Bristol University Breguet Range Eqn

Introduction to Aeronautics (04/05) : Slide 5.
1
Cruise Performance Cruise Performance
Aeronautics & Mechanics
AENG11300
Department of Aerospace Engineering
University of Bristol
Introduction to Aeronautics (04/05) : Slide 5.2
Engine Characteristics Engine Characteristics
two main classes of engines:
1. constant-power engines where shaft horsepower output
is roughly constant with speed
piston engines & turboprops
ie propeller-driven
2. constant-thrust engines where thrust output is roughly
constant with speed
turbojets & turbofans
ie jet-driven
a gross simplification but useful for preliminary
performance work
all produce thrust by imparting an increase in velocity to
the air passing through the engine
basic thrust equation
Newtons 2
nd
Law force = rate of change of momentum
fuel consumption related to power wasted in the jet
propeller = high mass flow but low jet velocity V
j
low fuel consumption
rapid loss of thrust with forward speed
jet = low mass flow but high jet velocity V
j
high fuel consumption
little loss of thrust with forward speed
Thrust Generation Thrust Generation
( ) V V m T
j
=
&
m = mass flow rate (kg/s)
V
j
= jet efflux velocity
.
( )
2
2
1
V V m P
j lost
=
&
Turbojet and Turbofan Engines Turbojet and Turbofan Engines
Turbojet
Turbofan
low pressure
compressor
high pressure
compressor
combustion
chamber
turbine
fan
nozzle
Turbojet and Turbofan Engines Turbojet and Turbofan Engines
Turbojet vs Turboprop Engines Turbojet vs Turboprop Engines
characteristics determined by the bypass ratio (BPR)
ratio of air passing through fan (or propeller) to air passing
through engine core
BPR
BPR
thrust
fuel
consumption
speed limit on
propeller
Propeller Efficiency Propeller Efficiency
propeller acts as rotating wing
direction of flight determined by
advance ratio J = V/nD
where n is RPM and D is propeller diameter
local angle of attack governed
by advance ratio and blade pitch
angle setting
blade twist (washout) needed
efficiency peaks in
narrow speed range
effect of stall
use variable-pitch prop
fine pitch at low speed
coarse pitch at high speed
J
fine coarse
Basic Cruise Performance Basic Cruise Performance
Hunter flypast
Jet Aircraft in Cruise Jet Aircraft in Cruise
0 50 100 150 200 250
0
20
40
60
thrust at sea level
3km
6km
9km
12km
ceiling = 11km
drag,
thrust
V
E
= V
increasing
weight
stall
boundary
V
MD
simplified representation of thrust
throttle setting k
thrust at sea level T
0
(independent of speed)
density ratio (to power 0.7 below 11km, to power 1.0 above)
maximum and minimum speed at each altitude for T = D
lower speed may be unattainable at low altitude due to stall
upper speed is practical cruise speed
between upper and lower speed aircraft will accelerate or climb
unless throttle setting is reduced
at one particular height there is just sufficient height to
cruise at one speed only
this is the absolute ceiling for the throttle setting used
achieved at minimum drag speed
increasing weight reduces cruise speed and lowers ceiling
Features of Jet Cruise Diagram Features of Jet Cruise Diagram
7 . 0
0
kT T =
Jet Aircraft Cruise Speed Jet Aircraft Cruise Speed
0 50 100 150 200 250
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
stall
boundary
altitude
(km)
V
EAS
, V
TAS
V
EAS
V
TAS
absolute ceiling
V
MAX
cruise speed in EAS reduces steadily as altitude increases
maximum cruise speed in TAS increases with altitude
up to a maximum V
max
before the absolute ceiling is reached
demonstrates some advantages of cruise at high altitude
maximum cruise speed in TAS (ie ground speed) similar to (or
greater than) speed at sea level
thrust at maximum cruise speed reduces with altitude
fuel consumption reduces with altitude
minimum fuel consumption at minimum drag speed
work done = thrust distance
in theory should be unaffected by altitude (since D
min
constant), but
1. at low altitudes engine would need to be throttled back
reduced thermodynamic efficiency & hence increased fuel burn
2. cruise speed in TAS for minimum drag increases with altitude
Features of Jet Cruise Speed Features of Jet Cruise Speed
consider aircraft with throttle adjusted to cruise at
points 1, 2 and 3
what is effect of small fluctuations in velocity (eg due to gusts) ??
1. speed increase
= increase in drag
aircraft decelerates = stable
2. speed increase
= reduction in drag
aircraft accelerates = unstable
3. speed increase
= no change in drag
aircraft is neutrally stable
in case 2 pilot must
continually adjust throttle to maintain speed
flight on backside of drag curve rather unsafe!
0 50 100 150 200
0
5
10
15
20
T,D
V
E
1
2
3
T
1
T
2
T
3
Speed Stability in Cruise Speed Stability in Cruise
absolute ceiling is an unstable condition to maintain
maximum thrust setting at minimum drag speed
any change in speed will increase drag above available
thrust and hence cause aircraft to descend
excess thrust and hence rate of climb drop to zero as
ceiling is approached
absolute ceiling cannot be established in reasonable time!
service ceiling is a practical alternative definition of
maximum operating altitude
at the service ceiling the aircraft still has a small specified
rate of climb
defined as 2.5 m/s for jet aircraft and 0.5 m/s for propeller-
driven aircraft
Speed Stability at Ceiling Speed Stability at Ceiling
