What is a Verb?

The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb
asserts something about the subject of the sentence and express actions, events, or states
of being. The verb or compound verb is the critical element of the predicate of a sentence.
In each of the following sentences, the verb or compound verb is highlighted:
Dracula bites his victims on the neck.
The verb bites describes the action Dracula takes.
In earl! "ctober, #iselle will plant twent! tulip bulbs.
$ere the compound verb will plant describes an action that will take place in the future.
%! first teacher was %iss &rawford, but I remember the janitor %r. 'eatherbee
more vividl!.
In this sentence, the verb was (the simple past tense of is) identifies a particular
person and the verb remember describes a mental action.
*arl &reelman bic!cled around the world in +,--, but his diaries and his bic!cle
were destroyed.
In this sentence, the compound verb were destro!ed describes an action which took
place in the past.
What is a Noun?
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. .ouns
are usuall! the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the
following sentences are all nouns:
/ate last year our neighbours bought a goat.
Portia White was an opera singer.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.
According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destro!ed in 0, 1.&.
Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.
A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a
subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.
Noun Gender
%an! common nouns, like engineer or teacher, can refer to men or women. "nce,
man! 2nglish nouns would change form depending on their gender 33 for example, a man
was called an author while a woman was called an authoress 33 but this use of
gender-specific nouns is ver! rare toda!. Those that are still used occasionall! tend to
refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.
David #arrick was a ver! prominent eighteenth3centur! actor.
4arah 4iddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the +5,6s.
The manager was tr!ing to write a want ad, but he couldn7t decide whether he was
advertising for a waiter or a waitress
Noun Plurals
%ost nouns change their form to indicate number b! adding 3s or 3es, as illustrated in
the following pairs of sentences:
'hen %atthew was small he rarel! told the truth if he thought he was going to
be punished.
%an! people do not believe that truths are self3evident.
As the! walked through the silent house, the! were startled b! an unexpected
echo.
I like to shout into the 8uarr! and listen to the echoes that return.
$e tripped over a box left carelessl! in the hallwa!.
4ince we are moving, we will need man! boxes.
There are other nouns which form the plural b! changing the last letter before adding s.
4ome words ending in f form the plural b! deleting f and adding ves, and words
ending in ! form the plural b! deleting the ! and adding ies, as in the following
pairs of sentences:
The harbour at %arble %ountain has one wharf.
There are several wharves in $alifax $arbour.
'arsaw is their favourite city because it reminds them of their courtship.
The vacation m! grandparents won includes trips to twelve 2uropean cities.
The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, Are !ou a mouse or a
man9
The audience was shocked when all five men admitted that the! were afraid of
mice.
"ther nouns form the plural irregularl!. If 2nglish is !our first language, !ou probabl!
know most of these alread!: when in doubt, consult a good dictionar!.
Possessive Nouns
In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is
closel! related to something else. :suall!, nouns become possessive b! adding a
combination of an apostrophe and the letter s.
;ou can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in s b! adding an
apostrophe and s, as in the following sentences:
The red suitcase is assandra's.
The onl! luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.
The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn b! the drill sergeant's screams.
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
;ou can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in s b! adding an
apostrophe alone or b! adding an apostrophe and s, as in the following examples:
The bus's seats are ver! uncomfortable.
The bus' seats are ver! uncomfortable.
The film crew accidentall! crushed the platypus's eggs.
The film crew accidentall! crushed the platypus' eggs.
!elicia "emans's poetr! was once more popular than /ord 1!ron7s.
!elicia "emans' poetr! was once more popular than /ord 1!ron7s.
;ou can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in s b! adding an
apostrophe and a s, as in the following examples:
The children's mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.
The sheep's pen was mucked out ever! da!.
4ince we have a complex appeal process, a #ury's verdict is not alwa!s final.
The men's hocke! team will be pla!ing as soon as the women's team is finished.
The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon.
