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PO Box 411, 1925 Hwy. 51/138
Stoughton, Wisconsin 53589







Fundamentals of

Industrial Aerodynamics

&

Design









Elden F. Ray, P.E.
Staff Engineer

12 July 2013
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Table of Contents

Section Title Page

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. SPECIFYING PERFORMANCE 2

3. MASS FLOW RATE 3

4. GAS DENSITY 4

5. VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE 4

6. SYSTEM MODELING 5

7. SYSTEM LOSSES 7

8. BASIC CALCULATION METHODOLOGY 9

9. IN-DUCT MEASUREMENTS 12

10. LOW PRESSURE LOSS DESIGN 15

11. BALANCED FLOW 18

12. SUMMARY 18

13. REFERENCES 19
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1. INTRODUCTION

Aerodynamics is a specialized area of fluid mechanics and the focus of this treatise is to
present some basic fundamentals of duct design and system performance. The analysis approach
is valid as long as the gases are considered non-compressible or only slightly compressible as
encountered in ducted inlet and exhaust systems to engines, combustion turbines, ventilation
systems and similar equipment.

A ducted system directs and controls fluid flow, which includes air, water, gas or any
fluid media, in some desired manner. Moving the fluid (gas) through a ducted system takes
energy and the energy losses are from inefficiencies, friction, velocity changes, directional
changes and other devices in the ducted system. The importance in design is to minimize these
losses in an economical manner.

Aerodynamics is an important consideration in design as well as operating costs; a larger
system with low losses may cost more but can provide lower operating and maintenance costs
and pay for itself over a few years whereas a smaller system design with high gas or fluid
velocities costs less but typically has higher operating and maintenance costs. The operating
costs are of course caused by the engine or machine having to push or pull the fluid or gas
through the duct system. This cost in energy is expended (lost) and not recoverable. In most
applications, the energy loss is budgeted as part of the system operating costs.

The operating cost of a system is directly impacted by the efficiency of the design.
Frequently, a larger more efficient system will pay for itself over a few years. The upfront costs
will be higher but the savings will be in lower operating costs over the life of the system. The
basic form for calculating annual energy cost is
1



$USD = 1.03 x P x Q x U x C / E USCU
2
(1a)

$USD = 0.002434 x P x Q x U x C / E mks (1b)

Unit Description USCU mks
P Pressure drop iwg* Pa
Q Flow rate ft
3
/min. m
3
/hr
U Utilization in percent a year (e.g. 70% = 70)
C Energy cost $/kWh (cost per kilo-Watt hour)
E Operating efficiency in percent (e.g. 90% = 90)
*inches water gauge


1
Martin Hirschorn, Noise Control, Chap 49, in Handbook of HVAC Design, edited by N.R. Grimm and R.C.
Rosaler,(McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1990)
2
USCU U.S. Customary Units (feet/pounds)
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In examining Equations (1a) and (1b), it is obvious that once the base operating cost is
known the cost saving for lower pressure loss is based on three terms, P, Q and E. For lower
pressure loss, the efficiency (E) and flow rate (Q) will improve or a smaller fan (machine) may be
selected which will cost less. Since U and C are constant, the saving or cost reduction in percent
(S) may be expressed by,

100
)
`

A
A
=
L
H
H
L
H
L
E
E
Q
Q
P
P
S (2)

Where subscripts L and H are low and high pressure loss parameters, respectively. In many
applications the flow rate does not change and the ratio of the Q values become unity and drops
out of the equation leaving only pressure and efficiency. The efficiency of the machine is based
simply on energy out versus energy in based on P and Q.


2. SPECIFYING PERFORMANCE

In most applications, the energy loss is budgeted as part of the system operating costs and this
allowance is specified in terms of allowable pressure (loss or drop), either total or static pressure.

Fluid flow in a ducted system consists of velocity pressure (VP) and static pressure (SP)
that combine to form the total pressure (TP) given by Equation (3). It is total pressure that is the
measure of a systems or components energy loss. The three relationships are illustrated in
Figure 1 that shows inlet and exhaust ducts connected to a machine.


TP = SP + VP (3)




+ Press.



TP

Atmospheric Pressure

Total Pressure (TP)

- Press. Static Pressure (SP)
Velocity Pressure (VP)


FIGURE 1 PRESSURE PROFILES AND RELATIONSHIPS ACROSS A DUCT SYSTEM
Machine
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The total pressure (TP) shown in Figure 1 is the cumulative losses starting at the
entrance and ending at the exit and is the energy required to move the fluid or gas. Fans and
similar HVAC equipment are sized for the TP across the machine as illustrated as this is the
energy needed to draw the fluid into the duct and deliver it at the exit.

