of
gray geese, e$en pre$ails in it, and the inspired fighting instinct rush largely determines the social
and political structure of humanity. It is not because of aggressi$e and always ready to fight,
which is di$ided into parties hostile opposing, it is structured in this way because it gi$es an
annoying situation necessary for the discharge of social aggression. "If a creed really embraced
the whole world % writes +rich $on )olst % it would immediately split in at least two bitterly hostile
interpretation 9one real, the other heretical:, and enmity and struggle would thri$e as before, for
humanity, unfortunately, is such as it is. "
This is the two%faced Canus % a man. The only being who can enthusiastically dedicate
themsel$es higher goals, needs this in psychophysiological organi-ation, animal features which
carry a risk that it will kill their fellows in the con$iction that it is necessary so to achie$e the $ery
highest goals.
,ehold % a man3
.1. I hope and belie$e.
I do not methinks that knowledge can pro$ide,
To correct the people on the way to instruct.
5oethe
"nlike Faust, I imagine that I could teach something that will fix the people and guide them on the
way. This idea does not seem to me too arrogant. At least it is less arrogant than the re$erse % if
she does not come from the belief that he was not able to teach, and the assumption that "these
people" are not able to understand the new doctrine. This happens only in extreme cases where
some genius ahead of his time in the century.
If you listen to someone&s contemporaries and e$en read his books, it&s safe to say that this is not
a genius.
At best, he can amuse himself with the thought that he has something to say 'ust "in case". All
that can be said is the best way acts as a time when speaking with new ideas is only slightly
ahead of the audience. Then they react to the thought: "In fact, I myself should ha$e known3" #o
there is no self%esteem % on the contrary, I sincerely belie$e that in the near future, many, perhaps
e$en most, all the words of this book of intraspecific aggression and the dangers for humanity
stemming from its $iolations will be taken as self%e$ident and e$en the banal truth.
hen I&m here I deduce conse!uences of the contents of this book and, like the ancient 5reek
sages, blanking them in the practical beha$ior of the statute % I certainly need to be more afraid of
accusations of banality, rather than 'ustifiable grounds for ob'ection. After what was said in the
pre$ious chapter on the current state of humanity, proposed measures for protection from
imminent danger seem pitiful. )owe$er, this does not speak against the correctness of the
foregoing. The research rarely leads to dramatic changes in world e$ents, and such change is
possible only in a sense of failure, as new disco$eries are easily used to inflict damage. In
contrast, the results of studies to apply and creati$ely beneficially re!uires usually not less wit
hard work and difficult than to obtain them.
The first and most ob$ious rule is expressed in the "know thyself" % a re!uirement to deepen the
understanding of the causes of our own beha$ior. @irections in which, presumably, will be to
de$elop an application ethology, are already beginning to be determined. *ne of them % it is an
ob'ecti$e physiological research opportunities discharge of aggression in its original form on the
ersat- ob'ects, and we already know that an empty barrel from carbide % is not the best option.
The second % the study of the so%called sublimation techni!ues of psychoanalysis. It can be
expected that this human form of catharsis will significantly help loosen tight aggressi$e impulses.
+$en at today&s modest le$el of our knowledge about the nature of aggression ha$e some
practical $alue. It is at least in the fact that we can already say with confidence that it will not turn.
After all that we&$e learned and all the instincts of aggression, in particular, the two "simplest" way
to cope with aggression are completely hopeless. First, it certainly can not be excluded, sa$ing
people from annoying situations, and second, it can not cope with, hanging up on her moral%
moti$ated ban. ,oth of these strategies are as good as the tightening of the pressure relief $al$e
on the boiler is heated constantly to deal with pressuri-ed steam.
Another e$ent that I think is theoretically possible, but highly desirable, would consist of trying to
get rid of the aggressi$e instinct directed by eugenics. e know from the pre$ious chapter that
intraspecific aggression is in$ol$ed in the human response of enthusiasm, which, though
dangerous, but necessary to achie$e the highest goals of humanity. e know from the head of an
alliance that aggression in many animals % probably the same in humans % is a necessary part of
personal friendship. Finally, in the chapter on the 5reat Instincts 2arliament in great detail shows
how difficult the interaction of different reasons.
If one of them, and one of the strongest, has completely disappeared % the conse!uences would
be incalculable. e do not know how important all acts of human beha$ior in which aggression is
in$ol$ed as a moti$ating factor, we do not know how many there are. I suspect that $ery much.
Any "initiati$e", in the original sense of the word, and a wide, self%respect, without which, perhaps,
would be gone all that man does from morning to e$ening, from daily sha$ing and ending with the
highest achie$ements in culture and science, all of that as% something to do with ambition, the
desire for status, and much, much more, as needed % all that would be probably lost with the
disappearance of the aggressi$e impulses of life. @isappeared, probably, e$en a $ery important
and purely human ability % to laugh.
