A thermodynamic system (or simply system) is a

definite macroscopic region or space in the universe, in which one or more thermodynamic processes take place.
Everything external to a thermodynamic system is called surroundings.
System and surroundings are separated by a definite border called boundary. System, surroundings and
boundary constitute the universe.
See the image on the right for better understanding.
Types of Thermodynamic System:
Thermodynamic systems can be broadly classified into three types. They are:
1. Open System
2. Closed System
3. Isolated System
1. Open System:
An open system is a thermodynamic system which allows both mass and energy to flow in and out of it, across its
boundary. The image below illustrates open system.

Example of open system: Water heated in an open container Here, heat is the energy transferred, water is
the mass transferred and container is the thermodynamic system. Both heat and water can pass in and out of the
container.
2. Closed System:
A closed system allows only energy (heat and work) to pass in and out of it. It does not allow mass transfer
across its boundary. The following image shows a closed system:


Example of closed system: Water heated in a closed vessel Here only heat energy can pass in and out of the
vessel
3. Isolated System:
An isolated system does not interact with its surroundings. It does not allow both mass and energy transfer
across its boundary. It is more restrictive.
In reality, complete isolated systems do not exist. However, some systems behave like an isolated system for a
finite period of time. The following image illustrates an isolated system:


2. Internal Energy
Tabl e of Contents
1. 1. Energy on a smaller scale
2. 2. Internal Energy Change Equations
3. 3. Quick Notes
4. 4. Outside Links
5. 5. Contributors
The internal energy of a system is identified with the random, disordered motion of molecules; the total (internal)
energy in a system includes potential and kinetic energy. This is contrast to external energy which is a function of
the sample with respect to the outside environment (e.g. kinetic energy if the sample is moving or potential
energy if the sample is at a height from the ground etc). The symbol for Internal Energy Change isU.
Energy on a smaller scale
Internal energy includes energy on a microscopic scale
It is the sum of all the microscopic energies such as:
1. translational kinetic energy
2. vibrational and rotational kinetic energy
3. potential energy from intermolecular forces

The signs of internal energy
Energy entering the system is POSITIVE (+), meaning heat is absorbed, q>0. Work is thus done on the system, w>0
Energy leaving the system is NEGATIVE (-), meaning heat is given off by the system, q<0 and work is done by the system, w<0
Since Uisolated system = 0, Usystem = -Usurroundings and energy is conserved.

4. 3.asdlfldsf3.Explain the Principle of Increase entropy
The Principle of Increase of Entropy
The entropy of the isolated system is the measure of the irreversibility undergone by the system. More is the
irreversibility more increase is the entropy of the system. As such the reversible process is an ideal process and it
never really occurs. This means the certain amount of the irreversibility is always there in the system, this also
means that the entropy of the isolated system always goes on increasing, it never reduces. Here let us keep in
mind that isolated system can always be formed by including any system and surroundings within a single
boundary.

4.Expression for ratio of heat capacities
Relations[edit]
The laws of thermodynamics imply the following relations between these two heat capacities
(Gaskell 2003:23):


Here is the thermal expansion coefficient:

is the isothermal compressibility:

and is the isentropic compressibility:

A corresponding expression for the difference in specific heat
capacities (intensive properties) at constant volume and constant pressure
is:

where is the density of the substance under the applicable conditions.
The corresponding expression for the ratio of specific heat
capacities remains the same since the thermodynamic system size-
dependent quantities, whether on a per mass or per mole basis, cancel
out in the ratio because specific heat capacities are intensive properties.
Thus:

The difference relation allows one to obtain the heat capacity for
solids at constant volume which is not readily measured in terms of
quantities that are more easily measured. The ratio relation allows
one to express the isentropic compressibility in terms of the heat
capacity ratio.
5. AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Theoretical Analysis

The accurate analysis of the various processes taking place in an internal
combustion engine is a very complex problem. If these processes were to be
analyzed experimentally, the analysis would be very realistic no doubt. It would
also be quite accurate if the tests are carried out correctly and systematically, but it
would be time consuming. If a detailed analysis has to be carried out involving
changes in operating parameters, the cost of such an analysis would be quite high,
even prohibitive. An obvious solution would be to look for a quicker and less
expensive way of studying the engine performance characteristics. A theoretical
analysis is the obvious answer.

