AP Calculus AB

Chapter 1
Limits and Their Properties


1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically
1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically
1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits
1.5 Infinite Limits



Notes 1.2-1.3
Finding Limits Graphically & Numerically
I. Formal Definition of a Limit:
Let f(x) be a function defined on an open interval containing c (except possibly at c) and
let L be a real number. The statement lim ( )
x c
f x L

= means that for each c >0, there exists

o >0 such that 0 x c o < < , then ( ) f x L c < . If limit, L, exists of a function, then L is
unique. (In math c and o represent very small amounts)









Note: Nothing in the definition mentions the value of the function when x=c. It is not
necessary for the function to be defined at x=c for the limit to exist. Nor is it necessary for
the limit to equal the functional value. The limit is concerned only about approaching c.

II. Informal Definition of a Limit:

The y-value of a graph approaches as a specified x-value is approached from the left-side
and right-side of the x-value.

To Find Limits: We have 3 ways:
1. Graphically 2. Numerically 3. Analytically

Properties of Limits: Suppose c is a constant, n is a positive integer and that lim ( )
x a
f x

and
lim ( )
x a
g x

both exist. Then:

| |
| |
| |
| |
1. lim ( ) ( ) lim ( ) lim ( )
2. lim ( ) lim ( )
3. lim ( ) ( ) lim ( ) lim ( )
lim ( )
( )
4. lim , lim ( ) 0
( ) lim ( )
5. lim ( ) lim ( )
6. lim
x a x a x a
x a x a
x a x a x a
x a
x a x a
x a
n
n
x a x a
x a
f x g x f x g x
cf x c f x
f x g x f x g x
f x
f x
provided g x
g x g x
f x f x
x

=
=
=
= =
(
=

=
7. lim
x a
a
c c

=


1. Graphically:
a. Use your fingers to trace the graph from the left and right sides toward the
given x-value.
b. If your fingers meet at a point, the corresponding y-value is your limit.
c. If they do not meet, your limit Does Not Exist. DNE

The graphs of the function f and g are given below. Determine whether the
following limits exist. If they do, then find it.


a.
1
lim ( ) ______
x
f x

= b.
1
lim ( ) ______
x
g x

= c.
2
lim ( ) ______
x
f x

=



d.
2
lim ( ) ______
x
g x

= e. | |
1
lim ( ) ( ) ______
x
f x g x

+ = f. | |
3
lim 2 ( ) 3 ( ) ______
x
f x g x

+ =



g. | |
2
lim ( ) ( ) ______
x
f x g x

= h.
3
( )
lim ______
( )
x
f x
g x

= i. ( )
3
lim ( ) ______
x
g f x

=



j. ( )
2
lim ( ) ______
x
f g x

=
Graph of f
Graph of g
Graphs you should know by heart:
1. y x = 2.
2
y x = 3. , 1
x
y b b = > 4. , 0 1
x
y b b = < <


5. y x = 6.
3
y x = 7. log , 1
b
y x b = > 8. log , 1
b
y x b = <


9. y x = 10.
1
y
x
= 11.
3
y x = 12.
2
4 y x =



Trig Graphs: Must know period.
13. sin y x = 14. cos y x = 15. tan y x =


16. csc y x = 17. sec y x = 18. cot y x =



Translations of Graphs:
1. ( ) , y f x k Shift Upward = + 2. ( ) , y f x k Shift Downward =
3. ( ), y f x h Shift to the right = 4. ( ), y f x h Shift to the left = +
5. ( ), y f x Reflection over y axis = 6. ( ), y f x Reflection over x axis =




2. Numerically:
a. Set up a table with x-values approaching your arrow value from both sides.
b. Use knowledge of parent graphs and direct substitution if you know both sides
are approaching the same y-value.

Example: Complete the table to estimate
2
2
4
lim ______
2
x
x
x

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1
2
4
2
x
x

?

Recall the parent functions from the previous page to answer the following without having to
make a table.

1. ( )
2
lim 3 2 ______
x
x

+ = 2.
4
lim 4 ______
x
x

= 3.
2
lim 5 ______
x
x

=

4.
0
limsin( ) ______
x
x

= 5.
0
limcos( ) ______
x
x

=

Three common situations where the limit DNE:







1) f(x) approaches different
values from left and right
2) f(x) increases or
decreases without bound
3) f(x) oscillates as it
approaches the x-value
Homework: Page 54: 1, 3, 9-17 odd, 20, 37-47 odd (find limit only)
1.2 Finding Limits Graphically & Numerically
Homework
Pg 54 #1, 2, 9-17, 37-47 odd
























Notes 1.3
Evaluating Limits Analytically
I. Evaluating Limits by Direct Substitution:
Although we have stated that the limit does not depend on the value of f at x=c, if
lim ( ) ( ),
x c
f x f c

= then the function is said to be well-behaved and can be evaluated

by direct substitution.