Propeller-Driven Aircraft in Cruise Propeller-Driven Aircraft in Cruise
0 50 100 150 200 250
0
4000
8000
12000
power at sea level
3km
6km
9km
12km
ceiling = 12.5km
P
V
E
= V
increasing
weight
stall
boundary
V
MP
Range and Endurance Jet Aircraft Range and Endurance Jet Aircraft
Proteus
endurance - the time an aircraft can remain in flight
important for surveillance type missions
range the horizontal distance that an aircraft can cover:
1. Safe Range the maximum distance between two
airfields for which an aircraft can fly a safe and reliably
regular service with a specified payload
rather lengthy calculation of full mission profile (take-off/climb/
cruise/descent/landing, headwinds, diversion allowance etc)
therefore simplified measures of range used in project work
2. Still Air Range (SAR)
take-off with full fuel, climb to cruise altitude, cruise until all fuel
expended (!)
3. Gross Still Air Range (GSAR)
begin at selected altitude with full fuel, cruise until all fuel has gone
approximate factor between GSAR and Safe Range known
Range and Endurance Range and Endurance
actually derived by Coffin in the 1920s
compact and simple way of calculating GSAR
rate at which fuel is burnt
= rate at which aircraft weight is reduced
define thrust specific fuel consumption (sfc or TSFC) as
f = mass of fuel burnt per unit of thrust per second
consistent units are kg/N.s
but often given in terms of kg/N.hr so dont forget to convert!
for thrust T and weight W the basic Breguet equation is
a differential equation (in units of N/s )
Breguet Range Equation Jet Aircraft Breguet Range Equation Jet Aircraft
T fg
dt
dW
=
rearranging and substituting T = D and W = L
assume that C
L
/C
D
and f remain constant
can then integrate from start weight W
1
to end weight W
2
to obtain the endurance E
Integration of Breguet Equation - Endurance Integration of Breguet Equation - Endurance
fgT
dW
dt =
W
C
C
W
L
D
T
L
D
= =
W
dW
C
C
fg
dt
D
L
1
=
= = =
2
1
12 1 2
ln
1
W
W
C
C
fg
t t t E
D
L
= x
x
dx
ln
increment in distance dS at velocity V is given by
assume that true air speed V remains constant
1
to end weight W
2
to obtain the range R
Integration of Breguet Equation - Range Integration of Breguet Equation - Range
W
dW
C
C
fg
V
Vdt dS
D
L
= =
= =
2
1
1 2
ln
W
W
C
C
fg
V
S S R
D
L
is it justifiable to assume C
L
/C
D
, f and V
TAS
to be constant?
only in particular circumstances
as fuel is burnt weight W and hence required lift L reduces
if V
TAS
held constant then either C
L
and/or must reduce
constant C
L
/C
D
constant C
L
(= constant incidence )
therefore must decrease altitude must increase
constant C
L
/C
D
implies constant C
D
therefore drag D decreases in proportion to
since T = D, thrust must also decrease with altitude
while constant sfc f implies constant throttle setting
approximately true for turbojet in stratosphere (above
~ 11km), where
Implications of Assumptions (1) Implications of Assumptions (1)
L
SC V W L
2
0 2
1
= =
0
kT T
this cruise case often referred to as a cruise-climb
usually precluded by air traffic control restrictions!
note that below 11km (in the troposphere) temperature
falls with altitude
thrust falls off less rapidly need to back-off on throttle
to maintain V and C
L
constant, hence sfc would worsen
Cruise-Climb Cruise-Climb
=
2
1
ln
W
W
C
C
fg
V
R
D
L
a measure of structural
efficiency ie minimise
fixed weight W
2
a measure of
aerodynamic efficiency
ie minimise drag D
a measure of
thermodynamic efficiency
ie minimise fuel
consumption f
maximise cruise
speed ie cruise
at high altitude
as before
but now assume and hence are constant, but V varies
substitute velocity equation
and integrate
Constant Altitude Cruise Constant Altitude Cruise
W
dW
C
C
fg
V
Vdt dS
D
L
= =
( )
2 1
2
2 1
1
2 1
1 2
1 8
W W
C
C
fg S
S S R
D
L
= =
L
SC
W
V
2
1
=
2 1
2 1
2 1
W
dW
C
C
S fg
dS
D
L
=
2 1
2 1
2x
x
dx
=
height (hence density ) and C
L
held constant
as fuel is burnt weight W and hence required lift L reduces
V
TAS
must also reduce
range is less than for cruise-climb for same C
L
/C
D
since C
D
is constant, drag D and hence thrust T also
reduce
therefore throttle setting must be reduced
progressively during the cruise
therefore some variation in sfc f will occur
need to use average value of f, or treat as a series of
shorter steps
if each step flown at an increased height an approximation
to a cruise-climb profile can be obtained
Implications of Assumptions (2) Implications of Assumptions (2)
maximum range depends on
variation of thrust with height
start with basic T = T
0
with fixed throttle
sfc f and velocity V constant
but altitude (and hence ) undefined
for maximum range we require V(C
L
/C
D
) to be a maximum
use the thrust/drag relation to eliminate
and hence
Maximum Range Cruise-Climb (1) Maximum Range Cruise-Climb (1)
=
2
1
ln
1
W
W
C
C
V
fg
R
D
L
S V C D T T
D
2
0
2
1
0
= = =
D
SC
T
V
0 2
1
0
=
2 3
0
0
2
D
L
D
L
C
C
S
T
C
C
V
=
therefore need to find
minimum C
D
3/2
/C
L
so at the minimum point
cruise conditions fixed by thrust
C
L
and C
D
obtained from above
substitute with T
0
into
then substitute into Breguet Equation to find range
( )
L
L D
L
D
C
KC C
C
C
2 3
2
0
2 3
+
=
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 3
2
0
2 1
2
0 2
3
2 3
2
L
L D L L D L
L
L D
C
KC C KC KC C C
dC
C C d + +
=
2
0
2
L D
KC C =
K C C C C
D
R
L D
R
D
2 ,
2
3
0
max
0
max
= =
cruise-climb
with T = T
0