The static pressure (SP) is usually constant at a duct section but varies as the velocity
changes; as velocity increases, the static pressure decreases and vice-versa. The velocity pressure
(VP) is a function of the in-duct velocity and fluid (gas) density and is used for calculating
pressure loss or for determining the volumetric flow rate.

The inlet and exhaust system are sometimes specified separately for industrial
applications because inlets are generally at ambient conditions whereas exhausts may be at
significantly elevated temperatures, both having very differing flow rates and design
requirements. The aerodynamic analysis is then from the machine or engine interface to where
the air enters or the exhaust exits the duct system. The gas or fluid properties, mass or
volumetric flow rate, operating conditions and duct design all affect performance.

It is preferred to have a well-defined design operating point established for evaluating
performance as opposed to a range of conditions. The design point should be at the nominal
operating point of the equipment at prevailing site conditions as this makes evaluating system
performance possible. It is rare that a system operates at its extreme ranges that can only be
determined theoretically.


3. MASS FLOW RATE

A key physical concept for a ducted system is what goes in must come out. In a
combustion process, air and fuel enters to exit as exhaust flow; the mass flow remains constant
but the volumetric flow changes through the system as the gas density changes as caused by
modest changes in static pressures through the system.

The mass flow rate, typically provided by the OEM (original equipment manufacturer), is
usually in terms of pounds per unit time or mass per unit time; two common expressions are
lbs/hr or kg/h. By knowing the mass flow rate () and the fluid or gas density ()
3
, the
volumetric flow rate (Q) is then,

Q = / = g/ (volumetric unit/time) (4)

The density () is mass per unit volume (lbm/ft
3
or kg/m
3
); by examining Equation (4), it shows
that as density increases, volumetric flow rate decreases. Weight density is commonly used
where is weight density and g is gravity.


3
U.S. unit: slug (mass density) = (pound/g) and to avoid confusion, weight density (lb/ft
3
) is commonly used.
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4. GAS DENSITY

Calculating gas density is always a shot in the dark unless the OEM provides data, which
should be available in view of emission requirements. In the combustion process, the greatest
changes are in oxygen, carbon dioxide and water content with a small amount of other
constituents but nitrogen remains the majority gas. Thus, in the absence of data, the properties of
air are generally close enough. The gas density is traditionally calculated by,

or

= (SGP) (ZT) (kg/m
3
or lb/ft
3
) (5)

S is a constant dependent upon the units and incorporates the gas constant R for air, G is specific
gravity of the gas, P is the absolute (static) pressure, T is absolute temperature, and Z is the
compressibility factor. The following table lists the dimensional parameters.

TABLE I GAS DENSITY PARAMETERS
Dimensional
System
Mass/
volume
Constant,
S
Specific
Gravity
Pressure,
Absolute
Temperature,
Absolute
USCU* lb/ft
3
2.698825 (MW
gas
/
28.96247)
psia R
mks kg/m
3
3.483407 kPa K
*U.S. Customary Units (lbs, ft, etc.)


OEMs should have the volumetric percentages of the exhaust emissions that are used for
calculating the molecular weight (MW) of the gas. The molecular weight of standard dry air is
28.96247 lbm/(lbm mol) and is the same in metric units (kg/kg mol). The MW of air at 59F
(15C) and 60% relative humidity is 28.851.

As noted in Equation (5), static pressure (P) directly affects the gas density so as the static
pressure within the ducting system varies the gas density and volumetric flow rate varies. It is
very important to understand that fluid (gas) density contributes to pressure loss; for example,
water and air are both fluids but it takes tremendously more energy to move water than air. In
high performance systems, or very demanding low pressure loss systems, gas density becomes an
important parameter.


5. VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE

By knowing the volumetric flow rate, the velocity (V) in a duct of area A may be
calculated by,

V = Q/A (ft/min, ft/s or m/s) (6)

which gives the uniform velocity distribution across the duct, which is not realistic as flow in the
center of the duct is always much higher and duct turns, transitions and diffusers impose unstable
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and uneven flow distribution (illustrated in a later section). Figure 2 illustrate velocity profiles
for two common flow conditions.