(a) Your first step in evaluating an algebraic limit should be simply plugging in the
arrow number. If you get a number, youre done!
1)
2
3
2 8
lim ______
4
x
x x
x

+
=

2)
2
5
3 25
lim ______
3
x
x
x

(b) If plugging in doesnt give you a number, you will need algebraic manipulation
or additional theorems.

3)
2
1
2 3
lim
1
x
x x
x

+
4)
( )
2
2
0
lim
x
x x x
x
A
+ A
A










5)
0
2 2
lim
x
x
x

+
6)
0
1 1
5 5
lim
x
x
x

+










7) Given
3
lim ( )
2
x c
f x

= and
1
lim ( )
3
x c
g x

= , evaluate:

a) | | lim 4 ( )
x c
f x

b) | | lim ( ) ( )
x c
f x g x

+ c) | | lim ( ) ( )
x c
f x g x

d)
( )
lim
( )
x c
f x
g x

(
(

e) | |
1
2
lim ( )
x c
g x

8) Given
2
( ) 2 3 1 f x x x = + and
3
( ) 6 g x x = + , evaluate ( )
4
lim ( )
x
g f x

.


Trig Limits:
When working with trigonometric limits, first try direct substitution.
9) limsin
x
x
t
10)
1
limcos
2
x
x t

11)
5
4
lim tan
x
x
t

When direct substitution does not work, you must once again try using identities and/or
algebraic manipulation. The following are two new identities you MUST MEMORIZE in
addition to old identities you learned in Pre-Calculus.


12)
0
2sin
lim
3
x
x
x

13)
0
tan
lim
x
x
x

14)
0
1 cos
lim
sin
x
x
x

15)
0
sin(5 )
lim
sin(3 )
x
x
x

(ii)
0 0
sin
lim 1 lim 1
sin
x x
x x
or
x x

= = (i)
0
1 cos
lim 0
x
x
x

=
Homework: Pg 67: 3-36 (mult. of 3), 41, 43, 49-57 odd, 67-77 odd
1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically
Homework
Page 67 #3-36 (m.o.3), 41, 43, 49-57 odd, 67-77 odd















































































Notes 1.4 Day 1
Continuity and One-Sided Limits
Right-Sided Limit:
We say lim ( )
x a
f x L
+

= provided we can make f(x) as close to L as we want for all x

sufficiently close to a and x>a without actually letting x be a.

Left-Sided Limit:
We say lim ( )
x a
f x L

= provided we can make f(x) as close to L as we want for all x

sufficiently close to a and x<a without actually letting x be a.

1) Given the following graph of f(x),






Compute each of the following:
a) ( 4) _____ f = b)
4
lim ( ) _____
x
f x

= c)
4
lim ( ) _____
x
f x
+

= d)
4
lim ( ) _____
x
f x

=
e) (1) _____ f = f)
1
lim ( ) _____
x
f x

= g)
1
lim ( ) _____
x
f x
+

= h)
1
lim ( ) _____
x
f x

=
i) (6) _____ f = j)
6
lim ( ) _____
x
f x

= k)
6
lim ( ) _____
x
f x
+

= l)
6
lim ( ) _____
x
f x

=
Continuity: A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x=a if lim ( ) ( )
x a
f x f a

=
A function is said to be continuous on the interval [a,b] if it is continuous at each point in the
interval. All three of the following conditions must be met for a function to be continuous:
1. f(c) is defined 2. lim ( )
x c
f x

exists 3. lim ( ) ( )
x c
f x f c

=
Examples of Non-Continuous Functions:





Removable Discontinuity
aka Hole
f(c) is not defined
Non-Removable
Discontinuity
Limit DNE
Non-Removable
Discontinuity
f(c) is not defined
Removable Discontinuity
Hole
lim ( ) ( )
x c
f x f c