;ou can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in s b! adding an
apostrophe:
The concert was interrupted b! the dogs' barking, the duc$s' 8uacking, and the
babies' s8ualling.
The #anitors' room is downstairs and to the left.
%! uncle spent man! hours tr!ing to locate the s%uirrels' nest.
The archivist 8uickl! finished repairing the diaries' bindings.
<eligion is usuall! the subject of the roommates' man! late night debates.
Using Possessive Nouns
'hen !ou read the following sentences, !ou will notice that a noun in the possessive case
fre8uentl! functions as an adjective modif!ing another noun:
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
$ere the possessive noun miner7s is used to modif! the noun face and together with
the article the, the! make up the noun phrase that is the sentence7s subject.
The concert was interrupted b! the dogs' barking, the duc$s' 8uacking, and the
babies' s8ualling.
In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun dogs7
modifies barking, ducks7 modifies 8uacking, and babies7 modifies s8ualling.
The film crew accidentall! crushed the platypus's eggs.
In this example the possessive noun plat!pus7s modifies the noun eggs and the noun
phrase the plat!pus7s eggs is the direct object of the verb crushed.
%! uncle spent man! hours tr!ing to locate the s%uirrels' nest.
In this sentence the possessive noun s8uirrels7 is used to modif! the noun nest and the
noun phrase the s8uirrels7 nest is the object of the infinitive phrase to locate.
Types Of Nouns
There are man! different t!pes of nouns. As !ou know, !ou capitalise some nouns, such
as &anada or /ouise, and do not capitalise others, such as badger or tree (unless
the! appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole
series of noun t!pes, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the
abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non3countable noun
(also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. ;ou should note that a noun will
belong to more than one t!pe: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and
countable or non3countable or collective.
If !ou are interested in the details of these different t!pes, !ou can read about them in the
following sections.
Proper Nouns
;ou alwa!s write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name
of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of da!s of the week, months, historical
documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their hol! texts and their adherents are
proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun
In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:
The &arroons were transported from 'amaica and forced to build the
fortifications in "alifax.
%an! people dread &onday mornings.
(eltane is celebrated on the first of &ay.
Abraham appears in the )almud and in the *oran.
/ast !ear, I had a (aptist, a (uddhist, and a +ardnerian Witch as roommates.
Common Nouns
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense 33
usuall!, !ou should write it with a capital letter onl! when it begins a sentence. A
common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.
In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:
According to the sign, the nearest town is =6 miles awa!.
All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded b! beetles this summer.
I don7t understand wh! some people insist on having six different $inds of
mustard in their cupboards.
The road crew was startled b! the sight of three large moose crossing the road.
%an! child3care wor$ers are underpaid.
4ometimes !ou will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following
examples:
The tenants in the +arnet Apartments are appealing the large and sudden
increase in their rent.
The meals in the 1ouncing (ean ,estaurant are less expensive than meals in
ordinar! restaurants.
%an! witches refer to the <enaissance as the 1urning )imes.
The -iary of Anne !ran$ is often a child7s first introduction to the histor! of the
"olocaust.
Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which names an!thing (or an!one) that !ou can perceive
through !our ph!sical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the
opposite of a abstract noun.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:
The #udge handed the files to the cler$.
'henever the! take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.
The real estate agent urged the couple to bu! the second house because it had
new shingles.
As the car drove past the par$, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the
string %uartet's rendition of a minuet.
The boo$ binder replaced the flims! paper cover with a sturd!, cloth3covered
board.
Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which names an!thing which !ou can not perceive through
!our five ph!sical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words
in the following sentences are all abstract nouns:
1u!ing the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
Tillie is amused b! people who are nostalgic about childhood.
'ustice often seems to slip out of our grasp.
4ome scientists believe that schi.ophrenia is transmitted geneticall!.
Countable Nouns
A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and
it names an!thing (or an!one) that !ou can count. ;ou can make a countable noun plural
and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. &ountable nouns are the opposite of non3
countable nouns and collective nouns.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns:
'e painted the table red and the chairs blue.
