ME-163

ENGINEERING AERODYNAMICS
Fall 2012

Savas
O.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of California at Berkeley
c

December 4, 2012

Preface
This is more than a traditional aerodynamics course. It is run on two loosely aligned parallel
tracks:
1. traditional lectures covering basic topics in aerodynamics and
2. a set of four projects on vortex kinematics and aerodynamics.
S.
O.

Cover Photo:

Schlieren photograph of a 1/300 scale model of the NASA Ares CEV (Crew

Exploration Vehicle) at M = 4.5.

i

Contents
1 Introduction

1.1

Introduction

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Convension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Thermodynamics

2.1

The First Law

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

Ideal Gas Law

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3

Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 The Atmosphere
3.1

3.2

The static atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.1

Standard Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The dynamic atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.1

Stratication, Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.2

Brunt-Vaisal
a frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Flow kinematics
4.1

4.2

4.3

Bernoullis equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.1

Incompressible Bernoullis equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.2

Compressible Bernoullis equation for ideal gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Flow-lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.1

Streamline

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.2

Pathline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.3

Streakline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.4

Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Flow Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3.1

Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3.2

Directional Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3.3

Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3.4

Velocity gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.3.5

Vorticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.3.6

Deformation Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
ii

4.3.7

Velocity eld expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4.4

Streamfuction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4.5

Potential function

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Equations of motion

16

5.1

Mass conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5.2

Momentum conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

6 Potential ow
6.1

6.2

18

Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.1.1

Uniform ow and source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

6.1.2

Uniform ow and vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

6.1.3

Dipole as a derivative of a source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Potential ow past a circular cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

7 Flow past a circular cylinder

21

7.1

Viscous ow past a circular cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

7.2

Viscous ow past a rotating circular cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

7.3

Potential ow mimicking viscous ow past lifting cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

7.4

Why do we study potential ow past lifting cylinder? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

8 Vortex dynamics
8.1

26

Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8.1.1

Kelvin circulation theorem: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

8.1.2

Vortex line, lament/tube: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

8.1.3

Helmholtz vortex laws: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

8.1.4

Real Vortex: Lamb-Oseen Vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

8.2

Biot-Savart Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

8.3

Vortex Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.3.1

Vortex sheet - Potential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

8.4

Vortex Panel: Linearly varying vortex sheet of length S on x-axis . . . . . . . . . . . 33

8.5

Vortex Panel: Project-2 discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

iii

9 Thin Airfoil theory

36

9.1

Kutta condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

9.2

Flow past a at plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

9.2.1

Symmetric ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

9.2.2

Helmholtz-Kirchho ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

9.2.3

Kutta-Joukowski ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

9.2.4

Extra lifting ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

9.3

Blasius Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

9.4

Vortex Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

9.5

Principal Value Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

9.6

NACA Airfoil Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

9.6.1

4-digit: N ACA D1 D2 D3 D4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

9.6.2

5-digit: N ACA D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

9.6.3

6,7,8-series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

9.7

Thin airfoil theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

9.8

Thin symmetric airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

9.9

9.8.1

Vortex sheet strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

9.8.2

Lift Coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

9.8.3

Linearized pressure coecient - Lift distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

9.8.4

Center of pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

9.8.5

Aerodynamic center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

9.8.6

Leading Edge Suction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Cambered thin airfoil - 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

9.9.1

Moment Coecient

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

9.10 Cambered thin airfoil - 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

9.10.1 Parabolic camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
9.10.2 Flapped airfoil - segmented planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9.10.3 The caret airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9.10.4 Some denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10 Boundary layer theory

50

10.1 Introduction and Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

iv

10.2 Blasius Boundary Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

10.2.1 Skin friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.2.2 Drag of at plate in laminar ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
10.3 Falkner-Skan Flows

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

10.3.1 Boundary Layer Thickness Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

10.3.2 Falkner-Skan Flows - concluded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.4 Boundary Layer Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.5 Boundary Layer Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.5.1 Thwaites method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.6 Boundary Layer Separation Example - Circular cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
10.7 Stratfords method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
11 Finite wing

62

11.0.1 Some denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

11.1 Finite Wing introdcution and problem set up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
11.1.1 Induced velocity due to a segment of straight vortex lament . . . . . . . . . 62
11.2 Finite Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
11.3 Elliptical Lift Distribution

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

11.4 Arbitrary Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

11.4.1 Lift Coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
11.4.2 Drag Coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
11.4.3 Prandtls curve t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
11.5 Miscellany

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

11.5.1 Vortex sheet strength behind an elliptically loaded wing . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

11.5.2 Rolled up vortex sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
11.5.3 Kinetic Energy of a point vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
11.6 Slides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
12 Compressible ow
12.1 High Speed Aerodynamics

70
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

12.1.1 Subsonic ow: M < 0.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

12.1.2 Transonic ow: 0.8 < M < 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
12.1.3 Supersonic ow: M > 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
v

12.1.4 Hypersonic ow: M > 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

12.1.5 Free molecular ow: M > 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
12.1.6 Slides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
12.2 Innitesimal Disturbances in 1-D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
12.3 Mach Cone/Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
12.4 Stream Tube Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
12.5 Normal Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
12.5.1 Oblique shock wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
13 High speed aerodynamics

80

13.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
13.1.1 Formulation: transonic ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
13.2 Subsonic ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
13.2.1 Linearized pressure coecient in subsonic ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
13.2.2 Critical Mach Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
13.3 Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
13.4 Supersonic ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
13.5 Linearized pressure coecient in supersonic ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
13.5.1 Flat plate in supersonic ow

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

13.5.2 Diamond airfoil in supersonic ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

13.6 High speed similarity

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

13.6.1 Subsonic similarity

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

13.6.2 Transonic similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

13.6.3 Supersonic similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
13.6.4 Hypersonic similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
13.7 Sweep back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
14 Drag
14.1 Drag

88
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

14.1.1 Viscous drag: Skin friction coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

14.1.2 Viscous drag: Flat plate - Laminar ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
14.1.3 Flat plate resistance formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
14.1.4 Pressure drag

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
vi

14.1.5 Wave drag

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

14.1.6 Vehicle platoon drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

14.1.7 Incomplete similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
15 Aircraft performance and stability

91

15.1 Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
15.2 Static Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
A Tables

93

A.1 Some properties of some selected uids at 1 atm and 20 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

A.2 Standard Atmospheric Conditions at Mean Sea Level (MSL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
A.3 Standard Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
A.4 A Catalog of Incompressible Potential Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
A.5 Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
B Integrals

98

B.1

Integrals for Vortex Sheet/Panel Calculations

B.2

Glauert Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

C Projects

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

100

C.1 Project 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

C.2 Project 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
C.3 Project 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
C.4 Project 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
D ETC

111

D.1 Daily topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

D.2

Classroom demonstrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

D.2.1 Static atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
D.2.2 Schlieren (abberation) photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
D.2.3 Vortex shedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

D.3

Slide/video shows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

D.4 Slide/Video presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

D.4.1 Vortex wake of wing models in water: multiple vortex systems, FV and PIV . 113

vii

D.4.2 Detailed discussion of the gures in class notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

D.4.3 Streamline, pathline, streakline calculations: IDL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
D.4.4 Flow past cylinder: Prandtl, JSME pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
D.4.5 Vortex laments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
D.4.6 Rotorcraft in VRS: unsteady streamline pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

viii

List of Figures
1

A supercritical airfoil and color schlieren visualization of the ow at M = 0.826.

Shock waves are visible on both sides of the airfoil, indicating presences of supersonic
ow over both surfaces. Boundary layer separation caused by the pressure rise
through the shocks is also visible after the shocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Coordinate system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The US Standard atmosphere. To =288.15 K, po = 1.01325 105 Pa. . . . . . . . . . .

Dynamic atmosphere: the daily cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Stream-, path-, and streak- lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Denition of stream function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Flow samples illustrating deformation and rotation of uid elements. . . . . . . . . . 15

System denition.

Stream lines (solid) and potential lines (dashed) for a ow in a 90 corner. The

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

potential and stream functions are given in Table 1 as the stagnation point ow.
Note that = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
10

Viscous ow past a circular cylinder of diameter d = 2a: pressure distribution p()

(left, top) and drag D and vortex shedding frequency n (left, bottom). . . . . . . . . 22

11

Viscous ow past a rotating circular cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

12

Streamlines of ow past a lifting circular cylinder. The circulation values are chosen
to approximate ow patterns in Fig. 11. The ow = 4aU is drawn for reference.

13

24

Potential ow past a at plate at = /10(18): = 0 (left) and /aU = 4 sin

(right). The respective pre-mapping ow patterns past circular cylinder are shown
in Fig. 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

14

Circulation integral contour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

15

Vortex laments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

16

Proles of a viscous vortex. Maximum velocity is 0.638(2/) at r/ = 1.121 . . . 28

17

Velocity induced by a vortex lament. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

18

Velocity induced by a straight vortex lament: point vortex in 2D. . . . . . . . . . . 29

19

Velocity induced by a vortex ring along its axis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

20

Vortex sheets. Plane shear layer (left), curved shear layer/interface (center), and
vortex sheet over a rigid surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

ix

21

Velocity induced by a vortex sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

22

Two vortex sheets of unifrom strength : plane and cylindrical. . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

23

Linearly varying vortex sheet on x-axis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

24

Symbol denitions for vortex panel geometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

25

Four inviscid ow pat a at plate and angle of attack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

26

Thin airfoil. Nomenclature (top), vortex sheet (middle) and mean camber lines
(bottom, scaled and expanded). All angles (, i and ) are small. . . . . . . . . . . 40

27

Vortex sheet strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

28

Pressure distribution over an NACA0012 airfoil at = 0 and = 5 as calculated

using 139 vortex panels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

29

Parabolic (circular) arc airfoil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

30

Flapped airfoil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

31

Caret airfoil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

32

Zero Lift Line, absolute angle of attack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

33

Viscous ow past airfoils at various angles of attack: Re = 210, 000 (left) and Re =
7, 000 (right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

34

Variation of lift coecient CL with absolute angle of attack from zero lift a for
aspect ratio 6 rectangular planform wings at Re = 2.07 104 . The 5% camber is a
thin (1.3%) plate bent to a circular arc. The thin wedge has 1% leading edge and
4% trailing edge thickness (Laitone, 1996).

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

35

Flow over an airfoil: sketches of boundary layer proles at various regions of the ow. 50

36

Flow over a symmetric airfoil at Re = 2.1 105 : (a) = 13 , below stall and (b)
= 17 , above stall. Boundary layer proles are marked using spark traces (JSME).

51

37

Balsius boundary layer prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

38

Falkner-Skan velocity proles for selected s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

39

Evolution of at plate boundary layer (proles drawn to scale). . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

40

Flow separation over a splitter plate (photograph by Foettinger, in Schlichting). . . . 58

41

Flow separation over a circular cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

42

Denitions for Stratfords separation criterion. The gure is constructed for an

m = 0.011c! 61
NACA0012 section at = 15 . x measures on the surface of the airfoil. x

43

Zero Lift Line, absolute angle of attack. Angles are measured in CCW direction. . . 62

44

Horse shoe vortex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

x

45

Elliptical wing loading and vortex sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

46

Lift/drag characteristics of rectangular wings for seven aspect ratios: raw plots (left)
and Prandtls scaling in Eq. 234 (right). CL and CD values are multiplied by 100.
(Prandtl, 1952). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

47

Rollup of the vortex sheet o a wing and its eventual demise, according to Lanchester
(1908). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

48

Transonic ow: M = 0.99 (left) and M = 1.01 (right). (Ballistic Research Laboratories, c1950.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

49

10 half-angle cone at M = 1.494. (Ballistic Research Laboratories, c1950.) . . . . . 71

50

10 half-angle cone at M = 5.1 (Rasmussen, 1994, p.7, Fig.1.5). . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

51

Shuttle model in Langley helium tunnel at M = 20. The ow is made visible by an

electron beam. NASA SP-440,1981, p. 121. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

52

Sound wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

53

Mach wave/cone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

54

Compressible stream tube ow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

55

Compressible isentropic streamtube ow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

56

Normal shock wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

57

Flow across a normal shock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

58

Oblique shock: a normal shock viewed from a moving reference frame. . . . . . . . . 77

59

Oblique shock relations for = 1.4 (equation 255, adapted from NACA-1135). . . . 78

60

Compressible ow in a converging-diverging nozzle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

61

Acceleration to supersonic ow through a virtual throat and deceleration to subsonic

ow through a shock in a stream tube over the supercritical the airfoil in Fig. 1. . . 79

62

Subsonic similarity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

63

Thin (double convex) airfoil in linearized supersonic ow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

64

Flat plate in linearized supersonic ow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

65

Thin symmetric diamond airfoil of chord c and thickness t in linearized supersonic

ow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

66

Flat plate resistance formulas: turbulent ow (Eqs. 297, 298, 299), transitional ow
(Eq. 298) and laminar ow (Eq. 300). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

67

Static stability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

xi

List of Tables
1

Elementary ows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Some properties of some selected uids at 1 atm and 20 C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Standard atmospheric conditions at mean sea level (MSL). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

US Standard Atmosphere (LEO: Low Earth Orbit). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

A catalog of incompressible potential ows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Compressible ow, = 1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Drag coecients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

xii

Introduction

1.1

Introduction

A typical aerodynamic problem involves a body of a given shape and size, immersed in a single
phase uid, where the uid or the body or both may be in motion. The quantitiy of interest is
either the detailed distribution of the traction at the surface, or the resultant of that distribution
on the body.

li

son
ic

F
M

supersonic flow

subsonic
flow

U
, , , a

stagnation
point

M=0.826

subsonic
flow

ic
son

Visuaized Flow,
JSME, Pergamon,
1988

supersonic flow

shock wave

t=(-p,)

shock wave

ne

boundary layer
separation

lin
e

Figure 1: A supercritical airfoil and color schlieren visualization of the ow at M = 0.826. Shock
waves are visible on both sides of the airfoil, indicating presences of supersonic ow over both
surfaces. Boundary layer separation caused by the pressure rise through the shocks is also visible
after the shocks.
Description of a aerodynamics problem:
uid, body, ow = surfce traction distribution = forces and moments

1.2

Convension

Coordinate system: x = r = (x, y, z) = (r, , z)

y,v

velocity eld u(x, t)

u r
x

ur

uz

x,u

z,w
Figure 2: Coordinate system.
SI units: kg, m, s, Pa....
cgs units: g, cm, s, dyn/cm2 ...
Dimensional homogeneity
Dimensionless Numbers:
Reynolds Number Re = U L/,
Mach Number M = U/a,
Knudsen Number Kn = /L.
Fluid: substance deforming continuously under shear stress.
du
Viscosity:
dy
Ideal gas law,p = RT

http://imgs.xkcd.com/comics/airfoil.png 10/29/2010

Thermodynamics

2.1

The First Law

We will be considering adiabatic processes, in which the total enthalpy of a uid parcel remains
constant (ignoring elevation changes)


1
dho = d h + u2 = 0
2

(1)

which is the basis for the Bernoullis equation for both incompressible and compressible ows.