=
2) Find the limit, if it exist. If it does not exist, explain why.
a)
2
2
2
lim
4
x
x
x
+

b)
4
2
lim
4
x
x
x

c)
2
2
lim
2
x
x
x
+

d)
( ) ( )
2
2
0
lim
x
x x x x x x
x
+
A
+ A + + A +
A







3)
2
lim ( )
x
f x

where
2
2
4 6, 2
( )
4 2, 2
x x x
f x
x x x
+ <
=

+ >

4)
1
lim ( )
x
f x
+

where
, 1
( )
1 , 1
x x
f x
x x
s
=

>

5) Discuss the continuity of the following:
a.
2
9
( )
3
x
f x
x

=

b)
2
( )
6
x
f x
x
=
+


Homework: Page 78: 1-7 odd, 8, 10-18 all, 19, 25, 27
1.4 Continuity & One-Sided Limits
Homework Day 1
Page 78 #1-7 odd, 8, 10-19 all, 25, 27
















































Notes 1.4 Day 2
Continuity and Intermediate Value Theorem

Continuity on a Closed Interval:
A function f is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] if it is continuous on the open interval
(a,b) and

lim ( ) ( ) lim ( ) ( )
x a x b
f x f a and f x f b
+

= =

i.e. The function f is continuous from the right at a
and continuous from the left at b



1) Discuss the continuity of the function on the closed interval:
a.
2
( ) 3 9 , [ 3, 3] f t t = b)
2
1
( ) , [ 1, 2]
4
f t
x
=

2) Find the constant, a, so that the function is continuous on the entire real line:
4sin
, 0
( )
2 , 0
x
x
g x x
a x x

<

>

Properties of Continuity: If b is a real number and f and g are continuous at x=c, then the following are
also continuous at c:
Scalar multiple: bf Sum and Difference: f g
Product: f g Quotient: , ( ) 0
f
if g c
g
=


3) Is ( ) sin cos g x x x = continuous?




Intermediate Value Theorem (I.V.T):
If f is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and k is any number between f(a) and f(b) then there is at least
one number c in [a,b] such that f(c) = k






To be able to use the I.V.T., you MUST first show two things:
1. f(x) is continuous on the given interval (state reason)
2. Show that f(c) is between f(a) and f(b)

1) Verify that I.V.T. applies to the indicated interval and find the value of c guaranteed by the theorem.
3 2
( ) 2, [0, 3], ( ) 4 f x x x x f c = + =

















Examples of reasons of continuity:
* Polynomial graphs are continuous
* Sine and Consine are continuous everywhere
* Rational graphs are continuous except where denominator equals zero
* Tan, Cot, Sec, and Csc are continuous except at asymptotes..ETC

There exist three cs such that f(c) = k There are no cs such that f(c) = k
Homework: Pg 79: 29-47 odd, 51, 57, 59, 83-86 all
1.4 Continuity and I.V.T.
Homework Day 2
Page 79 #29-47 odd, 51, 57, 59, 83-86 all









































Notes 1.5
Infinite Limits
In this section, we will take a look at limits whose value is infinity or negative infinity. These kinds of limits will
show up fairly regularly in later sections and in other courses.

Infinite Limit:
We say lim ( )
x a
f x

= if we can make f(x) arbitrarily large for all x sufficiently close to x=a, from both sides,
without actually letting x=a.

Likewise, we say lim ( )
x a
f x

= if we can make f(x) arbitrarily large and negative for all x sufficiently
close to x=a, from both sides, without actually letting x=a.
These situations will occur at vertical asymptotes.
If you can easily sketch the graph, do so. Otherwise use your limit rules and signs of the numerator and
denominator to determine if you have .

1) Given
2
2
2 8
( )
4
x x
f x
x
+
=

, find:
a)
2
lim ( )
x
f x
+

b)
2
lim ( )
x
f x

2) Find limcot
x
x
t
3) Find
( )
2
3
2
lim
3
x
x

Always try to substitute in the limit number first.
3)
1
2
lim
1
x
x
x
+

5)
2
2
4
lim
16
x
x
x

+







6)
2
0
1
lim
x
x
x

(

7)
0
2
lim
cot
x
x
x

+








8) Given ( ) sec
6
x
f x
t
= use a graphing utility to find
3
lim ( )
x
f x
+

Homework: Pg 88: 1-51 odd
1.5 Infinite Limits
Homework
Page 88 # 1-51 odd



















































Classwork
Chapter 1 Review Part 1
Page 91-92 #5, 6, 11-21 odd, 27, 31-45 odd, 57-65 odd














































-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
2
3
4
5
Chapter 1 Review
Do on your own paper.