A theoretical analysis, as the name suggests, involves analyzing the engine
performance without actually building and physically testing an engine. It
involves simulating an engine operation with the help of thermodynamics so as to
formulate mathematical expressions, which can then be solved in order to obtain
the relevant information. The method of solution will depend upon the complexity
of the formulation of the mathematical expressions, which in turn will depend upon
the assumptions that have been introduced in order to analyze the processes in the
engine. The more the assumptions, the simpler will be the mathematical
expressions and the easier the calculations, but the lesser will be the accuracy of
the final results.

The simplest theoretical analysis involves the use of the air standard cycle,
which has the largest number of simplifying assumptions.

6. How flues are classified Write advantages and
Disadvantages


Classification of Fuels
Not all fuels are the same, and if you use the wrong type of fire
extinguisher on the wrong type of fuel, you can, in fact, make
matters worse. It is therefore very important to understand the
four different classifications of fuel.

Class A - Wood, paper, cloth, trash, plastics
Solid combustible materials that are not metals.

Class B - Flammable liquids: gasoline, oil, grease, acetone
Any non-metal in a liquid state, on fire.

Class C - Electrical: energized electrical equipment
As long as it's "plugged in," it would be considered a class C fire.
D
Class D - Metals: potassium, sodium, aluminum, magnesium
Unless you work in a laboratory or in an industry that uses
these materials, it is unlikely you'll have to deal with a Class D
fire. It takes special extinguishing agents (Metal-X, foam) to fight
such a fire.
Most fire extinguishers will have a pictograph label telling you
which fuels the extinguisher is designed to fight. For example, a
simple water extinguisher might have a label like the one below,
indicating that it should only be used on Class A fuels.
Next, we'll look at the different types of fire extinguishers and
the class of fire each is designed to extinguish.

7.AVAGADROS LAW AND EQUATION OF STATE

Avogadros law - What is it?
Avogadro's Law (Avogadro's theory; Avogadro's hypothesis) is a principle
stated in 1811 by the Italian chemist Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856) that
"equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules regardless of their chemical nature and physical
properties". This number (Avogadro's number) is 6.022 X 10
23
. It is the
number of molecules of any gas present in a volume of 22.41 L and is the
same for the lightest gas (hydrogen) as for a heavy gas such as carbon
dioxide or bromine.
The law can be stated mathematically
.
where:
V is the volume of the gas.
n is the amount of substance of the gas.
k is a proportionality constant.
In physics and thermodynamics, an equation of state is a relation between state
variables.
[1]
More specifically, an equation of state is a thermodynamic equationdescribing the
state of matter under a given set of physical conditions. It is a constitutive equation which
provides a mathematical relationship between two or morestate functions associated with the
matter, such as its temperature, pressure, volume, or internal energy.

8. SFEE

THE STEADY FLOW EQUATION

The Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) is used for open systems to
determine the total energy flows.
It is assumed that the mass flow through the system is constant.
It is also assumed that the total energy input to the system is equal to the total
energy output.
The energies that are included are;
internal, flow, kinetic, potential, heat and work.
The equation is shown below where suffix
1
is the entrance and suffix
2
the exit
from the system.





where:
u = internal energy (J)
P = pressure (N/m
2
)
v = volume (m
3
)
C = velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s
2
)
Z = height above a datum (m)
Q = heat flow (J)
W = work (J)



The term P .v represents the displacement or flow energy.
The term C
2
/ 2 represents the kinetic energy.
The term g. Z represents the potential energy.


9. PRINCIPLE OF ENTROPHY
The principle of maximum entropy states that, subject to precisely stated prior data (such as
a proposition that expresses testable information), the probability distribution which best
represents the current state of knowledge is the one with largest entropy.
Another way of stating this: Take precisely stated prior data or testable information about a
probability distribution function. Consider the set of all trial probability distributions that would
encode the prior data. Of those, one with maximalinformation entropy is the proper distribution,
according to this principle.

10.

11. TDS EQUATION