2.2

Ideal Gas Law

For a gas obeying the perfect gas law

p = RT
we write
h = h(T ) and

e = e(T )

or, equivalently
dh = Cp dT

and de = Cv dT

which is said to be a thermally perfect gas. If, further, Cp and Cv are constants, then it is called a
calorically perfect gas, for which we write, using conventional symbols,
h = Cp T

(2)

e = Cv T

(3)

= Cp /Cv

(4)

R = Cp Cv
1
R
e =
1

R
h =
1

(5)
(6)
(7)

where
R = 8.314 J/molK
is the universal gas constant. Note that it is in units of per mole of gas, that is, Avagadro number
(6.022 1023 ) of gas molecules. For air, 1 mole = 0.02897 kg. For an isentropic process (adiabatic
and reversible)
d(p/ ) = 0 =
3

d
dp

=0
p

(8)

The Knudsen number for and ideal gas ow can be reduced to



Kn =

2.3

2
Re

(9)

Compressibility

Modulus of elasticity E = p/(/)

Speed of sound: a2 = E/ = (p/)s . For an ideal gas, the speed of sound is


a=


p 
=
RT
s

Project 1
Discussion of Project 1, vortex trajectory calculations.

(10)

The Atmosphere

3.1

The static atmosphere

1
p + f = 0

p = po

(11)

 z

g()()d

(12)

At ground level, dp/dz = 0 g = 12.01P a/m = 0.0901torr/m

T = To z,

= 6.50K/km,

p
z
= 1
po
To


= 1
o
To
p
g/(gR)
3.1.1

p
1.23

= constant

g
R

z
= 1
To

g
1
R

g = constant

= 1

p
=1.4

(13)

5.26

(14)

z
To

4.26

(15)

= constant

for isentropic process

Standard Atmosphere

See Table 4 in the appendix for the US Standard atmospheric data.

40

US standard
isentropic
-6.5 K/km

20

p
T

11 km

-56.5 oC

z (km)

30

10

.5

0.223 atm

0
0.0

-6

0.2

K/

km

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

T/To, p/po

Figure 3: The US Standard atmosphere. To=288.15 K, po = 1.01325 105 Pa.

(16)

3.2
3.2.1

The dynamic atmosphere

Stratication, Stability

Consider the static equilibrium of a uid parcel displaced isentropically and in pressure equilibrium.
The buoyancy it experiences at its new location determines if the parcel stays where it is, tends to
return to its original location, or tends to move further. The net force on the uid parcel is


d 
d 
 =


n

1
1 dp
n dp

n p
n p

(17)

Hence, ( n) determines the stability of the atmosphere,

( n) > 0 stable
( n) = 0 neutral
( n) < 0 unstable
Luckily, ( = 1.4) > (n = 1.235), and we do have an atmosphere attached to our earth.
3.2.2

Brunt-V
ais
al
a frequency

g
g d
=
N = =
dz
T
2

g
= [10minutes/cycle]2
Cp

20 minutes/cycle for oceans at about 500 m depth.

free atmosphere
2 km

capping inversion
entrainment zone

1 km
convective
mixed layer
stable
boundary layer
surface layer
0
noon
sunset

sunrise

entr
ainm
ent

zon
e

residual layer

surface layer
noon

Figure 4: Dynamic atmosphere: the daily cycle.

(18)

Flow kinematics

4.1

Bernoullis equation

Consider the adiabatic ow of a uid parcel

4.1.1

Incompressible Bernoullis equation

dho = 0
4.1.2

p 1 2 po
+ u =

(19)

Compressible Bernoullis equation for ideal gas

dho = 0

p 1 2
p 1 2
po
+ u =
+ u =
1 2
1 2
1 o

(20)

if also isentropic

ds = 0,

po
p
=

u =

2 p  p  1

(21)

where the subscript () refers to free stream and ()o to the stagnation point.

dx

stre

a k li n

p a t h li n e s x(

e x (t;t )
o

t)
s

stre

ine
am l

dx

o (t )
o

Flow-lines

an

4.2

es
lin
m
a
tre

Figure 5: Stream-, path-, and streak- lines.

4.2.1

Streamline

A streamline: is tangent to the local velocity vector

u dx = 0.
7

(22)

In parametric form
cartesian coordinates

dy
dz
dx
=
=
= d
u
v
w

polar coordinates

dr
r d
dz
=
=
= d.
ur
u
uz

(23)

In two dimensional ows, the parameter can be eliminated to obtain an explicit dierential
equation for the streamline, e.g.
v
dy
=
dx
u

(24)

in a cartesian coordinate system.

A tube whose surface is generated by streamlines is called a streamtube.
4.2.2

Pathline

A pathline: is the path a given uid parcel traces, dx = udt, hence

 t

x(t) = x0 +

u(x, )d

(25)

to

4.2.3

Streakline

A streakline: is the chain of uid parcels which have been released sequentially from a point
 t

x(t) = x0 (t0 ) +

u(x, )d
to ( )

0 to t

(26)

Note that the release point does not have to be xed in space. Also note that, for innitesimally
small times, streamlines and pathlines are the same. Further, for innitesimally small times and
xed wand, all three lines are the same. And, nally, for steady ows and a xed wand, all lines
are the same.
Example: Oscillating nozzle: not covered in class
Discharge velocity, ignoring gravity,
u = Uo (o sin t, 1)

(27)

is constant for a uid parcel released at time t. Hence, the position of that uid parcel is
x = (x, y) = Uo [o (sin ) (t ), (t )] t >

(28)

where marks the moment the uid parcel left the nozzle. Eliminating the time parameter (t ),
the trajectory, hence the pathline, of the parcel is
x = Uo (o (sin ) y.
8

(29)

Returning to Eq. 28, we can now construct the streakline at the current time t = 0. For this
construction, consider the uid parcels that has been released over the time span (, 0).
x = (x, y) = Uo [o (sin ) ( ), ( )] (, 0).

(30)

Now, eliminating the time parameter ( ), the streakline is obtained as

x = yUo o (sin y) y (0, ).
4.2.4

Timeline
 t

x(t, to : s) = x0 (t0 : s) +

u(x, )d
to ( )

4.3

(31)

0 to t

(32)

Flow Kinematics

Consider a scalar eld Q(x, t) and a velocity vector eld u(x, t) = (u, v, w)
4.3.1

Gradient


Q =
4.3.2

Q Q Q
,
,
x y z

= (Qx, Qy , Qz ) =
xyz

(33)
rz

Directional Derivative

dQ = Q dl =
4.3.3

Q 1 Q Q
,
,
r r z

Q
Q
Q
dlx +
dly +
dlz
x
y
z

(34)

Divergence

u =
=

u v w
+
+
x y
z
1 (r ur ) 1 u uz
+
+
r r
r
z

(35)
(36)

4.3.4

Velocity gradient

ux

uy

uz

u =
v = vx

vy

vz

wy

wz

wx

(37)

where subscripts indicate partial difeferentiation. Note that the trace of the velocity gradient tensor
is the divergence of the velocity eld
u = tr(u)

(38)

We dene the tranpsoe of the velovity gradient tensor as

vx

wx

uT =
uu

vy

wy

uz

vz

wz

4.3.5

ux

(39)

Vorticity

w v u w v u

y
z z
x x y xyz


u ur
uz 1 (ru ) 1 ur
1 uz

=
r
z z
r r r
r rz

u = =

u uT

uy vx

=
vx uy

wy vz

z
0

(41)

vz wy

wx uz

uz wz

(40)

(42)

(43)

where u = = (x , y , z ) is the vorticity vector.

4.3.6

Deformation Rate

2ux

def u = u + uT =
vx + uy
wx + uz

10

uy + vx
2vy
wy + vz

uz wz

vz + wy

2wz

(44)

4.3.7

Velocity eld expansion

The Taylors expansion of the velocity eld near a point can now be written as
 

u(x + dx) u(x) + u dx =



vorticity



1
1
u(x) +
u + uT +
u uT
  
2
2


translation



deformation rate

Be aware that 12 def u referred to as the rate of strain tensor.

11



rotation rate



dx


(45)

4.4

Streamfuction

The routine way of attacking the continuity equation: for two dimensional or axisymmetric ows
dene a stream function such that the continuity equation is automatically satised. Finding
that function is a dierent matter, however. An alternative approach is to start form the denition
of a streamline.

y
e am
s tr

dl

+d

line

dA

Figure 6: Denition of stream function.

We have already dened the streamline as u dx = 0. Hence, we can label such lines as
(x, y, t) = constant lines. Now, let us also consider an adjacent streamline dl = (dx, dy) away
whose label is + d = constant. The innitesimal area spanned by dl is dA = (dy, dx) such that
(dl dA = 0). That no ow crosses either of these lines suggests that we can dene the increment
in the label as
d u dA = u ndA = un dA

(46)

We now identify as the stream function for it is indicative of the volume ow rate between
the adjacent streamlines. On the other hand, we can write the total increment d as
d = grad dl.

(47)

Noting that dl = (dx, dy) and dA = (dy, dx), we now put the two expressions for d next to each
other:
d = u dy v dx

(48)

d = x dx + y dy

(49)

We recognize that we can write



(u, v) =

,
y
x

(ur , u ) =

12

1
,
r
r

(50)

Compressible ow
In the case of compressible ows, we dene the stream function as d u dA. The extension
to other axisymmetric planar ows amounts to writing out and integration around the axis of
symmetry the elemental area term dA.
axisymmetric ow, cylindrical coordinates (r, , z), u = [ur (r, z), 0, uz(r, z)]
dl = (dr, 0, dz) and dA = (dz, 0, dr)rd
d

 2
=0

u dA = 2r(ur dz + uz dr)

= grad dl = r dr + z dz


1 1
(ur , uz ) =
,

2r z 2r r

4.5

(51)
(52)
(53)

Potential function

We had already written vorticity as



w v u w v u

y
z z
x x y xyz


u ur
uz 1 (ru ) 1 ur
1 uz

=
r
z z
r r r
r rz

= u =

(54)
(55)

A little calculus shows that vorticity in planar (2D) ows may be expressed as in terms of the
stream function
= 2

(56)

If = 0, then we can construct a companion function to write the velocity components in a

similar form to those in equation 50


(u, v) =

,
x y

(ur , u ) =

1
,
r r

(57)

More elegantly,
u =

(58)

which, unlike the stream function, may also be written for three-dimensional ows. We call
velocity potential function and the corresponding ow potential or irrotational for 0!

13

Flow

Velocity Field u

stream function

potential function

Uniform ow

(U, V )x,y

Uy V x

Ux + V y

Couette ow

(y, 0)x,y

1 2
2y

none

Channel ow

(1 y 2 , 0)x,y

y 13 y 3

none

Stagnation point

(ax, ay)x,y

axy

Source

(S/2r, 0)r,

S
2

Uniform expansion

(ax, ay)x,y = (ar, 0)r,

Solid body rotation

(y, x)x,y , (0, r)r,

Vortex

(0, /2r)r,

A nozzle ow

compressible flow

1
2
2 a(x

y2)

S
2 lnr
1
2
2 a(x

+ y 2 ) = 12 ar 2

12 (x2 + y 2 ), 12 r 2

none

2
lnr

Table 1: Elementary ows.

14

(a)

(f)
uniform flow
u = 0, x u = 0, def u = 0

a nozzle flow
u = 0, x u = 0, def u 0

(b)
Couettee flow
u = 0, x u 0, def u 0

(g)
stagnation
point flow

(c)
channel flow
u = 0, x u 0, def u 0

(d)

point
source

u = 0, x u = 0, def u 0
uniform
expansion

u = 0, x u = 0, def u 0

(e)

point
vortex

(h)

u 0, x u = 0 , def u 0

solid body
rotation

u = 0, x u = 0, def u 0

(i)

u = 0, x u = 2, def u = 0

Figure 7: Flow samples illustrating deformation and rotation of uid elements.

15

Equations of motion

We will consider a system (body) of volume V (t) enveloped by the surface S(t). In the lexicon of
continuum mechanics, this is a deformable body. The system boundary may change in time and we
have symbolically indicated this by writing the volume and the surface as functions of time.
dA = n dA
u

V(t)

S(t)

Figure 8: System denition.

For the system, we can write the rate of change of any quantity Q as
d
dt

Q dV =
V (t)

V (t)

Q
dV +
t


S(t)

Q (us dA).

(59)

where us is the material velocity at the surface. Note that us is the uid velocity u. By using the
Gauss-Ostrogradskii divergence theorem we write


QdA =
S

divQdV

(60)

where Q can be either a vector or a tensor. The precise denition of the multiplication in the
surface integrals are deliberately left vague. QdA = u dA for mass ux, for example. We arrive
at the volume integral describing the rate of change of Q in V (t) as
d
dt

Q dV =
V (t)

V (t)

Q
+ div(Qu) dV.
t

(61)

Also known as the transport theorem.

5.1

Mass conservation

By denition, it is the simple statement that the mass within a system remains within the system,
that is;
d
dt

dV =
V (t)

V (t)

+ div(u) dV = 0.
t
16

(62)

5.2

Momentum conservation

We evoke Newtons law of motion that the rate of change of momentum in the system is brought
about by the forces action on it, namely the body force eld f and the surface traction t
d
dt

u dV =
V (t)

t dA +


S(t)



surface force

f dV


V (t)



(63)

body force

In the absence of viscous forces, the surface traction is normal to the surface, hence t pn.
Making use of the divergence theorem and the transport theorem we rewrite the momentum conservation equation as
u
1
+ u u = p + f
t

(64)

Using the vector identity

u u

1
|u2 | u ( u)
2

we now write
1
1
u
+ | u2 | u = p + f
t
2

17

(65)

Potential ow

If the ow is incompressible, that is = const, then the continuity equation may be written by
choosing a velocity eld which is simply the gradient of some function :
u = grad (u = )

(66)

2 = 0.

(67)

so that the continuity equation reads

This choice renders the ow irrotational for curl grad 0 ( 0). Thus, the momentum
equation is now decoupled and is used to determine the pressure eld corresponding to a chosen
potential function (x, t). Note that the Laplace equation is linear, hence sums and derivatives of
solutions are also solutions. In these ow elds, when steady, any stream surface may be replaced
by a rigid impenetrable surface to obtain a solution over a body. Note that the solution for a given
body may not be unique!
u = = u 0
1 2
+ u +
t
2

dp
= F (t)

(68)
(69)

To summarize
u

(70)

u 0
2 = 0 ( u = 0)

(71)

2 = 0 ( u = 0) planar ow

(72)

= 0 planar ow

(73)

That the equation for potential function is linear allows for superposition. In other words, new
potential ows may be constructed from elementary ones by summing, integrating, dierentiating,
or any combination thereof. Note that potential lines and stream lines are orthogonal.