1. Refer to the graph at the right.

______ a) f(1) =

______ b) ( )

=
x 4
lim f x

______ c) lim
x1
+
f x
( )
=

______ d) ( )

=
x 1
lim f x

2. Refer to the graph at the right. Answer True or False.

______ a) lim
x1
f x
( )
= 1

______ b) ( )

=
x 1
lim f x 0

______ c) lim
x2
f x
( )
= 0

______ d) f(x) is continuous on the interval (1, 2)

3. Definition of Continuity. f(x) is continuous at c if:



______ 4. True or False: In order for the limit of g(x) to exist as x approaches c, g(c) must be
defined.

MULTIPLE CHOICE:
______ 5. lim
x0
x
x
=
a) 1 b) 0 c) d) 1 e) DNE

______ 6. lim
x0
sin3x
x
=
a) 1 b) 3 c) d) 0 e)
1
3

______ 7. If ( )


=
=

2
x x
x 0
f x
2x
K x 0
for f(x) to be continuous at x = 0, then K = _____?
a) 1 b) 1 c)
1
2
d) 0 e)
1
2

-2 -1 1 2 3
-2
-1
1
2
3
______ 8. ( )

+
=
=

x 4 3
x 5
f x
x 5
K x 5
for f(x) to be continuous at x = 5, then K = ____?
a) 1 b) 6 c)
1
6
d) 0 e)
1
6

______ 9.

+
=

2
2
x 1
x x
lim
x 1

a) does not exist b) 1 c)
1
2
d) 1 e)
1
2

______ 10. If ( )

<

= =

+ >

2
x 1
, x 1
x 1
f x 3, x 1
x 3, x 1
lim
x1
f x
( )
=
a) 2 b) 3 c) does not exist d) 0 e) none of
these

______ 11. lim
x0
sin2x
5x
=
a) 1 b) 5 c)
5
2
d) 0 e)
2
5


______ 12.

1
x
3
lim x
a) 1 b) 1 c) does not exist d) 0 e)
1
3


______ 13.

+ =
x 2
lim x 3

a) 0 b) does not exist c) 2 d) 3 e) 1

______ 14.

x 9
x 9
lim
3 x


a) 6 b) 6 c) 12 d) 0 e)

______ 15.

2
x 0
1 cos x
lim
2x sinx


a) 1 b) 1 c)
1
2
d) 0 e)
1
2


______ 16.

2
x 0
3 2x
lim
2x 3x

a) b) c)
2
3
d) 1 e) 0

______ 17. lim
x0
3x
2
+ 2x
2x +1
=
a) b) c)
3
2
d) 1 e) 0

______ 18.

=
x 5
3x 15
lim
5 x


a) -3 b) 3 c) -1 d) 1 e) none of
these

______ 19. At which value(s) of x is ( )
( ) ( ) +
=

x 1 x 3
f x
x 2
discontinuous?

a) 1, 2, 3 b) 2 c) 1,
3
/2 , 2, 3 d) 1 e) none of
these

FREE RESPONSE:

20. lim
x0
+
secx
x
= 21.
2
x 3
lim 9 x

+
= 22.

+
=

2
x 4
x 4
lim
x 16


23. Does ( )

=
+
2
x 1
f x
x 1
have a vertical asymptote or a removable discontinuity at x = 1?

24. Does f x
( )
=
x
2
+1
x +1
have a vertical asymptote or a removable discontinuity at x = 1?

Using the definition of continuity, determine whether or not the given function is continuous. If
it is not, classify the discontinuity as removable or non-removable, and why. (3 steps)

25. ( )
( )

<

=

>

2
3 2
x 1 x 1
g x
x x x 1
26. h x
( )
=
1
2
x x > 1
x
2
2
x < 1

27. ( )

s

=

>

2 3 x x 3
w x
1
x 3
x 4


28. Use the definition of continuity and the properties of limits to show that the function is
continuous at the given number.
( )
( )
= =
+
3
4
t
g t , c 8
t 1


29. Find the values of c and d that make h continuous on the real numbers. After finding
the values, prove continuity of the function using the definition of continuity.

h x
( )
=
2x x < 1
cx
2
+ d 1 x 2
4x x > 2

30. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that there is a root of the given equation
in the given interval. Then find the root, rounding to AP standards.

f(x) = x
5
2x
4
x 3 [2, 3]

f(x) = x
3
+ x
2
4x 4 [1, 3]