4ince he inherited his aunt's library, >erome spends ever! wee$end indexing his
boo$s.
%iriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a soc$.
The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.
"ver the course of twent!3seven years, %artha 1allad delivered just over eight
hundred babies.
Non-Countable Nouns
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and
which refers to something that !ou could (or would) not usuall! count. A non3countable
noun alwa!s takes a singular verb in a sentence. .on3countable nouns are similar to
collective nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are non3countable nouns:
>oseph ?riestl! discovered oxygen.
The word ox!gen cannot normall! be made plural.
/xygen is essential to human life.
4ince ox!gen is a non3countable noun, it takes the singular verb is rather than the
plural verb are.
'e decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with us when we moved.
;ou cannot make the noun furniture plural.
The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.
4ince furniture is a non3countable noun, it takes a singular verb, is heaped.
The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.
;ou cannot make the non3countable noun gravel plural.
+ravel is more expensive than I thought.
4ince gravel is a non3countable noun, it takes the singular verb form is.
Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. ;ou could
count the individual members of the group, but !ou usuall! think of the group as a whole
is generall! as one unit. ;ou need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to
maintain subject3verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non3countable noun,
and is roughl! the opposite of a countable noun.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective noun:
The floc$ of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.
The collective noun flock takes the singular verb spends.
The #ury is dining on take3out chicken tonight.
In this example the collective noun jur! is the subject of the singular compound verb
is dining.
The steering committee meets ever! 'ednesda! afternoon.
$ere the collective noun committee takes a singular verb, meets.
The class was startled b! the bursting light bulb.
In this sentence the word class is a collective noun and takes the singular compound
verb was startled.
What is a Pronoun?
A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. ;ou use pronouns like he, which,
none, and !ou to make !our sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive.
#rammarians classif! pronouns into several t!pes, including the personal pronoun, the
demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative
pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.
Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate
person, number, gender, and case.
Subjective Personal Pronouns
A sub#ective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the
sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are I, !ou, she, he, it, we, !ou,
the!.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective personal
pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:
0 was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.
1ou are surel! the strangest child 0 have ever met.
"e stole the selkie7s skin and forced her to live with him.
'hen she was a !oung woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.
After man! !ears, they returned to their homeland.
We will meet at the librar! at @:@6 p.m.
0t is on the counter.
Are you the delegates from %alagawatch9
Objective Personal Pronouns
An ob#ective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a
verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns
are: me, !ou, her, him, it, us, !ou, and them.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an objective personal
pronoun:
4eamus stole the selkie7s skin and forced her to live with him.
The objective personal pronoun her is the direct object of the verb forced and the
objective personal pronoun him is the object of the preposition with.
After reading the pamphlet, >ud! threw it into the garbage can.
The pronoun it is the direct object of the verb threw.
The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angr! delegates and said, "ur
leader will address you in five minutes.
In this sentence, the pronoun !ou is the direct object of the verb address.
Deborah and <oberta will meet us at the newest cafA in the market.
$ere the objective personal pronoun us is the direct object of the compound verb will
meet.
#ive the list to me.
$ere the objective personal pronoun me is the object of the preposition to.
I7m not sure that m! contact will talk to you.
4imilarl! in this example, the objective personal pronoun !ou is the object of the
preposition to.
&hristopher was surprised to see her at the drag races.
$ere the objective personal pronoun her is the object of the infinitive phrase to see.
Possessive Personal Pronouns
A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and
defines who owns a particular object or person. The possessive personal pronouns are
mine, !ours, hers, his, its, ours, and theirs. .ote that possessive personal
pronouns are ver! similar to possessive adjectives like m!, her, and their.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive personal
pronoun:
The smallest gift is mine.
$ere the possessive pronoun mine functions as a subject complement.
This is !ours.
$ere too the possessive pronoun !ours functions as a subject complement.