2
v
udv vdu
v
u
d

=
2 3
0
0
2
D
L
D
L
C
C
S
T
C
C
V
=
alternatively specify start altitude (and hence
1
) and let
thrust vary as required
sfc f and velocity V constant
for maximum range we still require V(C
L
/C
D
) to be a
maximum
since is not a variable, we can simply substitute the
speed equation for V
therefore need to find minimum C
D
/C
L
1/2
=
2
1
ln
1
W
W
C
C
V
fg
R
D
L
D
L
D
L
C
C
S
W
C
C
V
2 1
0 1 2
1
1

=
L
SC
L
V
0 2
1
=
so at the minimum point
cruise conditions fixed by start altitude and weight
C
L
and C
D
obtained from above
substitute with W
1
and
1
into
then substitute into
Breguet Equation to find range
2 3
2 1
0
2 1
2
0
2 1
L
L
D
L
L D
L
D
KC
C
C
C
KC C
C
C
+ =
+
=
( )
2 1
2 3
0
2 1
2
3
2
1
L
L
D
L
L D
C
C
C
dC
C C d
+ =
2
0
3
L D
KC C =
K C C C C
D
R
L D
R
D
3 ,
3
4
0
max
0
max
= =
cruise-climb
with unrestricted
thrust T
D
L
D
L
C
C
S
W
C
C
V
2 1
0 1 2
1
1