FIGURE 2 VELOCITY PROFILES, LAMINAR FLOW (LEFT) AND TURBULENT FLOW (RIGHT)


Turbulent flow dominates in every system except in the case of very tall stacks or very
long smooth ducts. An area average velocity works good enough for a first order calculation.
In critical applications, a more realistic velocity distribution should be used that can only be
accomplished using CFD (computational fluid dynamics) analysis.

The duct system or emissions device must be adequately sized for the volumetric flow in
order to meet performance requirements. The velocity pressure which determines pressure loss is
a function of the velocity squared (v x v = v
2
).

Sometimes only the volumetric flow rate is provided as SCFM (standard cubic feet per
minute) where the actual volumetric flow rate is normalized to a standard flow rate at a
standard temperature and one atmosphere pressure. What is not standard is the temperature
that is used in its calculation as it can be 60 or 70 F. The gas production/supply industry uses
60 F whereas HVAC use 70 F. The two temperatures affect the density used in the calculation.
When SCFM is provided the temperature basis is needed in order to properly calculate acfm,
actual cubic feet per minute.


6. SYSTEM MODELING

The fluid dynamics in the duct system is modeled based on the Bernoulli equation, which
is used for virtually all fluid flow modeling. The fundamental concept is based on conservation
of energy where the energy going in must equal the energy going out plus all losses as shown by
the last term in Equation (7).

L
h z
g
V P
z
g
V P
E + + + = + +
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
(7)

V
max

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P is (static) pressure, is the weight density of the fluid or gas, V is velocity, g is gravity,
z is elevation, and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to two points across which the calculation is
applied. The term, P/ is the static head, V
2
/2g is the velocity head, z is elevation and h
L
is the
total head loss. Dimensionally, all these terms are expressed in units of feet or meters generally
called head; by factoring through with the density term (), the expression is then in terms of
pressure.

In an open ended duct system (inlet or exhaust) the pressure and velocity go to zero on
one side of the equation. Assuming a horizontal system for now where z becomes zero, results in
the following expression (Eq. 8) that correlates with Equation (3). The elevation term will be
introduced later to account for gas density effects.

L
h
g
V P
E

= +
2
1 1
2
(8)

The first two terms are the static and velocity heads at the interface of the machine or connection
point. Figure 3 illustrates how Equation (8) relates to a physical system; duct entrance and exit
losses account for entrance and exit velocities going to zero at a point beyond the duct end.
Entrance and exit losses actually account for the entrance or exit change in velocity.











FIGURE 3 DUCT SYSTEM ILLUSTRATING EQUATION (10)


Equation (9) presents the static head at the connection where the value is negative for
inlets and positive for exhausts.

2
1 1
2g
V
h
P
L
E =

(9)

Equation (10) presents the dynamic or velocity head which is always positive.

E
1
2
1
2
P
h
g
V
L
= (10)
P = 0
V = 0
P = 0
V = 0
2
1 1
2g
V P
+

Inlet
h
L

Exhaust
h
L

2
1 1
2g
V P
+

Machine
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7. SYSTEM LOSSES

Duct (head) losses are simply the summation of all the component losses to arrive at the
total loss for either an inlet or exhaust system; head loss is a function of the velocity head
(V
2
/2g). Head loss is generally in two forms as shown in Equations (11) and (12) and specialized
components (catalysts, heat exchangers, filtration systems, etc.) will have pressure losses that are
inserted into the system model.

Duct fittings and components losses are calculated by,

h
L
= k(V
2
/2g) (head loss) (11)

The loss coefficient (k, or sometimes c) is determined by the geometry of the duct or component.
Common duct coefficients are cataloged in most all HVAC
4
technical references but for special
fittings and components other technical literature needs to be researched; Blevins and Idelchik
are good starting points (see references).

Duct friction loss is calculated by,

h
L
= f (L/D
h
)(V
2
/2g) (head loss) (12)

Where f is the surface friction coefficient, L is the length of duct and D
h
is the hydraulic diameter.
The friction coefficient depends on whether the duct is rectangular or round and the Reynolds
number.

In Equations (11) and (12), note that the velocity term is squared thus to reduce the
pressure loss, reduce the velocity (V) or the loss coefficient. Frictional loss is generally small.

Head loss is not the appropriate metric to use for evaluating low pressure systems so head
loss is simply converted to pressure by factoring through with the fluid density. Equations (13)
and (14) present the two system loss parameters in units of pressure (depending on dimensional
system),

h
L
= k(V
2
/2g) (units of pressure) (13)

h
L
= f (L/D)(V
2
/2g) (units of pressure) (14)

By inspection, one can see that (V
2
/2g) is common in both equations and is the velocity
pressure. Frequently, (/2g) is termed the velocity coefficient used to simplify the calculation
process for fluids having very little change in density and thus the pressure loss is quickly
calculated only as a function of the velocity at a constant density. Note that with g in the

4
HVAC - Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
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denominator results in converting the fluids weight density to mass density, ( = /g) which
appears in some texts.