$is is on the kitchen counter.
In this example, the possessive pronoun his acts as the subject of the sentence.
Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.
In this sentence, the possessive pronoun theirs is the subject of the sentence.
"urs is the green one on the corner.
$ere too the possessive pronoun ours function as the subject of the sentence.
emonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. This and
these refer to things that are nearb! either in space or in time, while that and those
refer to things that are farther awa! in space or time.
The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. This and that are
used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and these and those are used to refer
to plural nouns and noun phrases. .ote that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to
demonstrative adjectives, though, obviousl!, !ou use them differentl!. It is also important
to note that that can also be used as a relative pronoun.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrative pronoun:
)his must not continue.
$ere this is used as the subject of the compound verb must not continue.
)his is pun!B that is the tree I want.
In this example this is used as subject and refers to something close to the speaker. The
demonstrative pronoun that is also a subject but refers to something farther awa! from
the speaker.
Three customers wanted these.
$ere these is the direct object of the verb wanted.
!nterrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask 8uestions. The interrogative pronouns are
who, whom, which, what and the compounds formed with the suffix ever
(whoever, whomever, whichever, and whatever). .ote that either which or
what can also be used as an interrogative adjective, and that who, whom, or
which can also be used as a relative pronoun.
;ou will find who, whom, and occasionall! which used to refer to people, and
which and what used to refer to things and to animals.
'ho acts as the subject of a verb, while whom acts as the object of a verb,
preposition, or a verbal.
The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative pronoun:
Which wants to see the dentist first9
'hich is the subject of the sentence.
Who wrote the novel <ockbound9
4imilarl! who is the subject of the sentence.
Whom do !ou think we should invite9
In this sentence, whom is the object of the verb invite.
To whom do !ou wish to speak9
$ere the interrogative pronoun whom is the object of the preposition to.
Who will meet the delegates at the train station9
In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun who is the subject of the compound verb
will meet.
To whom did !ou give the paper9
In this example the interrogative pronoun whom is the object of the preposition to.
What did she sa!9
$ere the interrogative pronoun what is the direct object of the verb sa!.
"elative Pronouns
;ou can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or
clause. The relative pronouns are who, whom, that, and which. The compounds
whoever, whomever, and whichever are also relative pronouns.
;ou can use the relative pronouns who and whoever to refer to the subject of a clause
or sentence, and whom and whomever to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a
preposition.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relative pronoun.
;ou ma! invite whomever !ou like to the part!.
The relative pronoun whomever is the direct object of the compound verb ma! invite.
The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not alwa!s elected.
In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb wins and introduces the
subordinate clause who wins the greatest popular vote. This subordinate clause acts as
an adjective modif!ing candidate.
In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she believes to be the
most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual.
In this sentence whom is the direct object of the verb believes and introduces the
subordinate clause whom she believes to be the most efficient. This subordinate clause
modifies the noun workers.
Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.
$ere whoever functions as the subject of the verb broke.
The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved into the storage
closet.
In this example which acts as the subject of the compound verb was left and
introduces the subordinate clause which was left in the corridor. The subordinate clause
acts as an adjective modif!ing the noun crate.
I will read whichever manuscript arrives first.
$ere whichever modifies the noun manuscript and introduces the subordinate clause
whichever manuscript arrives first. The subordinate clause functions as the direct object
of the compound verb will read.
!ndefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person
or thing. An indefinite pronoun conve!s the idea of all, an!, none, or some.
The most common indefinite pronouns are all, another, an!, an!bod!, an!one,
an!thing, each, ever!bod!, ever!one, ever!thing, few, man!, nobod!,
none, one, several, some, somebod!, and someone. .ote that some indefinite
pronouns can also be used as indefinite adjectives.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns:
&any were invited to the lunch but onl! twelve showed up.
$ere man! acts as the subject of the compound verb were invited.
The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the floor.
In this example, ever!thing acts as a subject of the compound verb was thrown.