6.1
6.1.1

Examples
Uniform ow and source

= Ux +

18

S
ln r
2

(74)

Figure 9: Stream lines (solid) and potential lines (dashed) for a ow in a 90 corner. The potential
and stream functions are given in Table 1 as the stagnation point ow. Note that = 0
6.1.2

Uniform ow and vortex

= Ux
6.1.3

(75)

Dipole as a derivative of a source

For example, a directional derivative of the source ow results in a dipole in the direction of the
derivative.


dipole

6.2

d(source )
S
= source i =
=
dx
2r

S x y
i=
,
2 r 2 r 2

(1, 0) =

S cos
2 r

(76)

Potential ow past a circular cylinder

Consider the combination of a uniform ow U = (U, 0), a dipole, and a point vortex. In the
following formulation, the vortex strength is measured in clockwise direction! Potential and
stream functions


a2
= U r cos 1 + 2
r

and

a2
= U r sin 1 2
r

ln
2
a

(77)

Note that r = a is a closed streamline, hence, the potential ow past a cylinder. Velocity eld


u = [ur , u ] = [r , /r] = [ /r, r] = U cos 1

19

a2
a2
,
U
sin

1
+
r2
r2

2r

(78)

Circulation is arbitrary. When = 4aU , the two stagnation points merge into one on the
surface. Pressure coecient on the cylinder surface, from Bernoullis equation,


Cp = 1 2 sin +

2aU

2

(79)

The net force on the cylinder is obtained by integrating the pressure force distribution on the
cylinder

F = (Fx , Fy ) = (D, L) =

pndA = (0, U )

Note that U F = 0 and F is independent of the size of the cylinder.

20

(80)

7
7.1

Flow past a circular cylinder

Viscous ow past a circular cylinder

Pressure coecient Cp () discussed. CD (Re) explained, including laminar ow, separated ow,
vortex shedding, laminar and turbulent shedding, and drag crisis.

Re =
CD =
St =

2a U

D
= CD (Re)
1
2
2 U 2a
2a n
= St(Re)
U

(81)
(82)
(83)

At low very Reynolds numbers, the drag coecient of a cylinder can be obtained analytically
CD =

1
2

8
D
=
2
Re ln(7.4/Re)
U 2a

(84)

and for a sphere

CD =

1
2

D
24
.
=
2
Re
a

U 2

21

(85)

Re=1.1
(a)

JSME, F2
Re=20

Re=8.4.106

Re=6.7.105

(b)

0
Cp
-1

JSME, F3
-2
-3

Re=1.9.105

/2

Re=140
3/2

(c)

100

0.3

10
CD

0.2

0.1

JSME, F6

0.1
0.1

St

10

100

Re

103

104

105

Re=10000
(d)

106

Van Dyke, F48

Re>106

(e)

Van Dyke, F222

Figure 10: Viscous ow past a circular cylinder of diameter d = 2a: pressure distribution p() (left,
top) and drag D and vortex shedding frequency n (left, bottom).
22

7.2

Viscous ow past a rotating circular cylinder

a/U=0

(a)
a/U=0, suction

a/U=2

(f )

(b)
a/U=3

(c)

a/U=4

a/U=4

(d)

(g)
a/U=6
(a) & (g) : JSME ( Re=40,000 )
(b) - (e) : Prandtl & Tietjens
(f)
: Prandtl (in Schlichting)

(e)
Figure 11: Viscous ow past a rotating circular cylinder.

23

7.3

Potential ow mimicking viscous ow past lifting cylinder

/aU = 0.0

/aU =4 sin (/10)

/aU = 5.0

/aU = 4.3

/aU = 8.9

/aU =4
/aU = 5.3

/aU =14.8

/aU =18.8

Figure 12: Streamlines of ow past a lifting circular cylinder. The circulation values are chosen to
approximate ow patterns in Fig. 11. The ow = 4aU is drawn for reference.

7.4

Why do we study potential ow past lifting cylinder?

If we rewrite the potential and stream functions for a lifting cylinder in Eq. 77 in complex form


F () = + i = U +
24

a2

ln
2

(86)

and map it conformally via

z=+

a2

e2ia

z+

z 2 4a2 e2i
2

(87)

we obtain the lifting ow past a at plate at an angle of attack of . The at plate is a good model
of a thin airfoil in viscous ow at low angles of attack. The amount of circulation that can be
bound the at plate remains undetermined. A convenient way of removing this indeterminacy is to
prescribe the right amount of circulation
= 4aU sin

(88)

to move the rear stagnation point to the trailing edge of the plate, known as the Kutta condition.
The resulting lift coecient is
CL =

L
1
2
2 U c

U
1
2
2 U c

U 4a U sin
= 2 sin
1
2
2 U 4a

(89)

where c = 4a is the chord of the airfoil. Attached ow past a thin airfoil can be sustained only at
low angles of attack where sin , hence
CL = 2

(90)

Figure 13: Potential ow past a at plate at = /10(18): = 0 (left) and /aU = 4 sin
(right). The respective pre-mapping ow patterns past circular cylinder are shown in Fig. 12.

25

Vortex dynamics

From the Leonardo (1452-1519)

The helical or rather rotary motion of every liquid is so much the swifter as it is nearer to the
center of its revolution. This that we set forth is a case worthy of admiration; for the motion of
the circular wheel is so much the slower as it is nearer the center of the rotating thing. But in this
case [i.e., of water] we have the same motion, through speed and length, in each whole revolution
of the water, just the same in circumference of the greatest circle as in the least...; and thus the
water is of equal motion in all its circular motion... 1

8.1

Circulation

A purely kinematic denition



u dl =

( u) dA =

dA

(91)

dA = n dA
u

dl

Figure 14: Circulation integral contour.

8.1.1

Kelvin circulation theorem:

In the ow eld of an inviscid, barotropic uid ( = (p)) acted on by conservative force elds,
following a closed material contour, the circulation remains constant.
8.1.2

Vortex line, lament/tube:

Similar to a streamline, we dene a vortex line as that which is locally tangent to the vorticity
vector
dx = 0,
1

Truesdell, C. 1968, Essays in the History of Mechanics, Springer, p.78.

26

(92)

and a vortex tube as that whose surfaces are vortex lines. When there is relatively little vorticity
outside a vortex tube and the lateral extend of the vortex tube is smaller than longitudinal lengths
scales of the tube (e.. radius of curvature), we call it a vortex filament.
8.1.3

Helmholtz vortex laws:

In an inviscid ow, with conservative body force eld, and barotropic uid (that is, pressure and
density elds are aligned)
1. Fluid parcels initially free of vorticity will remain so.
2. Vortex lines move with uid.
3. The strength of a vortex tube does not vary.
4. Vortex lines can not end in uid. They must extend to innity, terminate on interfaces or
form closed loops.

contrails at criuse

idling engines

smoke ring

Figure 15: Vortex laments.

8.1.4

Real Vortex: Lamb-Oseen Vortex

A realistic vortex, a combination of solid body rotation at the center and line vortex at far distances.
Its circulation distribution is

(r) = o 1 er
Azimuthal velocity

2 / 2

o
2
2
1 er /
u (r) =
2r

(93)


(94)

Vorticity distribution
(r) =

o r2 /2
e
2
27

(95)

which is / 2 at the center and vanishes far away. The pressure eld is determined by integrating
1.0

r/

(r)/

0.8

0.6

p(r)

2 u

u(r)

0.4

(r)/
0.2

0
0

r/

Figure 16: Proles of a viscous vortex. Maximum velocity is 0.638(2/) at r/ = 1.121

the radial pressure gradient
 

2
20
dr
r 2 /2
1

e
4 2
r3


2
x
2
(1 e )
0
+ E1 (x) E1 (2x)
= 2 2
4
2x

p p =

(96)
(97)

where x = r 2 / 2 and E1 is the exponential integral.

8.2

Biot-Savart Law

Vorticity is the curly derivative of the velocity eld, hence one should be able to curly integrate
it to obtain its induced velocity eld within an additive potential velocity eld. For a volumetric
vorticity distribution of (x), the induced velocity is
1
u(r) =
4


V

r [(x ) dV (x )]
r3

where

r = x x

(98)

Vortex lament
For a vortex lament of strength ,


V

(x )dV (x ) = dl = e dl, the induced velocity at x is

u(x) =


C

r dl(x)
r3

(99)

where dl(x) = e dl measures along the vorticity vector, hence the vortex lament. The volume
integral in Eq. 98 is replaced with a line integral along the vortex lament.

28

r=
x-x
'

du

z
dl

x'
y
x

Figure 17: Velocity induced by a vortex lament.

Straight Vortex Filament

1
2 r

u(r) =

(100)

dl=(0,0,dz)
(r,0

r=
,-z
)

y
du

Figure 18: Velocity induced by a straight vortex lament: point vortex in 2D.

Vortex Ring - velocity along centerline



z2

1+ 2
u(r = 0, z) =
2R
R

29

3/2

(101)

du
(-R
r=

,0,
z)

dl=(0, Rd, 0)

Figure 19: Velocity induced by a vortex ring along its axis.

Vortex Ring - translation velocity
This is a rather intricate calculation, and beyond the scope of this course. For reference, however,
the translation velocity of a vortex ring of radius R and core radius a is, when (a/R  1),

U=
4R

8R 1
.
ln
a
4

(102)

If the vortex ring has a hollow core, as those dolphins generate and play with, the constant 1/4 is
replaced with 1/2.

8.3

Vortex Sheet

Local approximation

(r) d V = d (x) e
= u = (u1 u2 )

u1

yyy
;;;
;;;
yyy

(104)

u1

u1
u2

(103)

u2

Figure 20: Vortex sheets. Plane shear layer (left), curved shear layer/interface (center), and vortex
sheet over a rigid surface.
2

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nw-XizOF8Mc: Accessed September 21, 2010.

30

The velocity induced by a 2D vortex sheet (uniform vorticity along the generators of the vortex
sheet), the building block for vortex-panel calculations, may be deduced from the Biot-Savart law
by rst carrying out the integration in Eq. 98 rst along the vortex lines and then across the vortex
sheet,

1
u(r) =
2

(r) e p
dl(r)
p2

(105)

where p = rr , e = (0, 0, 1) is the unit vector along the vorticity vector, and dl measures along the
vortex sheet (normal to the vorticity vector). For convenience, we often write dl = e dl = (0, 0, dl),
but be careful about the vector components.

p=
r-r
'

du

dl
e

r'

Figure 21: Velocity induced by a vortex sheet.

y
p=

ry

r-r

du

x
r dl=dx

r a

d
a
=
dl p
=

du

r-r

Figure 22: Two vortex sheets of unifrom strength : plane and cylindrical.

Planar vortex sheet of uniform strenght and of innite extend



u(r) =

du

31

R x

1
2

2


(r) dl e (r ) p
p2

 +
dx (0, 0, 1) (x, y, 0)

x2 + y 2

 +
(y, x, 0)dx

x2 + y 2

ux =

 +

y dx
,
2
x + y2

0, 0

d
1 + 2


+

= tan1 
2

(106)

Intuitively, the ow eld has no length scale, that is, if one zooms in or out, one could not tell any
dierence. Hence, the velocity vectors must be the same everywhere above or below the sheet. If
the sheet is stationary, then, u = (/2, 0) for y = .
Cylindrical vortex sheet of uniform strenght and of innite extend
Referring to the gure above


u(r) =

du

1
2

(r) dl e (r ) p
p2

 2
ad (0, 0, 1) (R a cos , a sin , 0)

|R a cos , a sin , 0|2

 2
d (0, 0, 1) (R cos , sin , 0)
0

2 (R2 + 1)

|R cos , sin , 0|2

 2
(sin , R cos , 0) d



2R
R2 +1

0, = 0, 0
32

cos

where R = R/a

uy =

2 (R2 + 1)

4R

 2 
0

 2
0

R cos
d
1 R2R
2 +1 cos

R2 1
1+ 2
R +11

R2 1

2 + 2
4R
R +1


2 2 tan1
4R

= 0 for R < 1

2R
R2 +1

 2

cos

1
1

2R
R2 +1

cos



2
R+1
tan(/2) 
R1
0

stagnant core!

= /R for R > 1 point vortex of strength 2a at the origin!

8.3.1

(107)

Vortex sheet - Potential Function

Induced innitesimal velocity component

(s)
ds
2r

du =

(108)

It is more convenient to construct the total potential function



d =

(s)
(s)ds
2

Then, the induced velocity is obtained as

u = (x, y).

8.4

Vortex Panel: Linearly varying vortex sheet of length S on x-axis

y
(x,y)

ds

Figure 23: Linearly varying vortex sheet on x-axis.

33

(109)

(x, y) =

1
2

 S
0

1 +

2 1
s
S

1
2

2 1
2S

(x S) tan


tan1
y
xS

1
1
yS + S 2 tan1
2
2

y
ds
xs

+ x tan


y
xS

1
y
y 2 + (x S)2
y ln
x
2
x2 + y 2


1
x + S
+ (y 2 x2 ) tan1
2
y

1
y 2 + x2 2xS + S 2
xy ln
2
y 2 + x2

34

 



tan

x
y



(110)

8.5

Vortex Panel: Project-2 discussion

xi

reference line

Xi+1
-i
l
e
pan i
control point-i

Xi
i

j+1
j
Xj

ds j

j
panel-

Sj = Xj+1-Xj

Xj+1

Figure 24: Symbol denitions for vortex panel geometry.

35

Thin Airfoil theory

9.1

Kutta condition

Within the potential ow theory, the amount of circulation that can be bound on a closed body
is indeterminate. One can device numerous methods to remove this indeterminacy. Rotating a
circular cylinder in a stream is an ingenious way of entrapping circulation through a manipulation
of the boundary layer. In the case of an airfoil with a well-dened trailing edge, the recipe is to move
the stagnation point there. This approach, named after Martin W. Kutta is tenuously supported
by viscosity. Aerodynamics artists have developed other ingenious solutions. For example, a race
car driver, Dan Gurney, used a tiny perpendicular strip at the trailing edge of an airfoil to increase
the circulation without drag penalty, which found its way onto the wings of DC-10 and MD-11 and
more! (See Robert H. Liebeck, 1978 Design of Subsonic Airfoils for High Lift, Journal of Aircraft
Vol.15 No.9, 547-561. First published as AIAA Paper No:1976-406.)

9.2
9.2.1

Flow past a at plate

Symmetric ow

(L = 0, D = 0)

9.2.2

Helmholtz-Kirchho ow

stagnantzone

(L > 0, D > 0)

9.2.3

Kutta-Joukowski ow

(L > 0, D = 0)

9.2.4

Extra lifting ow

(L > 0, D = 0)
Figure 25: Four inviscid ow pat a at plate and angle of attack.