Transfer that does not turn out !uite right, I, unfortunately, can only oppose such measures, the
success of which I only seems possible.
The most likely success of catharsis, which is created by discharging aggression ersat- ob'ect.
This way, as outlined in the ""nion" is already gone, and the great designer when it was
necessary to pre$ent the fight between certain indi$iduals. In addition, there are grounds for
optimism, because e$eryone how%e$er capable of self%obser$ation, is able to intentionally redirect
its aggression awakened by a suitable substitute ob'ect. hen I % as described in the chapter on
spontaneous aggression % being in a camp for prisoners of war, despite the hea$y polar disease,
has not hit his friend and flattened empty cans carbide % it was probably 'ust because I knew the
symptoms of instinctual stresses.
And when my aunt, described in 4hapter F, was so firmly belie$es in the limitless depra$ity of
their maids % she persisted in his error 'ust because nothing is known about the physiological
processes of whom are talking about. "nderstanding the causal relationships of our own beha$ior
can pro$ide our intelligence and morality $alid opportunity authoritati$ely to get there, where the
categorical imperati$e, left to himself, hopelessly falls.
Jefocusing of aggression % this is the easiest and most reliable way to eliminate it. #he is content
with the ersat- ob'ects easier than most of the other instincts, and finds them full satisfaction.
+$en the ancient 5reeks knew the concept of catharsis, cleansing discharge, and analysts are
well aware of what weight is commendable deeds recei$es stimuli from "sublimated" aggression
and brings added benefit due to its reduction. *f course, sublimation % it&s not 'ust a simple re%
orientation. There is a significant difference between a man who beats his fist on the table instead
of face interlocutor % and another that anger is not spent on his head, melts in rousing battle
articles calling for a noble purpose.
A particular form of rituali-ed combat, ad$anced in the cultural life of the people is a sport. As
phylogenetically tournament fights occurred, it pre$ents harmful social aggression and at the
same time support in a state of readiness of its function of preser$ing the species. )owe$er, in
addition, the cultural and rituali-ed form of fighting the task, the importance of which is not to
compare: it teaches people to conscious control, the responsible authority o$er his instinctual
combat reactions. 4hi$alry #ports, which persists e$en with strong stimuli that cause aggression
is an important cultural achie$ement of mankind.
In addition, sports salutary in the sense that it creates possibilities are truly the inspired ri$alry
between the supra%indi$idual communities. It not only offers a great $al$e for the accumulated
aggression in its cruder, more indi$idual and selfish manifestations, but also allows you to fully
manifest and consumed its more speciali-ed, highly collecti$e form. The struggle for the
hierarchical position within the group, and o$erall tight battle for the purpose of inspiring,
courageous o$ercoming the serious dangers which do not respect their own li$es mutual aid, etc.
% This is the beha$ioral acts that in the prehistory of humanity had a high selecti$e $alue. Already
described under the influence of intraspecific selection of their $alue has steadily increased, and
until $ery recently, it&s a dangerous way led to the fact that many $aliant but unsophisticated
people are not considered war something worthy of disgust. Therefore, the great 'oy that all these
tendencies are in full satisfaction of the hea$y sports like mountain climbing, scuba di$ing, etc.
The search for more, and most of the international competition are the most dangerous,
according to +rich $on )olst, the main moti$e of space flight, which is why draw such huge public
interest. e ought to let it continue3
#uch ri$alry between nations is not only beneficial because it allows you to discharge national
enthusiasm, it has two conse!uences that reduce the risk of war. First, it creates a personal
relationship between people of different nations and parties, and secondly % brings people
together so that they 9the rest ha$e $ery little in common: are inspired by the same ideal. These
two powerful forces opposed to aggression, and we need to focus on how they carry out their
beneficial effects and in what way they can be acti$ated.
From the chapter "The "nion" we already know that personal ac!uaintance % is not only a
prere!uisite of the complex mechanisms that inhibit aggression, it is in itself contributes to
blunting of aggressi$e impulses. Anonymity greatly facilitates breakthroughs aggressi$eness. A
nai$e person feels extremely passionate feelings of anger, rage against the "I$ans this", "this
Frit-," "this to the Cews," "this wop" ... % That is, the neighboring nations, whose nickname
possibly combined with the prefix "bastards %. #uch a person may rage against them at the table,
but to him and would ne$er e$en simple bad manners, if he finds himself face to face with a
representati$e of the hated nationality. course demagogue knows the inhibitory action of
aggression because of personal ac!uaintance and consistently seeks to pre$ent any contact
between indi$iduals of the communities in which they want to retain this mutual hostility. And
strategists know how dangerous any "fraterni-ation" between the trenches for the morale of the
soldiers.