'e donated everything we found in the attic to the woman7s shelter garage sale.
In this sentence, ever!thing is the direct object of theverb donated.
Although the! looked ever!where for extra copies of the magaCine, the! found
none.
$ere too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: none is the direct object of
found.
%ake sure !ou give everyone a cop! of the amended b!laws.
In this example, ever!one is the indirect object of the verb give 33 the direct object is
the noun phrase a cop! of the amended b!laws.
#ive a registration package to each.
$ere each is the object of the preposition to.
"efle#ive Pronouns
;ou can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence.
The reflexive pronouns are m!self, !ourself, herself, himself, itself,
ourselves, !ourselves, and themselves. .ote each of these can also act as an
intensive pronoun.
2ach of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive pronoun:
Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a da!.
The Dean often does the photocop!ing herself so that the secretaries can do more
important work.
After the part!, I asked myself wh! I had faxed invitations to ever!one in m!
office building.
<ichard usuall! remembered to send a cop! of his e3mail to himself.
Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it
ourselves.
!ntensive Pronouns
An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasise its antecedent. Intensive pronouns
are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:
I myself believe that aliens should abduct m! sister.
The ?rime %inister himself said that he would lower taxes.
The! themselves promised to come to the part! even though the! had a final
exam at the same time.
What 0s An Ad#ective?
An ad#ective modifies a noun or a pronoun b! describing, identif!ing, or 8uantif!ing
words. An adjective usuall! precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truc$-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
%rs. %orrison papered her $itchen walls with hideous wall paper.
The small boat foundered on the wine dar$ sea.
The coal mines are dar$ and dan$.
&any stores have alread! begun to pla! irritating hristmas music.
A battered music box sat on the mahogany sideboard.
The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.
An adjective can be modified b! an adverb, or b! a phrase or clause functioning as an
adverb. In the sentence
%! husband knits intricatel! patterned mittens.
for example, the adverb intricatel! modifies the adjective patterned.
4ome nouns, man! pronouns, and man! participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In
the sentence
2leanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.
for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.
#rammarians also consider articles (the, a, an) to be adjectives.
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive ad#ective (m!, !our, his, her, its, our, their) is similar or
identical to a possessive pronounB however, it is used as an adjective and modifies a noun
or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
I can7t complete my assignment because I don7t have the textbook.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective m! modifies assignment and the noun
phrase m! assignment functions as an object. .ote that the possessive pronoun form
mine is not used to modif! a noun or noun phrase.
'hat is your phone number.
$ere the possessive adjective !our is used to modif! the noun phrase phone numberB
the entire noun phrase !our phone number is a subject complement. .ote that the
possessive pronoun form !ours is not used to modif! a noun or a noun phrase.
The baker! sold his favourite t!pe of bread.
In this example, the possessive adjective his modifies the noun phrase favourite t!pe
of bread and the entire noun phrase his favourite t!pe of bread is the direct object of
the verb sold.
After man! !ears, she returned to her homeland.
$ere the possessive adjective her modifies the noun homeland and the noun phrase
her homeland is the object of the preposition to. .ote also that the form hers is not
used to modif! nouns or noun phrases.
'e have lost our wa! in this wood.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective our modifies wa! and the noun phrase our
wa! is the direct object of the compound verb have lost. .ote that the possessive
pronoun form ours is not used to modif! nouns or noun phrases.
In man! fair! tales, children are neglected b! their parents.
$ere the possessive adjective their modifies parents and the noun phrase their
parents is the object of the preposition b!. .ote that the possessive pronoun form
theirs is not used to modif! nouns or noun phrases.
The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the back!ard.
In this sentence, the possessive adjective its modifies ball and the noun phrase its
ball is the object of the verb chased. .ote that its is the possessive adjective and
it7s is a contraction for it is.
emonstrative Adjectives
The demonstrative ad#ectives this, these, that, those, and what are identical to
the demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modif! nouns or noun phrases,
as in the following sentences:
'hen the librarian tripped over that cord, she dropped a pile of books.