36

Potential ow past a at plate may be taken as the basis of airfoil theory. For a plate at
an angle of attack of , one can construct a non-lifting ow, a separated ow with lift and drag
(Helmholtz ow), and a lifting ow with no drag (Kutta-Joukowski ow) for which the complex
potential function is

a2
F (z) = U +

ln ,
2

(111)

where
z=+

a2

(112)

e2i

(see Eq. 87), and the Kutta condition is satised by the choice of circulation
= 4aU sin

(113)

For a symmetric thin airfoil, the circulation may be approximated as 4aU , hence, the lift
coecient of (chord c = 4a)
Cl

9.3

L
1
2
2 U

U
2
4a

(114)

1
2
2 U

Blasius Formula

The net force experienced in a uniform ow U = (U, V ) by a body constructed by a sum of vortices
of and sources of S is


F = (Fx, Fy ) =

(V + U S), (U V S)

(115)

S = 0 for a closed body, hence F = (V, U ).

9.4

Vortex Force

From Blasius formula above

F
6

F = U
U

9.5

-



(116)
*


Principal Value Integral

 b

  s

P f (x) dx = lim 0
a

f (x) dx +
a

where f(s) is an integrable singularity.

37

 b

f (x) dx
s+

(117)

Example
y 6


dx
31
-x
x
0
0
1
 1

dx
dx
+
=
31
31
x
x
0
1+
 




1


1
1
(1 x)2
1 2x + 1


=
ln
tan
+ 

2
6
1+x+x
3
3
0
1+



2

1
1
3 + 3 + 
3

2
3 + 2
1
1
tan

+ ln
tan
as x
3 3 + 2
3 3 6
3
3
3

as  0
3 3
=

38

9.6
9.6.1

NACA Airfoil Nomenclature

4-digit: N ACA D1 D2 D3 D4
camber inf o

  

D1 D2

D3 D4

  
% thikness

Digit 1: maximum camber, % chord

Digit 2: maximum camber location in tenths of the chord
Digits 3&4: maximum section thickness as % of chord.
Example: NACA-0012, symmteric section, 0.12c thick
9.6.2

5-digit: N ACA D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
camber loc

D1



  

D2 D3

CL

D4 D5

  
% thikness

Digit 1: design lift coecient in tenths is 3/2 of the the rst integer
Digits 2&3: maximum camber location in 2% chord
Digits 4&5: maximum section thickness as % of chord.
Example: NACA-23012, Cl = 0.3, maximum camber at 0.15c, and 0.12c thick
9.6.3

6,7,8-series

See Abbott & Doenho.

39

9.7

Thin airfoil theory

The ow at the surface of a body may be modeled as a vortex sheet wrapping around it. If the
body is suciently thin and nearly aligned with the free stream, then, the two vortex sheets on
both of the body that are nearly parallel can be combined into a single vortex sheet placed at the
half way surface of the thin body. The essence of thin airfoil theory is to determine the requisite
vortex sheet strength distribution that will assure the integrity of the sheet that replaces the solid
body.
y,z

y(x)u=z(x)+t(x)
t(x)

LE

TE

z(x)
y(x)l=z(x)-t(x)

camber z(x)
chord c

uu, pu
u=uu
l=+ul
ul, pl
=u+l=(uu ul)
3

1
1
=

()

= 1
= tan-1(dz/dx)
P(x)

Figure 26: Thin airfoil. Nomenclature (top), vortex sheet (middle) and mean camber lines (bottom,
scaled and expanded). All angles (, i and ) are small.
The self induced normal velocity on the vortex sheet at point P (x) is


vin

1 T E,=c cos 2 cos 3 ()

d
= P
2 LE,=0
cos 1
x

(118)

For the vortex sheet to remain intact, this induced velocity must be exactly balanced by the normal
component of the free stream on the sheet


U sin + vin = U sin tan1

dz
dx



+ vin = 0

(119)

Using the thinness approximation we simplify the equation considerably: for small angles, cos i 1,

40

dz/dx  1, sin , tan1 (dz/dx) dz/dx



dz
dx

1 c ()
P
d = 0

2 0 x

(120)

subject to the Kutta condition that the vortex sheet strength at the trailing edge vanish,
(x = c) = 0.

9.8

(121)

Thin symmetric airfoil

For a symmetric airfoil, the camber line is straight, hence dz/dx = 0,



1 c ()
P
d
U =
2 0 x
9.8.1

(x = c) = 0

(122)

1
c sin d
2

(123)

Vortex sheet strength

A change of variable,
x=

1
c(1 cos )
2

dx =

leads to a more tractable form (al al Glauert)



1 c () sin d
P
U =
2 0 cos cos

() = 0

(124)

The solution of this integral equation for the vortex sheet strength is


1 + cos
() = 2U
sin

(x) = 2U

cx
x

(125)

The solution has an integrable singularity at the leading edge and vanishing vortex strength at the
trailing edge, as implied by the Kutta condition.
9.8.2

Lift Coecient

The total circulation over the airfoil is determined by integrating the vortex sheet strength over its
chord

 c

(x)dx =

 c

2U
0

cx
dx = U c
x

(126)

compared to = sin U (4a) for a at plate in potential ow. Thus, the lift is
L = U = cU 2 ,

(127)

hence the lift coecient

cU 2
L
= 2
(128)
= 1 2
qc
2 U c
Within the thinness approximation, it is the same as the exact value CL = 2 sin in Eq. 89 for a
CL =

at plate determined from the potential theory.

41

4
3

/2U
2

1
0
0.00

0.25

x/c

0.50

0.75

1.00

Figure 27: Vortex sheet strength.

9.8.3

Linearized pressure coecient - Lift distribution

Assuming that the presence of a thin airfoil will introduce only small perturbations to the free
stream, we write
u = (U + u, v) |u|/U, |v|/U  1!

(129)

Using the Bernoullis equation, we estimate the pressure coecient

1
1
1
(130)
p + U 2 = p + |u|2 = p + [(U + u)2 + v 2 ]
2
2
2
p p
2uU u2 v 2
2u
(131)

Cp = 1 2 =
2
U
U
2 U
Finally, we establish the relation between the pressure dierential across the airfoil and the vortex
sheet strength (x) used to model it
Cp =
9.8.4

2(x)
pu pl
2(uu ul )
=
=
1
2
U
U
2 U

p = pu pl = U (x)

(132)

Center of pressure

The center of lift is determined by considering the moment of the lift distribution with respect to
reference point, say the leading edge of the airfoil, and equation that to the moment due to the net
lift L acting at the center of pressure xcp ,
 c

ML.E. =
0

p x dx = c2 q = L xcp
2

(133)

we obtain
1
xcp = c
4

(134)

One the most useful results of the airfoil theory, that the net lift of the airfoil acts through its
quarter chord, location for the wing spar!
42

9.8.5

Aerodynamic center

The point about which the moment coecient is independent of angle attack is called the aerodynamic center of the section.
dCm
=0
d
9.8.6

(135)

Leading Edge Suction

Pressure distributions over non-lifting and lifting at plate and airfoils are illustrated using the
vortex panel code (Fig. 28). Leading edge suction described. Flow acceleration and deceleration
highlighted in preparation to boundary layer discussion below.

Cp=1

L>0

L=0
U
=0o

=5o

Figure 28: Pressure distribution over an NACA0012 airfoil at = 0 and = 5 as calculated

using 139 vortex panels.

9.9

Cambered thin airfoil - 1

Beginning with the thin airfoil formulation in Eq. 120



dz
dx

1 c ()
P
d = 0
2 0 x

along with the change of variable in Eq. 123

1
x = c(1 cos )
2

dx =

1
c sin d,
2

we write the vortex sheet strength as a series expansion around the symmetric airfoil solution in

43

Eq. 125

1 + cos 
An sin (n)
= 2U A0
+
sin
n=1

(136)

The coecients Ai are determined from Eq. 120 after substituting Eq. 136 for the vortex sheet
strength
1

A0 =
An =


dz


dz
0

dx

dx

() d

() cos (n) d

(137)

Only the rst few of the coecients Ai are needed to determine the overall characteristic of a
cambered thin airfoil. The total circulation is written as
 c

 c

(x)dx =

=
0

=
0

()dx =
0

1
() c sin d
2

1 + cos 
+
cU A0
An sin (n) sin d
sin
n=1

which, on integration, yields

1
= cU Ao + A1
2
The lift per unit span is

L = U = cU

(138)
(139)

(140)

1
Ao + A1
2

(141)

Lift Coecient
CL =

U
L
1
= 1 2 = 2 (A0 + A1 )
qc
2
U
c
2

(142)

Calculating pitching moment with respect to the leading edge is similar to the lift calculation, but
requires more labor, yet at the end only A0 , A1 , and A2 survive
 c

ML.E. =

p x dx =


 c

U (x) x dx
0

= U 2 c2 A0 + A1 A2
4
2

(143)

(144)

Using Eqs. 141 and 144, the center of pressure is determined as

xcp =

1
1
A1 A2
ML.E.
= c + c
L
4
4
CL

Note the additional term compared to that for a symmetric airfoil in Eq. 134.

44

(145)

9.9.1

Moment Coecient

The moment coecient with respect the leading edge is



CMLE

ML.E.
A2
=
=
A0 + A1
qcc
2
2

Mc/4 = L(ccp xc/4 ) = L

(146)

c A1 A2
4
CL

(147)

The moment coecient with respect to c/4 location is

CMc/4 = (A1 A2 )
4

(148)

which is independent of the angle of attack. hus, the quarter-chord location is the aerodynamic
center of the airfoil section. Using the original formulation, we have
Cmac =

9.10
9.10.1

1
2


dz
0

dx

() ( cos 2 cos )d

(149)

Cambered thin airfoil - 2

Parabolic camber

zm
c/2

LE
0

TE
c x

Figure 29: Parabolic (circular) arc airfoil.

The simplest and a very practical cambered airfoil is a circular arc segment of radius R. If
the angle subtended by the arc is small (|dz/dx|  1), than, the arc may be approximated as a
parabola.

z(x) = 4zm

x x2
2
c
c

zm
x
dz
=4
12
dx
c
c

(150)

with radius R c2 /8zm where zm is the maximum camber at c/2. Following the change of variable
of Eq. 123, we obtain
zm
dz
=4
cos
dx
c

z(x) = zm sin2

(151)

The coecients Ai are determined from Eq. 137

A0 = ,

A1 = 4

zm
,
c

45

An2 = 0

(152)

The resuting vortex sheet strength (lift distribution) from Eq. 136 is


= 2U

zm
1 + cos
+4
sin
sin
c

(153)

At = 0, (x) is symmetric and has no singularity!



(CL , xcp )

=0

zm 1
= 4 , c
c 2

Think about the behavior of laminar boundary layers and, then, remember Otto Lilienthal! The
velocity eld at = 0 is given in Table 5 in the Appendix.
9.10.2

Flapped airfoil - segmented planes

z
LE

(1-E)c

TE

hc
Ec

Figure 30: Flapped airfoil.

A0 =

9.10.3

1
2
( h ) An =
sin (nh ) where

=+

h
E

(154)

The caret airfoil

dz
2zm
x
=
z(x) = 2zm &
c
dx
c

x (0, c/2) and z(x) = 2zm

x
1
c

&

2zm
dz
=
dx
c

x (c/2, c)
(155)

A0 =

zm
8 zm
= 2.55
A1 =
c
c

An2 = 0

(156)

Similar to the parabolic arc airfoil, though less ecient.

9.10.4

Some denitions

zero lift line ZLL

zero lift angle of attack
L0  (ZLL, chord)

46

(157)

zm
c/2

LE
0

TE
c x

Figure 31: Caret airfoil.

absolute angle of attack
a  (U, ZLL)

(158)

CL = 2a

(159)

Cl

z
a
+

ZLL
L
o

Cl = 2a
= 2(L )
o

TE

LE

Lo 0

Figure 32: Zero Lift Line, absolute angle of attack.

47

=2o

=5o
=0o

=10o

=5o
=15o-

NACA-64A015 at Re=7000 (ONERA)

=15o+

NACA-4412 at Re=210,000 (JSME)

Figure 33: Viscous ow past airfoils at various angles of attack: Re = 210, 000 (left) and Re = 7, 000
(right).

48

5%

CA

BE

1.5

1.0
EDGE

THIN W

CL

SE
RE VER

D NAC

A-0012

0.5
NACA

-0012

a(o) 16

24

Figure 34: Variation of lift coecient CL with absolute angle of attack from zero lift a for aspect
ratio 6 rectangular planform wings at Re = 2.07 104 . The 5% camber is a thin (1.3%) plate bent
to a circular arc. The thin wedge has 1% leading edge and 4% trailing edge thickness (Laitone,
1996).

49

10

Boundary layer theory

In parallel with the separation calculations required in Project-3

10.1

Introduction and Formulation

That the ow be nearly unidirectional in a boundary layer may be stated mathematically as

|u|
|u|

n
s

u  v.

and

(160)

Use of the continuity equation and an order-of-magnitude analysis, we can legitimately neglect the
2 u/x2 in comparison to 2 u/y 2 when the local Reynolds number is suciently large. We also
deduce from the normal momentum equation that the pressure eld is imposed onto the boundary
layer by the external ow, i.e.
p
p

= p p(x).
y
x

(161)

The nal equations of the boundary layer ow for continuity and momentum are

u v
+
=0
x y

(162)

u
1 dp
2u
u
+v
=
+ 2.
x
y
dx
y

(163)

4
7

Figure 35: Flow over an airfoil: sketches of boundary layer proles at various regions of the ow.

50

Figure 36: Flow over a symmetric airfoil at Re = 2.1 105 : (a) = 13 , below stall and (b)
= 17 , above stall. Boundary layer proles are marked using spark traces (JSME).