=
Jet Cruise-Climb Range Jet Cruise-Climb Range
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
4
6
8
10
12km
start of
cruise
altitude
Range
(km)
C
L
minimum
power
minimum
drag
(C
DO
/2K)
1/2
(C
DO
/3K)
1/2
T = T
0
no thrust
restriction
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
4
6
8
10
12km
start of
cruise
altitude
Range
(km)
C
L
minimum
power
minimum
drag
(C
DO
/2K)
1/2
(C
DO
/3K)
1/2
T = T
0
no thrust
restriction
W
1
=100 kN
W
2
= 60 kN
S = 50 m
2
C
D0
= 0.02
K = 0.05
T
0
= 20 kN
f = 0.0001 kg/Ns
start with (initial) thrust
T
1
= T
0
as before
altitude (and hence )
undefined
use the thrust/drag relation to eliminate
for maximum range require C
D
3/2
/C
L
to be a minimum
same as cruise-climb result !
Maximum Range Constant Altitude (1) Maximum Range Constant Altitude (1)
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0 0
W
C
C
T
W
L
D
T
D
T T
T
L
D

= = = = =
( )
2 1
2
2 1
1
2 1
1 8
W W
C
C
fg S
R
D
L
=
( )
2 1
2
2 1
1
2 3
1 0
0
1 8
W W
C
C
fg SW
T
R
D
L
=

alternatively specify cruise altitude (and hence ) and
let thrust vary as required
altitude (and hence )
are constant
for maximum range require C
D
/C
L
1/2
to be a minimum
again the same as cruise-climb result !
Maximum Range Constant Altitude (2) Maximum Range Constant Altitude (2)
( )
2 1
2
2 1
1
2 1
1 8
W W
C
C
fg S
R
D
L
=

Range and Endurance
Propeller-Driven Aircraft
Range and Endurance
Propeller-Driven Aircraft
Voyager
rate at which fuel is burnt
= rate at which aircraft weight is reduced
define specific fuel consumption as
f = mass of fuel burnt per unit of power per second
consistent units are kg/W.s
but often given in terms of kg/kW.hr so dont forget to convert!
for power P and weight Wthe basic Breguet equation is
a differential equation (in units of N/s )
Breguet Range Equation Propeller-Driven
Aircraft
Breguet Range Equation Propeller-Driven
Aircraft
P fg
dt
dW
=
power delivered by propeller
where = propeller efficiency
assume that C
L
/C
D
, f and V remain constant
same as jet cruise-climb
integrate as before from W
1
to W
2
to obtain the
endurance E
Integration of Breguet Equation - Endurance Integration of Breguet Equation - Endurance
DV P =
W
dW
C
C
fgV
dt
D
L
= = =
2
1
12 1 2
ln
1
W
W
C
C
V fg
t t t E
D
L
prop

DV
fg
dt
dW
=
for maximum range we require
(C
L
/C
D
)/V to be a maximum
or VC
D
/C
L
to be a minimum
expanding this term we obtain
D V is the power required to overcome drag
maximum endurance achieved at minimum
power speed for propeller-driven aircraft
very much slower than for jet aircraft
compare with glider performance
Maximum Endurance Maximum Endurance
=
2
1
ln
1
W
W
C
C
V fg
E
D
L
prop

W
VD
L
VD
C
C
V
L
D
= =
increment in distance dS at velocity V is given by
1
to end weight W
2
to obtain the range R
maximum range achieved at minimum drag speed for
propeller-driven aircraft
much slower than for jet aircraft
Integration of Breguet Equation - Range Integration of Breguet Equation - Range
W
dW
C
C
fg
Vdt dS
D
L
= =
= =
2
1
1 2
ln
W
W
C
C
fg
S S R
D
L
prop

Bristol University Breguet Range Eqn

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Introduction to Aeronautics (04/05) : Slide 5.

Introduction to Aeronautics (04/05) : Slide 5.31

Introduction to Aeronautics (04/05) : Slide 5.32

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