@id I mention how much appreciate the practical knowledge of demagogues against the
instincti$e beha$ior. And I can not offer anything better than to learn from their pro$en methods
and use them to achie$e our goals. If the friendship between indi$iduals of hostile nations as
detrimental to national hatred, as suggested by demagogues % ob$iously, not without good reason
% it means that we must do e$erything possible to promote indi$idual friendship. 8o man can hate
the people among whom he has friends.
#e$eral "grab samples" of this kind is enough to excite 'ust distrust of those abstractions that
usually compose allegedly typical % and, of course, worthy of hatred % the national characteristics
"of these" Jussian, 5erman or +nglish.
As far as I know, my friend alter Jobert 4orti was the first who made a serious attempt to slow
down the ethnic aggression by international friendship. )e has collected in his famous children&s
$illage in Trogene, in #wit-erland, all toward national youth what he could find, and 'oined the
guys life together. That would be his followers in a big way3
The third measure, for which we can and must be taken immediately to pre$ent the harmful
manifestations of one of the noblest of human instincts % and this is a reasonable mastery of the
critical reaction of enthusiasm, which we discussed in the pre$ious chapter. )ere, too, we need
not hesitate to use the experience of traditional demagogy, that ser$ed as a military psychosis,
we turn to the case of goodness and peace. As we already know, in an annoying situation is
encouraging, there are three independent $ariables factor. The first % something in which they see
the $alue and what should be protected, and the second % an enemy that threatens this $alue,
and the third % ednesday accomplices with which a person feels at the same time, when lifted to
the protection of endangered $alues. To this can be added and some "leader", calling for a "holy"
struggle, but this factor is less important.
e ha$e already talked about the fact that these roles can be played out in the drama of many
different shapes, concrete or abstract, animated or not. 6ike many other instincti$e reactions,
inspiring breakthroughs obey the so%called rule of summation of stimulation. It states that the
effect of different pro$oking irritation de$elops so that the weakness or lack of one can be
compensated by increased action of the other. It follows that genuine enthusiasm and maybe 'ust
for the sake of something $aluableK hostility against real or imaginary enemy is not necessary.
The function of enthusiasm in many ways similar to the function of the triumphant cry of the gray
geese and encountered similar reactions, which are a manifestation of the strong social ties with
friends and aggression towards enemies. I said in chapter .. that in cases of speciali-ation
smallest of instincti$e beha$ior % say, in cichlids ha$e peganok % the figure of the enemy is still
needed, but at a higher stage of de$elopment % as the gray geese % it is no longer necessary to
maintain mutual affiliation and cooperation of friends. I&d like to think and hope that the reaction of
excitement in people already achie$ed the same regardless of the source of aggression, or at
least going to make it.
Today, howe$er, frightened the enemy is still a $ery powerful tool of demagogues to create unity
and inspiring a sense of belonging, religious militants still ha$e the greatest political success.
,ecause % this is not an easy task: you need to bring as great enthusiasm for the masses of the
people the ideal of peace, without the help of the scarecrows as possible arsonists who is
frightened.
*b$ious at first glance, the idea % use a bogey de$il and simply incite people to "+$il" % would
ha$e been !uestionable e$en with people highly de$eloped spiritually. For e$il % by definition % it is
something that carries a threat to the good, that is, something which is percei$ed $alue. ,ut as a
scientist for the highest $alue is the knowledge, he sees the worst of all e$ils in all that hinders the
expansion of knowledge. #o I personally angry whisper aggressi$e instinct would recommend
seeing the embodiment of hostility began in disregard of the natural%scientific research, especially
the opponents of e$olutionary theory. And if I did not know anything about the physiology of
inspiration % would not ha$e known that it "re!uires its own" as a reflex % I could start a religious
war with his opponents. #o what else is unacceptable personification of e$il. )owe$er, and
without inspiration, bringing together some groups, can lead to a feud between them % in that
case, if each of them in fa$or of their own, clearly defined the ideal and only identifies himself with
it 9I use that word here in the ordinary, not the psychoanalytic sense :. C. )ollo rightly pointed out
that in our time, national identity is $ery dangerous because they ha$e such clear boundaries. A
person can feel the "real American" as opposed to "Jussian" % and $ice $ersa. If a person familiar
with the set of $alues and, encouraged by them, he feels at the same time with all the people who
are 'ust like him, inspiring music, the poetry, the beauty of nature, science and more % it can react
unbraked military response only to those who do not participate in any of these groups. #o, we
need to increase the number of opportunities identification, and for that there is only one way %
the impro$ement of the general education of young people. 6o$ing attitude to human $alues is not
possible without education and training at school and in the family home. *nce they make a man
a man, and not without reason, a certain kind of education is called humanitarian #al$ation can
bring the $alues that seem far remo$ed from the fighting and from politics as hea$en from earth.