51

10.2

Blasius Boundary Layer

The celebrated solution of the ow over at plate in an otherwise uniform ow is obtained by

setting the pressure gradient to zero and looking for a solution for the stream function (x, y),


(u, v) =
written as

(x, y) =

,
,
y
x

(164)

y
 .

x
U f ()
U

x
U

(165)

The velocity components are now written as



u v
,
U U

1
f , Re1/2
(f  f )
2 x


(166)

which transform the partial dierential equations into an ordinary dierential equation
2f  + f f  = 0,

(167)

subject to boundary conditions

f, f  = 0 at = 0 &

f  1 as

(168)

the solution of which may be obtained numerically. Of particlular insters is the wall shear stress
The solution of the problem may be approximated as (Savas, 2012)
u()/U = f  () =

tanh [ (a)n ]

1/n

(a, n) = (0.33245, 5/3)

(169)

which reproduces the streamwise velocity prole within 0.003U . Equation (169) can readily be
inverted for = (u)
1
=
a

ln

1 + un
1 un

!1/n

(170)

The shear stress distribution across the boundary layer is

u () = f  = () =

2a(a)n1
u() = a(a)n1 (u1n u1+n ).
sinh [2(a)n]

52

(171)

2.0

1.5

f()
1.0

f()
0.5

0.860

(f-f )/2

f()

0.332
0.0
0

Figure 37: Balsius boundary layer prole

Figure 37: Blasius boundary layer proles. Fourth order Runge-Kutta solution of Eq. (167)
(dashed lines) and the approximate description in Eq. (169) (solid lines) are plotted (eight curves)
for (a, n) = (0.33245, 5/3). The two sets of curves for f (), f  (), and f  () are coincident. Only
the normal velocity component v() = (f  f )/2 shows some noticeable dierence for 3.5 < < 6.
10.2.1

Skin friction

The wall shear stress is written as



u 
df  
U
f  (0) = 0.332U 2Re1/2
= U
=
w = 
x
y y=0
d y =0
x/U

(172)

In dimensionless form
cf

w
1
2
U
2

= 0.664Re1/2
x

(173)

If the ow is turbulent, one may use an approximate empirical skin friction coecient of
cf 0.0035 for Re 106 107

(174)

A more sophisticated approach for turbulent ow is, again empirical,

locally and
cf = 0.0592 Re1/5
x

1/5

cf = 0.074 Rel

53

for a plate of length l

(175)

10.2.2

Drag of at plate in laminar ow

Total drag on one side of a at plate of length L (and of unit width) is

 L

 L

w dx =

D=
0

0.332U 2Re1/2
dx = 0.664 1/2L1/2 U 3/2
x

In dimensionless form
D

CD =

10.3

1/2

1
2
2 U L

= 1.328 ReL

(176)

Falkner-Skan Flows

When a steady ow eld is incompressible and irrotational, the pressure and velocity variation
along the edge of the boundary layer are related as

dUe
1 dp
= Ue (x)
dx
dx

(177)

where Ue (x) is the uid velocity at the edge of the boundary layer. The boundary layer equations
can be reduced to an ordinary dierential equation for the stream function for external ow elds
of the form
Ue (x) = Cxm .

(178)

To obtain the equation, rst dene a length scale l(x) and a similarity variable (x, y) as


x
2
l(x)
m + 1 Ue (x)

1
2

(x, y)

y
.
l(x)

(179)

Following the construction of a stream function as

= l(x)Ue (x)f ()

(180)

we obtain an ordinary dierential equation for f () as

f  + f f  + [1 f 2 ] = 0

(181)

where
=

2m
,
m+1

or equivalently, m =

.
2

(182)

The boundary conditions are the same as those for the Blasius boundary layer
f (0) = 0,

f  (0) = 0 and f  () 1.

(183)

One can easily show that the ow corresponds to that over a wedge of a total angle of . Note

that = 0 corresponds to the Blasius boundary layer except for a factor of 2 in the denition of
54

; and = 1 to viscous stagnation ow, exactly! The ow maintains its sense for negative wedge
angles up to = 0.199. For the viscous stagnation point ow Ue = ax, Eq. 181 is the exact
formulation.
6

9
.19
0

= .18
0

1/3

1/2

1
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Figure 38: Falkner-Skan velocity proles for selected s.

10.3.1

Boundary Layer Thickness Denitions

(a) Boundary Layer Thickness: - a visual denition

u(y = )
= 0.99,
Ue
(b) Displacement Thickness:
=

 
0

(c) Momentum Thickness:

=

Ue

(184)



u
0

typically!

u
dy
Ue

(185)

u
1
dy
Ue

(186)

Integral momentum equation (presented without proof)

d
dUe
w
=
(Ue2 ) + Ue

dx
dx
55

cf |Ue =cons. =

1 d
2 dx

(187)

10.3.2

Falkner-Skan Flows - concluded

1. (m, ) = (0, 0): Blasius Boundary Layer

(, , )

= (5.0, 1.721, 0.664)
x/U

(188)

2. (m > 0): Accelerating ows, fuller boundary layer proles, progressively more stable than
Blasius boundary layer
3. (m < 0): Decelerating ows, inectional velocity proles, progressively less stable than Blasius
boundary layer
4. (m, ) = (1, 1): Viscous stagnation ow, Hiemenz Flow Exact Formulation
(, , )

= (2.40, 0.648, 0.292)
/a

(189)

5. (m, ) = (0.091, 0.199): Separating Flow; Vanishing wall shear Sstress



(, , )
2
x
m+1 Cxm

10.4

Boundary Layer Development

10.5

Boundary Layer Separation

= (4.85, 2.359, 0.585)

at wall :
10.5.1

(190)

x0.546

2u
1 dp
u
=
=
2
dx
y
y y

(slope) (curvature)
y

(191)

Thwaites method

Momentum thickness development

0.45
= 6
Ue
2

 x
0

Ue5 ()d

(192)

Separation criterion
K=
Equivalently,

K=

2 dUe
= 0.09
dx

0.45 dUe
Ue6 dx

 x
0

Ue5 ()d = 0.09

Near a stagnation point where Ue = ax, K = 0.075.

56

(193)

(194)

Schubauer and Klebanoff (1956)

x=2.44 m, turb=17mm, U=27m/s
Rex=4.3.106

U
laminar

turbulent
U

transitional
(x)

x, Rex

Figure 39: Evolution of at plate boundary layer (proles drawn to scale).

Boundary Layer Separation Example - Splitter plate ow
Starting from the potential stagnation point ow in Table 1, we write the external potential ow
over a splitter plate of length L placed along the inbound stagnation streamline (decelerating ow)
as


Ue = Uo 1

x
,
L

Uo
dUe
= ,
dx
L

 x

and
0

Ue5 ()d =

L Uo5
6

x
L

6

(195)

The seperation criterion in Eq. 194 becomes



0.45
1 (1 x/L)6 = 0.09
6

(196)

xs
= 1 (2.2)1/6 = 0.123
L

(197)

which yields for separation point

57

Figure 40: Flow separation over a splitter plate (photograph by Foettinger, in Schlichting).

10.6

Boundary Layer Separation Example - Circular cylinder

Beginning with the potential ow past a circular cylinder given in Section 6.2, we write the external
potential ow over the cylinder surface, starting from the leading stagnation point,
Ue = 2U sin(x/a) = 2U sin

(198)

The boundary layer separation criterion in Eq. 194 is evaluated as



0.45 dUe
Ue6 dx

 x
0

Ue5 ()d

cos
1
4
8
8
sin2
= 0.45 6 cos sin4
+
= 0.09 (199)
5
15
15
15
sin

which predicts ow seapataion at

s = 103.1

(200)

Note that the expression in the square brackets may also be written as


5
5
8
1
cos 5 +
cos 3 cos +

80
48
8
15

Observed laminar separation point depends on the Reynolds number and ranges form 81 to nearly
180 . The large separation angles occur at very low Reynolds numbers, at which the boundary
layer analysis is not applicable!

58

x
0

Figure 41: Flow separation over a circular cylinder.

59

10.7

Stratfords method

Given the point of maximum velocity (xm , Um , pmin ), the pressure coecient at separation
Cp =

p pmin
U2
=
1

1
2
2
Um
2 Um

satises the equation

m )] C p
[x (xm x
2

d Cp
dx

(201)

2

= 0.0104.

(202)

Stratfords method yields results somewhat better than the Thwaites method, where x
m is the
equivalent ate plate length upstream of the minimum pressure point
x
m =


 xm 
U 5

Um

60

dx

(203)

NACA-0012 at =15o

Um
U
0

Cp
-5

-10

Cp, min
-15
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

NACA-0012 at =15o
U/Um
(U/Um)2=1-Cp
xm

0
0

0.05

(U/Um)5
xm

0.10

0.15

0.20

Figure 42: Denitions for Stratfords separation criterion.

The gure is constructed for an

m = 0.011c!
NACA0012 section at = 15 . x measures on the surface of the airfoil. x

61

11

Finite wing

11.0.1

Some denitions

Zero Lift Line ZLL: virtual line on the body, when aligned with the free stream direction, the body
experiences no lift. The ZLL is the chord line for a symmetric section. Angles are measured from
the chord line in CCW direction.
Zero lift angle of attack: the angle between the ZLL and the chord line. It is zero for a symmetric
section.
L0  (ZLL, chord)

(204)

absolute angle of attack: the angle bwtween the ZLL and the free stearm vecor.
a  (U, ZLL)

(205)

Hence, the section lift coecient is written as (Fig. 43)

CL = 2a

(206)

Cl

z
a
+

ZLL
L
o

Cl = 2a
= 2(L )
o

TE

LE

L 0
o

Figure 43: Zero Lift Line, absolute angle of attack. Angles are measured in CCW direction.

11.1

Finite Wing introdcution and problem set up

Bound vortex under the light of Helmholz laws.

Prandlt Horseshoe vortex model
11.1.1

Induced velocity due to a segment of straight vortex lament

uind

=
4

 2
s dl

62

s3

(207)

u,ind =

11.2

(cos 2 cos 1 )
4d

(208)

Finite Wing

The induced innitesimal velocity component at y due to a vortex lament of innitesimal strength
d anchored at is
dw =

1 d
4 y

(209)

d
.
dy

(210)

where
(y) =

wi

y
o a i

()d

Figure 44: Horse shoe vortex.

The total induced angle at y is determined by integrating the contributions over the whole wing
span
i (y) =

 b/2

1
w
=
U
4U

b/2

1 d
d
y d

(211)

where we utilized Eq. 210. The wing section at y has bound circulation (y) and sees a total angle
of attack of
0 = a + i

(212)

The section lift coecient is

cl = 2o =

U
1
2
2 U c

2
Uc

(213)

where the section chord is assumed to depend on y, c(y). Combining Eqs. 211, 212, and 213, we
obtain the description of a nite wing.
a (y) =

2
1

2U
 c 4U
0

 b/2
b/2

1 d
d
y d



63

(214)

11.3

Elliptical Lift Distribution

We rst consider the favored elliptical lift distribution



(y) = 0 1

y
b/2

2 1/2

(215)

with its trailing vortex sheet strength



20 y
d
=
1
(y) =
dy
b b/2

y
b/2

2 1/2

(216)

Following a change of variable

b
dy = sin
2

b
cos ,
2

y=

(217)

Eq. 215 becomes

(y) = 0 sin

(218)

and Eq. 211 yields for the induced angle of attack

i (y) =

0
2bU

(219)

which is uniform across the span of the elliptically loaded wing! For a planar wing with elliptical
loading, the section lift coecient cl = 2o = 2(a + i ) is determined as


0
2bU

cl = 2 a

(220)

Using the denition of section lift coecient

cl =

L(y)
1
2
2 U c(y)

U (y)

1
2
2 U c(y)

(221)

We deduce that the planform must also be elliptical when the section is symmetric


c(y) = co 1

y
b/2

2

(222)

where co is the root chord length. The corresponding induced section drag coecient is
cdi = cl i

(223)

Finally, by integration across the wing span, the wing induced drag coecient is determined as
CDi =

CL2
AR

(224)

CDi depend of the lift coecient quadratically. Also note that, it is inversely proportional to the
aspect ration of the wing, dened as
AR =

b2
S

where S is the wing area. The value for a typical air transport is AR = 8.
64

(225)

(y)

-/4

/4

(y)

-1

-2
-1.0

-0.5

0.0
y/(b/2)

0.5

1.0

Figure 45: Elliptical wing loading and vortex sheet.

11.4

Arbitrary Lift Distribution

Inspired by Eq. 218, the spanwise lift distribution is written as a sine series
(y) = 0

an sin (n)

y=

n=1

b
cos
2

(226)

where the coecients an are determined for a given wing loading (y) using orthogonality of
trigonometric functions. After substitution, the nite wing equation Eq. 214 yields
a () =

0 
0 
sin(n)
an sin(n) +
nan
U c n=1
2U b n=1
sin



0 eective section aa

11.4.1



(227)

i induced section aa

Lift Coecient

The section lift coecient becomes

cl =

20 
an sin(n)
U c n=1

(228)

which yields, after spanwise integration, for the wing lift coecient
CL =

0 b
a1
2U S

which depends on the rst coecient a1 of the sine series of Eq. 226.

65

(229)

11.4.2

Drag Coecient

Induced drag calculations are much more involved. First, by extracting i from Eq. 227 and section
lift coecient from Eq. 228, the section drag coecient is written as
cdi = cl i =


 


20
sin(k)
a
sin(n)
ka
n
k
U 2 bc n=1
sin
k=1

(230)

Integration across the wing span, we obtain for the wing induced drag coecient
CDi =

20 
na2
4U 2 S n=1 n

(231)

Note that all coecient contribute positively, that is, any deviation from elliptical loading simply
increases the total induced drag.
11.4.3

Prandtls curve t

total drag = induced drag + prole drag(= skin friction + small eddy resistance)
On account of a fortunate coincidence, which was not anticipated, it was possible to reduce the
results of airfoil theory to a very useful form.
CD = CDi + CDp =

CL2 S
CL2 S
+
C
(C
)
=
C
(C
)
=
C

Dp
L
Dp
L
D
b2
b2

At the same CL

CD2 = CD1 +

CL2 S2 S1
2
b22
b1

(232)

(233)

Taking AR = S/b2 = 5 as reference


CD

S
C2 1
2
= CD + L
5 b

Prandtls plots are reproduced in Fig. 46 below.

3
4

1
C2 1

= CD + L
5 AR

Prandtl & Tietjens, Applied Hydro- and Aeromechanics,1934, Dover, p207.

Prandtl Essentials o Fluid Dynamics, 1952, Hafner, pp. 217, 219, 220.

66

(234)

Figure 46: Lift/drag characteristics of rectangular wings for seven aspect ratios: raw plots (left)
and Prandtls scaling in Eq. 234 (right). CL and CD values are multiplied by 100. (Prandtl, 1952).

67

11.5
11.5.1

Miscellany
Vortex sheet strength behind an elliptically loaded wing

Figure 45 shows elliptical loading and the vortex sheet it leaves behind the wing


(y) = 0 1 2 = (y) =
11.5.2

d

=
dy
b/2 1 2

where =

y
b/2

(235)

Rolled up vortex sheet

One of the tasks in Project 1 was to calculate the subsequent behavior of the vortex sheet by
approximating as a set of point vortices. The sheet rolls up two equistrength counter rotating
vortices, 4 b apart, preserving the centroid of positive and negative vorticity separately.
 b/2

b
y(y)dy
=
yc = 0 b/2
4 2
(y)dy
0

(236)

Lanchester was the rst one to discuss the rollup process in his writings. The sketch in Fig. 47 is
a classic, reproduced anytime the topic comes up.

Figure 47: Rollup of the vortex sheet o a wing and its eventual demise, according to Lanchester
(1908).

11.5.3

Kinetic Energy of a point vortex

The kinetic energy of a point vortex is innite:



KE =
5

1 2
u dA =
2

  2
1
0

2 2

2
2rdr =
4


dr
0

Lanchester, F. W. Aerodynamics, 1908, D. Van Nostrand, p. 178.

68


2
=
ln r  !
r
4
0

(237)

Then, the question is, can one generate a fully developed vortex in a laboratory! My answer is no.
All we do is to approximate it, certainly within our measurement capability.

11.6

Slides

Prandtls consolidated lift/drag curves, wind sections, drag, etc

Wing loading diagrams from Rossows (1999) review paper. Pages 39, 41, 42, 46, 49, 54, 78,
80, 93, 115.