In this sentence, the demonstrative adjective that modifies the noun cord and the
noun phrase that cord is the object of the preposition over.
)his apartment needs to be fumigated.
$ere this modifies apartment and the noun phrase this apartment is the subject of
the sentence.
2ven though m! friend preferred those plates, I bought these.
In the subordinate clause, those modifies plates and the noun phrase those plates is
the object of the verb preferred. In the independent clause, these is the direct object of
the verb bought.
.ote that the relationship between a demonstrative adjective and a demonstrative
pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessive adjective and a possessive
pronoun, or to that between a interrogative adjective and an interrogative pronoun.
!nterrogative Adjectives
An interrogative ad#ective (which or what) is like an interrogative pronoun, except
that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own (see also
demonstrative adjectives and possessive adjectives):
Which plants should be watered twice a week9
/ike other adjectives, which can be used to modif! a noun or a noun phrase. In this
example, which modifies plants and the noun phrase which plants is the subject of
the compound verb should be watered:
What book are !ou reading9
In this sentence, what modifies book and the noun phrase what book is the direct
object of the compound verb are reading.
!ndefinite Adjectives
An indefinite ad#ective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, except that it modifies a
noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences:
%an! people believe that corporations are under3taxed.
The indefinite adjective man! modifies the noun people and the noun phrase man!
people is the subject of the sentence.
I will send !ou an! mail that arrives after !ou have moved to 4udbur!.
The indefinite adjective an! modifies the noun mail and the noun phrase an! mail
is the direct object of the compound verb will send.
The! found a few goldfish floating bell! up in the swan pound.
In this example the indefinite adjective modifies the noun goldfish and the noun phrase
is the direct object of the verb found:
The title of *ell!7s favourite game is All dogs go to heaven.
$ere the indefinite pronoun all modifies dogs and the full title is a subject
complement.
What is an Adverb?
An adverb can modif! a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An
adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers 8uestions such as
how, when, where, how much.
'hile some adverbs can be identified b! their characteristic l! suffix, most of them
must be identified b! untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or
clause as a whole. :nlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within
the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
The seamstress %uic$ly made the mourning clothes.
In this sentence, the adverb 8uickl! modifies the verb made and indicates in what
manner (or how fast) the clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited patiently through a long labour.
4imilarl! in this sentence, the adverb patientl! modifies the verb waited and
describes the manner in which the midwives waited.
The boldly spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.
In this sentence the adverb boldl! modifies the adjective spoken.
'e urged him to dial the number more expeditiously.
$ere the adverb more modifies the adverb expeditiousl!.
2nfortunately, the bank closed at three today.
In this example, the adverb unfortunatel! modifies the entire sentence.
Conjunctive Adverbs
;ou can use a con#unctive adverb to join two clauses together. 4ome of the most
common conjunctive adverbs are also, conse8uentl!, finall!, furthermore,
hence, however, incidentall!, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile,
nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, still, then, therefore, and thus.
A conjunctive adverb is not strong enough to join two independent clauses without the
aid of a semicolon.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are conjunctive adverbs:
The government has cut universit! budgetsB conse%uently, class siCes have been
increased.
$e did not have all the ingredients the recipe called forB therefore, he decided to
make something else.
The report recommended several changes to the wa!s the corporation accounted
for donationsB furthermore, it suggested that a new auditor be appointed
immediatel!.
The crowd waited patientl! for three hoursB finally, the doors to the stadium were
opened.
1atman and <obin fruitlessl! searched the buildingB indeed, the >oker had
escaped through a secret door in the basement.
What is a Preposition?
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word
or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition.
A preposition usuall! indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to
the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
4he held the book over the table.
4he read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun book in space or in
time.
A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and an! associated
adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb. The most common prepositions are about, above, across, after, against,
along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside,
between, be!ond, but, b!, despite, down, during, except, for, from,
in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over,
past, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath,
until, up, upon, with, within, and without.