69

12

Compressible ow

12.1

High Speed Aerodynamics

We use various dimensionless measures the describe how fast a ow is, each considering a unique
aspect of the ow. The Reynolds number (Re = U L/) compares the inertial forces to viscous
forces, the Mach number (M = U/a) the inertial forces to elastic forces, and the Knudsen number

(Kn = /L) the mean free path to ow dimensions (mean free path = 1/ 2 d2 n, where d
is the molecular diameter and n the number density). In any ow, all are relevant, to various
degrees of importance. Simultaneous treatment is intractable. We will single out the Mach number
dependence.
12.1.1

Subsonic ow: M < 0.8

Subsonic ow can be treated as a natural extension of the incompressible ow if there are no

shock waves involved. The ows are qualitatively similar to incompressible ows. The quantitative
connection can be made through subsonic similarity rules.
12.1.2

Transonic ow: 0.8 < M < 1.2

The schlieren photograph of a supercritical airfoil at M = 0.83 in Fig. 1 illustrates the complications
encountered in transonic ow. Subsonic ow, supersonic ow, and shock waves coexist. We will
not even remark on the behavior of the boundary layers. Transonic ow poses the stiest challenge,
analytically, numerically, and experimentally. Linear extrapolations from both the subsonic and
the supersonic regimes fail as the Mach number approaches unity. The pair of photographs of a
projectile in free ight in Fig. 48 provide the clue for the appropriate transonic similarity rule!
Except for a pair of nearly normal shocks standing to the far right, the two ow patterns are nearly
the same. Perhaps, in transonic ow regime, one can establish a kinship between a ow on one side
of M = 1 with another on the other side of M = 1!

70

Figure 48: Transonic ow: M = 0.99 (left) and M = 1.01 (right). (Ballistic Research Laboratories,
c1950.)

12.1.3

Supersonic ow: M > 1.2

Figure 49: 10 half-angle cone at M = 1.494. (Ballistic Research Laboratories, c1950.)

Figure 49 is a gorgeous picture of a cone and its turbulent wake in low supersonic ight, except
for the wear and tear on the photographic paper. An oblique shock (cone) compresses deects the
incoming ow, an expansion (cone) wave at the base expands (accelerates) and deects the ow,
almost forming a closed body, as if a rear pointing cone is attached at its base. At the tip of the
virtual cone, another oblique (cone) shock compresses and straightens the ow. As added features
of the turbulence enthusiast, there is the free shear layer at the base with Brown-Roshko coherent

71

structures, which eventually render the wake turbulent far downstream. The shear layer also clearly
shows the shocklets responsible for radiating the energy of the shear layer, arresting its growth.
12.1.4

Hypersonic ow: M > 5

The cover photograph of 1/300 scale model of NASA Ares CEV (Crew Exploration Vehicle) at
M = 4.5 illustrates the nature of the hypersonic ow regime: oblique shock waves hug the body.
The simpler geometry of a 10 half-angle cone in free ight in Figs. 49 and 50 show that the shock
and expansion wave angles get shallower as the Mach number increases.

Figure 50: 10 half-angle cone at M = 5.1 (Rasmussen, 1994, p.7, Fig.1.5).

72

12.1.5

Free molecular ow: M > 10

Figure 51: Shuttle model in Langley helium tunnel at M = 20. The ow is made visible by an
electron beam. NASA SP-440,1981, p. 121.

12.1.6

Slides

BRL photographs, M = 0.8 2.8

20 -cone at M = 1.5 and M = 5.1
Space Shuttle in Helium tunnel at M = 20

73

12.2

Innitesimal Disturbances in 1-D




, u, p, T, s, po  + d, u + du, p + dp, T + dT, s, po

Figure 52: Sound wave.
When observed from the reference frame of an one-dimensional innitesimal disturbance traveling at constant speed u in and otherwise stagnant uid, the mass conservation d(u) = 0 and
momentum conservation (dp + u2 ) = dp + (u) du = 0 dictate that the propagation velocity u,
which we now dened as the sound speed a, is


dp 
a =
.
d s
2

12.3

(238)

Mach Cone/Angle

at

u st

stagnant fuid, u=0

stagnant source, us=0

at

stagnant fuid, u=0

moving souce, us=aM, M>1

Sound waves.

moving fuid, u=aM, M>1

stagnant souce, us=0

Mach cone.

Mach wave.

Figure 53: Mach wave/cone.

= sin1

12.4

1
M

(239)

Stream Tube Flow

u=u(x)
x

u+du
u

2
1

dx
Figure 54: Compressible stream tube ow.

74

We now consider the steady isentropic ow of a compressible uid in a stream tube, the crosssectional area of which is changing. The continuity equation reads
d(uA) = 0.

(240)

The momentum balance d(pA + u2 A) = d(pA) + (uA)du = 0, along with the help of Eq. 238,
can be cast into
1
dA
du
+
= 0.
2
u
1M A

(241)

du/dA < 0 for subsonic ow (M < 1), similar to incompressible ow, and du/dA > 0 for supersonic
ow (M > 1), opposite of subsonic ow. Note that sonic ow (M = 1) can only occur when dA = 0,
that is , only at a minimum area location along a stream tube.
Energy equation dh0 = 0 (Eq. 1) yields
T
T0
p
p0

if also isentropic

A
A

1 2 1
M
2


1 2 1
M
=
1+
2
=

1+

1 2
M
1+
2

(242)
(243)

1
1

(244)

u
+1 2
1 2
M 1+
M
= ( )2 =
a
2
2


+1
2

+1
2(1)

1 2
M
M 1+
2

1 2
M
mass ow rate m
= M 1+
2


2
+1

+1
2(1)

RT0

+1
2(1)

1
2

RT0

1

(245)

+1
2(1)

(246)

1
2

p0 A

p0 A

(247)
(248)

where (*) refers to conditions at the throat (minimum area).

12.5

Normal Shock


1 , u1 , a1 , M1 , p1, T1 , p01, To, s1  2 , u2 , a2 , M2 , p2, T2 , p02, To, s2

T02
T01

= 1

(249)

75

1
At/A
0.8
A/At
10

0.6

o
0.4
T/To

p/po
0.2

0
0

Figure 55: Compressible isentropic streamtube ow.

Figure 56: Normal shock wave.
( 1)M12 + 2
2M12 ( 1)
2
(M 2 1)
= 1+
+1 1
( + 1)M12
=
( 1)M12 + 2
[2M12 ( 1)][( 1)M12 + 2]
=
( + 1)2 M12

M22 =
p2
p1
u1
2
=
1
u2
a2
T2
= 22
T1
a1
s
02
p02
=
= e R
p01
01

( + 1)M12
( 1)M12 + 2

+1
2
2M1 ( 1)

(250)
(251)
(252)
(253)

1
1

(254)

Selected values for compressible ows are given in Table 6.

12.5.1

Oblique shock wave

When one views a normal shock wave form a reference frame moving at constant speed along the
shock, the ow elds becomes that through an oblique shock wave. The thermodynamics of the
ow is the same as that of normal shock with the same normal incoming Mach number. If the
translation velocity is small, then the ow behind the shock appears subsonic, and if suciently,
high appears supersonic. The normal shock relations and the geometry in Fig. 58 , after sucient
labor, yield the relation among the incoming Mach number M1 , the deection angle and the
76

10
T2/T1
8

10(p02/p01)

10M2

2/1
(p2/p1)/10

2
1
0

M1

10

2=

(u

2n ,

p)

Figure 57: Flow across a normal shock.

u2

up
u

M1n , u1n

M2n , u2n

)
,up

(u 1n

u 1=

u1

up
up

1n

M1=u1/a1

2n

M2=u2/a2

Figure 58: Oblique shock: a normal shock viewed from a moving reference frame.
shock angle .
tan = 2 cot

M12 sin2 1
M12 ( + cos 2) + 2

(255)

Note that for innitesimal deections ( 0), the shock angle approaches the Mach angle ( ).
Equation 255 is plotted in Fig. 59. The normal Mach numbers are, from Fig. 58,
M1n =

u1n
= M1 sin
a1

M2n =

u2n
= M2 sin( ).
a2

(256)

The static thermodynamic properties, including the entropy change s, may be determined from
the normal shock relations in Section 12.5 using the normal Mach numbers. The stagnation properties, however, do depend on the reference frame, hence, M1 and M2 must be used.

77

50

M2

M1
40

M2=1

30
(deg)

max

20
5 4

3
M1=2

10
1.5
10
1.2

20
0

10

20

30

40
50
(deg)

60

1.1
70

80

90

Figure 59: Oblique shock relations for = 1.4 (equation 255, adapted from NACA-1135).

78

throat
1

p/po

normal
shock

0.528
(air)

normal
shock

shock

son

virtual throat

=1

ic l
i

ne
,M

Figure 60: Compressible ow in a converging-diverging nozzle.

M>1

M<1

M<1

shock

M<1

Figure 61: Acceleration to supersonic ow through a virtual throat and deceleration to subsonic
ow through a shock in a stream tube over the supercritical the airfoil in Fig. 1.

79

13

High speed aerodynamics

13.1

Formulation

Small perturbation analysis:

u = (U, 0, 0) + (u , v , w  ),

p = p + p ,

= + 

|u | |v  | |w  | p 
,
,
,
,
1
U U U p

(257)

Isentropic ow condition is linearized as

1
p
= const = p = a2  =  = 2 p

(258)

Steady mass conservation equation, with the help of Eq. 258, is linearized as
(u) = 0 = U  + u = 0 = U p = a2 u = a2 2

(259)

Finally, the steady momentum equation is linearized with the help of Eq. 259
1
1
p
uu = p = Uu =

1
= U (Uu ) =
U p

(260)

Assuming that there are no strong curved shock waves, we dene a perturbation velocity potential,
= u = (u , v  , w )

(261)

which we use to recast Eq. 260

U 2 xx = a2 2
2
xx
2 = M

(262)

Finally, we have the high speed linearized ow equation in a more explicit form
2
)xx + yy + zz = 0.
(1 M

(263)

For subsonic ow (M < 1), the ow eld is similar to that of an incompressible ow (M = 1),
except for an anisotropic scaling. At subsonic speeds, every part of a steady ow eld is aware of
every other part of it. For supersonic ow (M > 1), however, the ow eld and, hence, Eq. 263
change their characters. The ow eld is partitioned with waves of various types, and the upstream
segments of the ow eld becomes oblivious to its downstream segments.

80

13.1.1

Formulation: transonic ow

Equation 263 becomes inadequate when the Mach number approaches unity. However, if one puts
in some more work in to the simplication of the momentum equation at the start and keeps the
most signicant nonlinear perturbation term, we obtain a nonlinear perturbation equation which
describes adequately the ow as the Mach number approaches unity


=
2

2
M
xx

x
( + 1)

 U 

1+

(264)

keep for transonic ow

13.2

Subsonic ow

Let us write Eq. 263 for two-dimensional subsonic ow

2
(1 M
)

2 2
+
= 0.
x2
y 2

(265)

2 ) can be absorbed by a change of varibale in x or y. Dening =

The coecent (1 M

2 ) or = y (1 M 2 ) yields, respectively, we have

x/ (1 M

2
2
2 +
y 2
x

2
1 M




2 2
+
= 0 or
2
y 2

(266)

2 2
+
= 0.
x2
2

(267)

longer chord

2
2

+
x2
2 ) y ]2
[ ( 1 M




thinner section

Therfore, the subsonic ow at M described by Eq. 265 is an incompressible potential ow described by Eq. 71 for either a longer object of the same thickness (Eq. 266) or a thinner object of
the same chord (Eq. 267), as illustrated in Fig. 62. The slope dy/dx at a given location on


2 . Put dierently, the ow over a given airfoil appears to

the airfoil appears reduced to 1 M

be that over a progressively thicker one as the free stream Mach number increases.
13.2.1

Linearized pressure coecient in subsonic ow

Starting with the compressible Bernoullis Eq. 20 and using the isentropic ow condition (p/ ) = 0,
we obtain the linearized pressure coecient for compressible ow
cp =
81

2u
,
U

(268)

[1-M 2]1/2

c
t

c[1-M 2] -1/2

2 1/2

[1-M ]

t[1-M 2]1/2
Figure 62: Subsonic similarity.
identical to that for incompressible ow in Eq. 131. Using the perturbation potential function in
Eq. 261, we write u = x to obtain
cp =

2 d
2
1
2x

=
=
2
U
U dx
U
1 M

(269)

2 . Noting that the factor 2 /U is the incompressible pressure

where we have used = x/ 1 M

coecient cpi , we nally obtain

cp = 
13.2.2

c pi
2
1 M

(270)

Critical Mach Number

As the free stream Mach number incerases, the minimum pressure on an airfoil decreases as indicated by Eq. 270, which results in higher velocities and lower temperatures. There is a critical
free stream Mach number Mcr , when reached, the ow at the point of minimum pressure becomes
sonic. If we know the minimum pressure cp on airfoil at a given Mach number M , with the help of
Eqs. 243 & 270, we deduce the relation among cp , M and Mcr




1
c pi
2
1 M2
+1
cp,cr = 
= cp 
=
1
2
2
2
2
Mcr
2 + ( 1)Mcr
1 Mcr
1 Mcr

13.3

(271)

Wave Equation

From the theory of partial dierential equations, we know that the well known hyperbolic wave
equation
tt = c2 xx

(272)

has a general solution comprised of right going waves f and left going waves g in xt diagram
(x, t) = f (x ct) + g(x + ct),
82

(273)

where f and g are arbitrary functions and c constant propagation velocity (slope of the characteristics in the xt diagram). For initial conditions 0 (x) = (x, 0) and 1 (x) = t (x, 0), the solution
is

1
1
(x, t) = 0 (x ct) + 0 (x + ct) +
2
2c

13.4

 x+ct

1 () d

(274)

xct

Supersonic ow

Starting with the supersonic perturbation equation for the potential function (u = )
2
1)
( M

2 2

=0
x2
y 2

(275)

we write its general solution as (cf. Eq. 273)



=f x



2 1 y +g x +
M

2 1 y
M



rightgoing wave

(276)


leftgoing wave

This time, the characteristics in the xyplane has slopes of tan =

2 1 (Eq. 239). Whatever

M

happens on the surface of the airfoil is propagated donstream unaltered along the characteristics.

r i g h t g o i n g w a v es -- f

x
l e f t g o i n g w a v e s -- g

Figure 63: Thin (double convex) airfoil in linearized supersonic ow.



2 1 f  (x), which
On a surface y = y(x) where dy/dx v  /U (thin object !), v  M

leads to
f  (x) = 

dy
U
,
2
M 1 dx

(277)

hence


(u , v ) = (x, y )


f (x),

=
y=0

=
83

2
M

1 f (x)

(278)

dy
dy
U
, U
 2
.
dx
M 1 dx

(279)

Note that the boundary condition is applied at y = 0 (on the x- axis) rather than the surface of
the thin airfoil!

13.5

Linearized pressure coecient in supersonic ow

Beginning with linearized pressure coecient for compressible ow in Eq. 268 and the supersonic
perturbation velocities in Eq. 279, we derive the pressure coecient
cp = 

dy
2

.
=
2 1 dx
2 1
M
M
2

(280)

Integrating over the airfoil, we deduce the section lift and drag coeceints
cl =
cd =

 1

(l u )d(x/c)
2 1 0
M
 1
2

(l2 + u2 )d(x/c)
2 1 0
M


(281)
(282)

where subscripts u and l refer to upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil, respectively. The surface
slope is positive if it turns into the ow (compression), and negative when away from the ow
(expansion). Note that, for the symmetric biconvex airfoil in supersonic ow in Fig 63, cl = 0 and
cd > 0. In contract to subsonic ow where there is no drag within the potential theory, there is
nite drag in supersonic ow, due to nite thickness of the airfoil even if there is no lift.
13.5.1

Flat plate in supersonic ow

A at plate at an angle of attack of has ul,u = , therefore, has lift and drag coecients of
cl = 

42
cd =  2
M 1

4
2 1
M

(283)

For a at plate, both lift and drag are functions of the angle of attack only,
cd = cl
1 2
=
M 1 c2l
4
Not to be confused with apparently similar expressions for a finite wing in incompressible ow!

84

(D,L)

Figure 64: Flat plate in linearized supersonic ow.

13.5.2

Diamond airfoil in supersonic ow

Using Eqs. 281 & 282, we obtain for a symmetric diamond airfoil at an angle of attack
4
cl =  2
M 1

4(t/c)2
42
cd =  2
+ 2
M 1
M 1

(284)

where t is the thickness and c the chord of the airfoil.

Figure 65: Thin symmetric diamond airfoil of chord c and thickness t in linearized supersonic ow.

13.6
13.6.1

High speed similarity

Subsonic similarity

Beginning with the linear perturbation equation for subsonic

2
) xx + yy = 0
(1 M

(285)

the pressure coecient cp = 2x /U may be written as




cp = Af
2
A 1 M
85

(286)

2 =
A = 1: cp is constant for the same / 1 M
i

2 : c
2
A = 1/ 1 M
p 1 M = cp,i is constant for the same thickness

A = : cp / is constant for the same Mach number

13.6.2

Transonic similarity

As seen from Eqs. 270 and 280 for the linearized pressure coecients for subsonic and supersonic
ows, the predicted pressures increase without bound as the free stream Mach number approaches
unity. Equation 263 beacome inadeqaute to desribe the ows around sonic conditons. Beginning
with the nonlinear perturbation equation for transonic ow (Eq. 264), we write the nonlinear
equation for the velocity potential


2
2
1 M
( 1)M

x
xx + yy = 0
U

(287)

which is no longer singular at M = 1. This equation allows matching similar shapes of varying
thicknesses at dierent Mach numbers. We write the pressure coecient as


cp

[( + 1)M 2 ]1/3
1 M2
=
f
n
2/3
[ ( + 1)M 2 ]2/3

(288)

where = tmax /c.

Numerical examples illustrating subsonic and transonic similarity rules.
13.6.3

Supersonic similarity

Beginning with the linear perturbation equation for supersonic

2
1) xx yy = 0
(M

cp = 
13.6.4

2
2 1
M

(289)
(290)

Hypersonic similarity

Beginning with the linear perturbation equation for supersonic ow (Eq. 275), if M , then,
2 1 M 2 , hence we simplify the equation as
we write M

2
xx yy = 0
M

(291)

The pressure coecient can be written as

cp = 2 f (M )
86

(292)

13.7

Sweep back

Delays compressibility eects to lower normal Mach number.

87

14

Drag

14.1

Drag

sphere, cylinder
14.1.1

Viscous drag: Skin friction coecient

at plate: laminar
cf = 0.664Re1/2
x

(293)

at plate: a practical value for turbulent

cf = 0.0032
14.1.2

(294)

Viscous drag: Flat plate - Laminar ow

Drag on one side of a at plate of length L in laminar ow

 L

w dx =

D=
0

CD =
14.1.3

 L

0.332 U

3/2

D
1
2
2 U L

1
L

dx = 0.664 U 3/2 L
x


 L

1/2

cf dx = 1.328 ReL

(295)
(296)

Flat plate resistance formulas

The skin friction coecient for laminar ow is easily calculated. For turbulent ows, however,
we must appeal to experiments. There are numerous empirical expressions for the turbulent skin
friction coecient over a at plate as a function of the Reynolds number ReL = U L/. Figure 66
shows a selection of these formulas, along with the analytic expression for skin friction in laminar
ow.
1. The International Towing Tank Conference (ITTC) recommends for total resistance
Cf =

D
1
2
2 U A

0.075
(log10 ReL 2)2

(297)

2. Prandtl-Schlichting (PS) formula (Eq. 21.16)

Cf =

0.455
D
=
1
2
(log10 ReL )2.58
2 U A

88

A
Rel

(298)
transition

3. Schoenherr formula - implicit (Schlichting, Eq. 21.17)

1
= 4.13 log10 (ReL Cf )
Cf

(299)

4. Laminar ow, Blasius boundary layer



Cf = 1.328/ ReL

(300)

5
4
3

tur
bu
len
t fl
nal flow
ow
is tio

ow

r fl

ina

lam

tra
n

1000 x cf

10
9
8
7
6

1
105

106

107

108

109

1010

Re

Figure 66: Flat plate resistance formulas: turbulent ow (Eqs. 297, 298, 299), transitional ow
(Eq. 298) and laminar ow (Eq. 300).

89

14.1.4

Pressure drag

Rankine body
Kircho ow
blu body: separated ow
CD 1
14.1.5

(301)

Wave drag

supersonic ow
water waves (Froude number)
14.1.6

Vehicle platoon drag

Varying drag coecients on vehicle in train of identical elements. The vehicle next the to last one
has the minimum drag.
14.1.7

Incomplete similarity

Boundary layer tripping to mimic high Reynolds number ows.

90

15
15.1

Aircraft performance and stability

Range

Constant altitude (), constant CL

2 CL
X=
U1
SF C CD

W2
W1

(302)

where SFC= thrust specic fuel consumption/

Constant air speed U , constant CL

W1
1 CL
X=
U ln
SF C CD
W2

(303)

Constant altitude (), constant air speed U

2
U
X=
SF C

CL
CD

"

tan
max

(CL /CD )1
2(CL /CD )max [1 KCL1 (CL /CD )1 ]

(304)

where = 1 W2 /W1 and CD = CD0 + KCL2 is the drag polar.

15.2

Static Stability

dCM
<0
d

91

(305)

CM,cg
unbalanced, unstable

balanced, unstable

balanced, stable

unbalanced, stable

Figure 67: Static stability.

92

Tables

A.1

Some properties of some selected uids at 1 atm and 20 C

fluid

dynamic

kinematic

thermal

specic

thermal

Prandtl

viscosity

viscosity

conduct.

heat

diusivity

number

= /

cp

= k/cp

Pr

kg/m3

kg/m s

m2 /s

W/m K

J/kg K

m2 /s

1.2047

1.813 105

1.50 105

0.0256

1005

2.28 105

0.71

dry

carbon dioxide

1.977

1.402 10

0.01465

816

9.1 10

0.78

CO2 , at 0 C

water

998.2

1.0019 103

1.004 106

0.598

4184

1.44 107

7.0

hydrogen

0.0899

0.172

14070

0.688

H2 , at 0 C

helium

0.178

1.87 105

1.05 104

0.143

5204

1.54 104

0.684

He, at 0 C

human blood

1060

3.50 103

3.30 106

0.52

3889

1.56 107

21

air

density

8.37 10

7.09 10
9.3 10

1.36 10

3.40 103

remarks

pure

36.5 C, male
at 36.5 C, female

whole milk

1030

2.0 103

2.0 106

20 C, pasteurized

skim milk

1035

1.4 103

1.4 106

20 C, pasteurized

ethyl-alcohol

789.45

1.19 103

1.5 106

isopropyl-alcohol

784.8

glycerin

1261.3

1.499

mineral oil

880

toluene
mercury

2395

8.89 108

17

C2 H5 OH

0.000

0000

0.00 10

00

CH3 CHOHCH3

2.2 104

0.287

3346

9.46 108

12.5

C2 H3 (OH)3

0.19

1.19 103

0.000

2000

0.00 100

00.0

n = 1.49

866.8

0.586 103

6.76 107

0.136

1702

9.22 108

7.3

13546

1.554 103

1.15 107

8.21

139.2

4.33 106

0.027

light mineral oil

800

0.098

2000

6.1 10

62

molten salt, Flibe

1990

4.3 106

1.10

2345

2.5 107

17.23

2.43 10

1.554 10

8.56 103

3.1 10

3.8 10

0.168

Table 2: Some properties of some selected uids at 1 atm and 20 C.

93

C6 H5 CH3
liquid
n = 1.500
LiF BeF 2

A.2

Standard Atmospheric Conditions at Mean Sea Level (MSL)

name
gravitational acceleration

symbol

value

unit

remarks

m/s2

9.80665

pressure

temperature

288.15

density

1.225

molecular weight

0.02897

gas constant

287.0

J/kg air K

specic heat at constant pressure

Cp

1.006

kJ/kg K

specic heat at constant volume

Cv

0.719

kJ/kg K

specic heat ratio

1.401

[dynamic] viscosity

1.80 105

kinematic viscosity

1.467 105

speed of sound

340.3

mean free path

60

temperature lapse rate

6.5

1.01325 10

at equator

N/m (P a)

760 torr

15 o C

kg/m3
kg/mol
8.31451 J/mol K
R = Cp Cv
Cp /Cv
kg/m s

1.80 104 g/cm s

m2 /s

/, 0.15 cm2 /s

a2 = p/s = RT

m/s
nm
K/km

< 11 km

Table 3: Standard atmospheric conditions at mean sea level (MSL).

94

A.3

Standard Atmosphere

altitude

temperature

lapse rate

pressure

density

viscosity

z (km)

T (K )

(K/km)

p (Pa)

(kg/m3)

(kg/ms)

(m)

288.15

-6.5

1.01325105

1.225

1.789105

66.3109

11

216.65

2.2632104

0.364

1.421105

0.223106

13

216.65

1.650104

0.265

1.421105

0.306106

20

216.65

5.4749103

8.80 102

1.421105

0.923106

32

228.65

2.8

8.6802102

1.32 102

1.486105

6.14106

47

270.65

1.1091102

1.43 103

1.703105

56.9106

51

270.65

-2.8

66.94

8.62 104

1.703105

94.3106

71

214.65

-2

3.96

6.42 105

1.410105

1.27103

85

186.95

0.37

6.96 106

1.789105

9.88103

100

195.05

0.032

5.60 107

0.142

(LEO) 330

986

4.96 106

1.04 1011

4.610+3

Table 4: US Standard Atmosphere (LEO: Low Earth Orbit).

95

mean free path

A.4

A Catalog of Incompressible Potential Flows

flow

potential function

velocity Field u

2 = 0

0.
1.

uniform ow

Ux + V y + Wz

2.

stagnation point ow

1
2
2 (ax

3.

2D source

4.

3D source

5.

u = grad

notes
curl u 0, irrotational

(U, V, W )

+ by 2 (a + b)z 2 )

(ax, by, (a + b)z)

3D

S
2 ln r
S 1
4
r

S 1
( 4
, 0)
r2

2D vortex

(0, 2r
)

6.

2D doublet

cos
2 r

(2D source)/x

7.

3D doublet

cos
4 r 2

(3D source)/x

8.

Rankine body

U r cos +

9.
10.
11.

cylinder
sphere
wedge

U x(1 +
U x(1 +
[ A(2)
]
2

S 1
( 2
r , 0)

a2
r2
1
2

ln r

uniform ow + source

a3
r3

2
2

uniform ow + 2D-doublet
)
r

uniform ow + 3D-doublet
2
2

2
cos ( 2
)

conformal mapping
wedge surfaces at = 0 &

12.

lifting body

Ux +

13.

lifting cylinder

U x(1 +

14.

lifting at plate

uniform ow + vortex

a2

r 2 ) + 2

F (z) = U ( +


a2

u iv = U i

uniform ow + doublet + vortex

) i 2
ln

1z
1+z

F (z) = + i, z = x + iy = r i
conformal mapping, z = +

a2
e2i

plate at angle of attack of

= 4aU sin for Kutta condition

15.

lifting parabolic arc

u iv = U +  i(z

16.

vortex in a wedge

f (z) = tan1 z n

then, lift coecient is 2 sin

z 2 1)

z = x + iy = r i
z = x + iy = r i

Table 5: A catalog of incompressible potential ows.

96

A.5

Compressible Flow
Isentropic Flow

Normal Shock Wave

M1

p1 /p01

T1 /T01

1 /01

M2

p2 /p1

T2 /T1

2 /1

p02 /p01

0.1

0.993

0.998

0.995

0.3

0.940

0.982

0.956

0.5

0.843

0.952

0.885

0.8

0.656

0.887

0.740

transport

0.85

0.624

0.874

0.714

transport

0.99

0.5345

0.8361

0.6392

0.5283

0.8333

0.6339

1.01

0.5221

0.8306

0.6287

0.9901

1.023

1.007

1.017

1.000

1.2

0.412

0.776

0.531

0.842

1.513

1.128

1.342

0.993

0.128

0.556

0.230

0.577

4.500

1.668

2.667

0.721

0.0272

0.357

0.0762

0.475

10.33

2.679

3.857

0.328

0.00659

0.238

0.0277

0.435

18.50

4.047

4.571

0.139

0.00189

0.167

0.0113

0.415

29

5.800

5.000

0.0617

10

0.0000236

0.0476

0.000495

0.388

117

20.39

5.714

0.00305

0.378

[e R ]

Table 6: Compressible ow, = 1.4.