2ach of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:
The children climbed the mountain without fear.
In this sentence, the preposition without introduces the noun fear. The prepositional
phrase without fear functions as an adverb describing how the children climbed.
There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated.
$ere, the preposition throughout introduces the noun phrase the land. The
prepositional phrase acts as an adverb describing the location of the rejoicing.
The spider crawled slowl! along the banister.
The preposition along introduces the noun phrase the banister and the prepositional
phrase along the banister acts as an adverb, describing where the spider crawled.
The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be punished for
chewing up a new pair of shoes.
$ere the preposition under introduces the prepositional phrase under the porch,
which acts as an adverb modif!ing the compound verb is hiding.
The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was somewhere in
his office.
4imilarl! in this sentence, the preposition in introduces a prepositional phrase in his
office, which acts as an adverb describing the location of the missing papers.
What is a on#unction?
;ou can use a con#unction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following
example:
I ate the piCCa and the pasta.
&all the movers when !ou are read!.
Co-ordinating Conjunctions
;ou use a co-ordinating con#unction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, or !et) to
join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. .ote that !ou can also use the
conjunctions but and for as prepositions.
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a co3ordinating conjunction:
/ilacs and violets are usuall! purple.
In this example, the co3ordinating conjunction and links two nouns.
This movie is particularl! interesting to feminist film theorists, for the screenpla!
was written b! %ae 'est.
In this example, the co3ordinating conjunction for is used to link two independent
clauses.
Daniel7s uncle claimed that he spent most of his !outh dancing on rooftops and
swallowing goldfish.
$ere the co3ordinating conjunction and links two participle phrases (dancing on
rooftops and swallowing goldfish) which act as adverbs describing the verb spends.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating con#unction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of
the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are after, although, as, because,
before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when,
where, whether, and while.
2ach of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating conjunction:
After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction after introduces the dependent clause After she had
learned to drive.
0f the paperwork arrives on time, !our che8ue will be mailed on Tuesda!.
4imilarl!, the subordinating conjunction if introduces the dependent clause If the
paperwork arrives on time.
#erald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction when introduces the dependent clause when his
computer crashed.
%idwifer! advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and
bab! are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.
In this sentence, the dependent clause because the mother and bab! are exposed to fewer
people and fewer germs is introduced b! the subordinating conjunction because.
Correlative Conjunctions
orrelative con#unctions alwa!s appear in pairs 33 !ou use them to link e8uivalent
sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are both...and,
either...or, neither...nor,, not onl!...but also, so...as, and whether...or.
(Technicall! correlative conjunctions consist simpl! of a co3ordinating conjunction
linked to an adjective or adverb.)
The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlative conjunctions:
(oth m! grandfather and m! father worked in the steel plant.
In this sentence, the correlative conjunction both...and is used to link the two noun
phrases that act as the compound subject of the sentence: m! grandfather and m!
father.
1ring either a >ello salad or a potato scallop.
$ere the correlative conjunction either...or links two noun phrases: a >ello salad and
a potato scallop.
&orinne is tr!ing to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law
school.
4imilarl!, the correlative conjunction whether ... or links the two infinitive phrases to
go to medical school and to go to law school.
The explosion destro!ed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.
In this example the correlative conjunction not onl! ... but also links the two noun
phrases (the school and neighbouring pub) which act as direct objects.
.ote: some words which appear as conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as
adverbs.

What is an 0nter#ection?
An inter#ection is a word added to a sentence to conve! emotion. It is not grammaticall!
related to an! other part of the sentence.
;ou usuall! follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are
uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct 8uotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:
/uch, that hurtD
/h no, I forgot that the exam was toda!.
"eyD ?ut that downD
I heard one gu! sa! to another gu!, $e has a new car, eh9
I don7t know about !ou but, good lord, I think taxes are too highD