97

remarks
incompressible

sonic ow

SR-71

Integrals

B.1

Integrals for Vortex Sheet/Panel Calculations




dx
= tan(x/2)
1 + cos x

(306)

dx
= cot(x/2)
1 cos x

(307)

2
dx
a tan (x/2)

tan1
=
2
a sin x
a 1
a2 1

2
dx
tanh1
=
2
1 a cos x
a 1

dx
a + b cos x

tan

ax + b
cx + d

(308)

(a + 1) tan (x/2)

a2 1

1
(b a) tan(x/2) + (b2 a2 )


ln
(a2 b2 )
(b a) tan(x/2) (b2 a2 )

1
dx =
2
2(a + c2 )

(309)

2
(a b) tan(x/2)


tan1
2
2
(a b )
(a2 b2 )
"

a2 > b2
#

b2 > a2

(310)

ax + b
cx + d


a(ax + b) + c(cx + d)
2(ab + cd) tan1
bc ad
2(a2 + c2 ) x tan1

+ (bc ad) ln b + d + 2(ab + cd)x + (a + c )x (311)

2

x tan

ax + b
cx + d

1
dx =
2(a2 + c2 )2


2

2 2

(a + c ) x tan

ax + b
cx + d

a(ax + b) + c(cx + d)
bc ad

(bc ad) (a2 + c2 )x + (ab + cd)

ln b + d + 2(ab + cd)x + (a + c )x

98

 

+ (4abcd + (a c )(b d )) tan

2

(312)

B.2

Glauert Integral


In =
0

sin n
cos n
d =
cos cos
sin

(313)

Verify the following integral


sin n sin d
0

cos cos 0

= cos n0

From: H. Glauert, The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew Theory

since sin n sin = 12 [cos(n + 1) cos(n 1)], let us rst evaluate the integral


In =
0

cos n
d
cos cos 0

Since the denominator vanishes at = 0 , we must use the principal value integral
In =

  0

0 +

cos n
d
cos cos 0

FirstI0
I0 =

  0

Next I1

I1 =
0

0 +

sin(0 12 )
d
1
= lim 0
log
cos cos 0
sin 0
sin(0 + 12 )

cos
d =
cos cos 0

 

=0

1+
0

cos 0
d = + I0 cos 0 =
cos cos 0

Now, for n 1
In+1 + In1 =


cos(n + 1) + cos(n 1)
0

cos cos 0

d =


2 cos cos n
0

cos cos 0

We have now obtained the recurrence formula

In+1 2 cos 0 In + In1 = 0
the solution of which, subject to the initial conditions I0 = 0 and I1 = is
In =

sin n0
sin 0

99

d = 2 cos 0 In

Projects

C.1

Project 1

Savas
O.

August 30, 2012

due 17:00, September 14, 2012
ME 163 ENGINEERING AERODYNAMICS
Project 1

This project gives you a chance to review your programming skills. It also presents a simple model
of the motion of a group of point vortices. Recall from your uid mechanics course that a point
vortex placed at the origin has the induced velocity eld


u(r) = (ur , u ) = 0,

2r

(314)

where we used a cylindrical coordinate system (r, , z) and is the strength of the vortex. We
rewrite this expression when a vortex of strength j is placed at an arbitrary location rj
j
j
[(y yj ), (x xj )]
k (r rj ) =
2
2rj
2[(x xj )2 + (y yj )2 ]

uj (r) =

(315)

where rj = |r rj | and k is the unit vector in the z-direction. Now, consider the motion of a group
of n vortices i , where we use the subscript ()i to identify vortices. A vortex moves with the total
induced velocity due to the rest of the vortices in the group

y
ui

rj

n


uj .

(316)

Ui =

ri-r

ri

j=1, j=i

0
In explicit form


Ui =

n

j=1,

n

j
j
[(y
[(xi xj )]
y
)],
i
j
2
2
2[(xi xj ) + (yi yj ) ]
2[(xi xj )2 + (yi yj )2 ]
j=i
j=1, j=i

(317)
100

Following Helmholtz law, the vortex follows the uid

dri
= Ui (ri rj ).
dt

(318)

Let us consider n vortices j placed at arbitrary locations rj . Let us approximate equation (318)
as
ri Ui t.

(319)

Write a code in a language of your choice that calculates the position of each vortex as a function
of the time
ri(t + t) = ri (t) + ri .

(320)

Alternatively, you can use an integration scheme of your choice to integrate the simultaneous
ordinary dierential equations (318).
Test Cases
As test cases to verify your code, conrm that:
(a) For n = 2 and 1 = 2 , the vortex pair moves at a constant velocity.
(b) For n = 2 and 1 = 2 , the vortex pair orbits at a constant angular velocity around their
centroid.
(c) n identical vortices placed on a circle at equal intervals orbit at a constant angular velocity
around the center of the circle. Try n = 3, 5, 10.
(d) A vortex placed in a corner moves on a trajectory r sin 2 = cons. Use image vortices to
construct a four-vortex system to carry out the calculation.
Calculations
Use your code to calculate the trajectories of the following symmetric vortex systems whose initial
congurations (x, y, )i are give as:
1. Symmetric co-rotating vortex pairs: Vortex wake of a wing with inboard aps deployed


(b/2, 0, ), (b/4, 0, ), (b/4, 0, +), (b/2, 0, +)

101

(321)

2. Symmetric counter-rotating vortex pairs: Vortex wake of a wing with tip aps deployed


(b/2, 0, ), (b/4, 0, +), (b/4, 0, ), (b/2, 0, +)

(322)

3. Finally, a new twist, a symmetric co-rotating vortex pairs, a four-vortex system over ground
at y = 0, simulating a aircraft during takeo or landing.


(b/2, b/2, ), (b/4, b/2, ), (b/4, b/2, +), (b/2, b/2, +)

(323)

where b and are positive constants. Take the values of the parameter = 0.2, 0.4, 0.6. Carry
out your calculations for long enough times to observe the cyclic nature of the vortex motion. In
the last conguration, you must consider the image vortex system located at y = b/2 to satisfy
the impermeability condition at the ground plane, hence, it is an eight-vortex system!

102

Vortex sheet roll up

The evolution of the vortex wake (wake turbulence) of an airplane may be modeled as distribution
of vortices on line segment. For this purpose, consider N equispaced vortices of varying strengths
on a line segment y [1, +1]:


( yi , i ) =

(2i + 1)/N
i + 1/2
, 
N
1 (i + 1/2)2 /N 2

for i = N, ..., 0, ..., N 1

(324)

This distribution of vortices mimics the elliptical loading condition, which is the optimum loading
for minimum induced drag. Do the calculation for N = 10, 20, & 50. Be careful about the time
steps.

4th Order Runga-Kutta Scheme

y  = f (x, y)

yn+1 = yn +
k1 =
k2 =
k3 =
k4 =

1
1
1
1
k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 + O(h5 )
6
3
3
6
hf (xn , yn )
1
1
hf (xn + h, yn + k1 )
2
2
1
1
hf (xn + h, yn + k2 )
2
2
hf (xn + h, yn + k3 )

Report
No cover page. Include in your report an abstract, a description of the problem, formulation, and
implementation of your code. Then, discuss the ow pattern in each case. The gures must be
clearly labeled. Also, be prepared to submit an electronic copy of your code if asked.
103

C.2

Project 2

Savas
O.

September 27, 2012

ME 163 ENGINEERING AERODYNAMICS Fall 2006
Vortex Panel Method

In the following projects during the rest of the semester, you are required to write a source
code for calculating ow past a two-dimensional closed body using vortex-panel method. You can
follow the discussion in the class, or refer to the text book to construct your algorithm. Once you
determine the pressure distribution along the body, you will be asked to estimate the boundary layer
separation points using approximate integral techniques. Employ linearly varying vortex panels.
Enter the body geometry Xi as a separate input le. You may want to exploit the le handling
routines of your programming environment to automatically determine the number of panels from
the implicit number of entries in the input le. Implement the Kutta condition by nulling the
vortex sheet strengths of the adjacent panels.
Xi+1
-i
l
e
pan i

xi

reference line

control point-i
Xi
i

j+1
j
Xj

ds j

Sj = Xj+1-Xj

Xj+1

j
panel-

Figure. Symbol denitions for vortex panel geometry.

The potential function of the combined eld of the uniform ow and the vortex panels is
(x, y) = U xcos + U ysin +

  (sj )
j

tan

y yj
x xj

dsj ,

(325)

where the vortex panel strength varies linearly

(sj ) = j + (j+1 j )

sj
Sj

(326)

The normal velocity components at control points i vanish




=0
n i

104

(327)

Implementation of this equation (327) eventually turns into inversion of the following matrix to
determine i in equation (326).

m 


Cn1ij j + Cn2ij j+1 = 2U sin(i )

(328)

j=1

where the coecients are gives as

Cn1ij

= 0.5DF + CG Cn2ij

Cn2ij

= D + 0.5QF/Sj (AC + DE)G/Sj

A = (xi Xj )cosj (yi Yj )sinj

B = (xi Xj )2 + (yi Yj )2
C = sin(i j )
D = cos(i j )
E = (xi Xj )sinj (yi Yj )cosj


Sj2 + 2ASj
= ln 1 +
B
1

G = tan

ESj
B + ASj

= (xi Xj )sin(i 2j ) + (yi Yj )cos(i 2j )

Q = (xi Xj )cos(i 2j ) (yi Yj )sin(i 2j )

(329)

Project 2
due October 18, 2012
Determine the pressure distribution around a circular cylinder using 32, 64, 128 linearly varying
vortex panels and compare your calculated pressure coecient distributions (Cp ) to that from the
potential ow theory. Use equal length panels.
105

No-lift: place the Kutta condition at = 180 . Using the boundary layer separation criterion
of Twaities, determine the separation point (symmetric ow).
Lifting: place the Kutta condition at = 150 . Using the boundary layer separation criterion
of Twaities, determine the two separation points (asymmetric ow).

References
Kuethe & Chow, Section 5.10
Class Notes, Appendix B.1
http://www.ae.uiuc.edu/m-selig/ads/coord database.html
106

C.3

Project 3

Savas
O.

November 1, 2012
due Tuesday, November 13, 2012
ME 163 ENGINEERING AERODYNAMICS Fall 2012
Project 3 - Vortex Panel Method

Application of the code you developed in Project-2

Consider ows past two airfoils, NACA-0012 and NACA-4412, tures from JSME booklet) at
angles of attack 16 < < 16 . Using 64 or more linearly varying vortex panels, determine
the pressure distribution over the airfoils. Use panels of varying lengths, shorter ones around the
leading edge and longer ones over the recovery regions.
Determine the force on the airfoils by integrating the pressure force around them


F = (D, L) =

p n dA

where n is the unit normal vector on the airfoil surface. Compare the lift distributions and the
lift coecients to those from the theoretical analysis of the thin airfoil theory. Also compare to
aerodynamic data at high Reynolds numbers available in literature.
Using the boundary layer separation criterion of Stratford, determine the stall angles for both
airfoils and compare them to data in the literature.
(a) Symmetric Airfoil: NACA-0012
(b) Asymmetric Airfoil: NACA-4412 (see Figure 33 of class notes from JSME booklet)

References:
Abbott & Doenho, Dover
Anderson, Section 4.9
Kuethe & Chow, Section 5.10
Rosenhead L. 1963 Laminar Boundary Layers, Dover.
Schlichting, H. 1976 Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill.
http://www.ae.illinois.edu/m-selig/ads/coord database.html
107

C.4

Project 4

Savas
O.

November 29, 2012

due 5pm, Monday, December 10, 2012
ME 163 ENGINEERING AERODYNAMICS Fall 2012
Project 4 - Sailwing design

Lets determine the planform of a xed wing designed to replace the traditional fabric sail of
a boat. A through design would require intensive optimization which is beyond the scope of our
class. Instead, we will x the sailing condition of the boat and simplify the exercise greatly. The
main inputs will be the atmospheric boundary prole. Since the boat is expected to tack equally
well in port and starboard directions, we will use a planar, symmetric wing. The only control we
will have the angle of attack with respect to the relative wind that the wing sees.

Airfoil
1. Use NACA0012 prole, rigid wing.
2. No camber control
3. No twist control

Sail wing
Fixed parameters
The nominal wind velocity is U = 20 m/s, at suciently high distance from the surface
(typically 100+ meters). Let us assume that the wind prole in the atmospheric boundary
layer can be locally described as
Uw (z) = 12.5 z 1/12
where Uw is in m/s and the elevation z in meters.
Sail boat is tacking at Ub =10 m/s and 60 .
The wing sees a local relative velocity vector of
Ur (z) = Uw (z) Ub

108

 Section angle of attack is limited to (z) 12 (may require vortex generators to delay
separation).
Wind span is 20m.
Wind stands 2 meters o the water surface.
Maximum chord is 4 meters.
To be determined
1. Determine chord c(z) for elliptical loading. For this purpose, approximate the wing as 2D
segments.
2. Determine the total lift and CL .
3. Estimate the induced drag coecient CD,i .
4. Assuming turbulent ow and treating the wing as a at plate, determine viscous wing drag
coecient CD,v .
5. Determine the total drag and CD .
6. Determine bending moment distribution along the mast.
Report
Limit your report to 6 (six) pages.
Include an abstract. Your introduction should give a brief overview of xed winged sailboats
(do some reading).
Present your results graphically.
Present a 3D view of the wing. (SolidWorks plot, wire frame, stacked 2D slices, etc)

109

at wing tip

atmospheric wind profile

at wing root

30

Ur z

z (m)

20

Uw
Ur
z
20

c(z

25

Uw (m/s)
12

Ub

12

15

00

10

00

NA
CA

Ub

60o

NA
CA

10

c(z

Project 4: Atmospheric velocity prole and vector diagrams.

110

Uw
o

60

D
D.1

ETC
Daily topics

Pitot static tube

Cause of the crash of AF-447 over the atlantic on 1 June 2009.
Vehicle aerodynamics
Vehicle

CD = D/ 12 U 2 A

My Car

0.30

Prius

0.27

Tesla

0.24

Tatra

0.21

GM - EV

0.19

Solar Raycer

0.07

Table 7: Drag coecients.

WindCar
Maximum speed.
Sailboat versus Airplane
Same trim.

111

D.2

Classroom demonstrations

D.2.1

Static atmosphere

Classroom demonstration of the pressure variation in the atmosphere using a barocell.



dp 
= o g = 1.225 9.81 = 12.0 P a/m = 0.090 torr/m
dz z=o
A 10-torr barocell and an electronic monometer were used to demonstrate that pressure drops by
about 0.09 torr over an elevation increase of one meter.
D.2.2

Schlieren (abberation) photography

Explained the wind tunnel photographs of Ares CEV on the cover and supercritical airfoil in Fig.
1. Demonstrated a home-schlieren system for visualizing a candle ame. The system consisted
of an LED light source, a large pin hole, two 20-cm focal length lenses, a candle, and rectangular
block (as knife edge).
D.2.3

Vortex shedding

I wooden dowel is swung in air, to generate aeolian tones.

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D.3

Slide/video shows

D.4

Slide/Video presentation

D.4.1

Vortex wake of wing models in water: multiple vortex systems, FV and PIV

Videos of uorescent dye ow visualization and PIV vorticity measurements in the Tretz plane in
the wake of wings at Re 105 .
1. Rectangular wing, counter-rotating vortex pair: Uneventful vertical descent.
2. Rectangular wing with inboard continuous ap, two co-rotating vortex pairs: Vortices within
each pair orbit, and merge after developing instabilities, resulting in a pair of counter-rotating
vortices.
3. Rectangular wing with outboard triangular aps, two counter-rotating vortex pairs: The
weaker vortices within each pair develop -vortices, which quickly render the whole ow
incoherent
D.4.2

Detailed discussion of the gures in class notes

D.4.3

Streamline, pathline, streakline calculations: IDL

D.4.4

Flow past cylinder: Prandtl, JSME pictures

D.4.5

Vortex laments

D.4.6

Rotorcraft in VRS: unsteady streamline pattern

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