Traditional HVAC methods use duct velocities (V) in feet per minute (fpm) and air at
typical room conditions, 70 F, 14.696 psia with a weight density () of 0.075 lb/ft
3
. The velocity
pressure (VP) may then be simplified to

VP = V
2
/2g = V
2
/(2g/) (V/4005)
2
inches of water (15a)

VP = 0.0158V
2
inches of water (15b)

Where 4005 is the velocity coefficient and includes unit conversions to go from fps to fpm and
psf (lb/ft.
2
) to inches of water. And for metric units where V = m/s,

VP = 0.602V
2
Pa (16)

If using gases that are not air, or have significantly different temperatures or pressures,
then actual gas properties need to be used.

The vertical height of a chimney stack or exhaust duct generally improves system
performance by the differential gas densities; that is, the density of a hot gas at the base of the
duct or stack to that of atmospheric density at the exit point. But systems with elevated inlet
ducts may have increased pressure loss because the air density at the machine entrance may be
less than that at the duct inlet. In Equation (7), the elevation is noted by the z terms. Vertical
draft is calculated by

Duct Draft = c (
o
-
g
)(z
2
z
1
) (units of pressure) (17)

Where c is a unit conversion factor for units of pressure, (z
2
z
1
) is the effective height of the
duct,
o
is the atmospheric density at the duct exit or entrance, and
g
is the in-duct gas density at
the machine connection. The effective draft height is from the centerline of the turbine/fan/pump
connection (z
1
) to the top of the duct (z
2
). Equation (17) is simply appended to the total pressure
loss of the system and shown in an example calculation.

Some important things to remember are loss coefficients are for calculating total pressure
and were obtained under ideal laboratory conditions; for instance, all elbow and turn losses are
based on uniform connecting ducts having some length (l/d ratio) into and out-of the fitting to
obtain fairly uniform airflow at the measurement locations. Thus, you cant stick an elbow on
the exit end a duct to turn the flow and assume the loss coefficient is a valid application. Also,
the loss coefficient is a function of whether the velocity is entering or exiting the duct fitting so
be sure to apply the coefficient to the correct flow condition. Some reference resources use c
o
as
the loss coefficient associated with velocity v
o
illustrated in look up tables and fitting diagrams.
The loss coefficient represents the total loss through that particular duct fitting (please refer to
ASHRAE, SMACNA or other technical literature for details).
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8. BASIC CALCULATION METHODOLOGY

There are numerous examples of how to perform pressure loss calculations in various
HVAC handbooks and is beyond the scope of this work. First order calculations work well using
a spread sheet and an example calculation is presented showing total and static pressures of a
simple exhaust system having a stack with an integral silencer.


















FIGURE 4 SIMPLE VERTICAL EXHAUST SILENCER BASE MOUNTED


Table II presents the total pressure loss of the exhaust silencer. In the left column the
duct components that make up the system are listed in order starting at the stack exit. The total
pressure is the most straightforward as it is simply the summation of all the total pressures as
shown in the bottom row. Total pressure is the cumulative losses of all the components. The last
column presents the energy loss in terms of Watts.

Table II Total Pressure Summation
DUCT COMPONENT LISTING LOSS POWER
# DUCT SECTION inches mm Pa (N/m2) mbar COEF Watts
1 -0.5 -12 -119 -1.2 0.00 -6
2 EXIT LOSS 1.9 48 467 4.7 1.00 24
3 DUCT FRICTION LOSS (1) 0.4 11 105 1.1 0.05 5
4 ABRUPT CONTRACTION (1), 0.6 15 147 1.5 0.31 7
5 ANNULAR SILENCER (1) 1.6 41 403 4.0 0.75 20
6 STACK BASE BREACH TURN 1.4 35 342 3.4 3.41 17
7 DUCT FRICTION LOSS (2) 0.0 0 2 0.0 0.03 0
SYSTEM TP = 5.4 137 1347 13.5 PWR LOSS= 68
ELEVATION DRAFT EFFECT
WATER GAUGE PRESSURE:
TOTAL PRESSURE PERFORMANCE






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Table III presents the system static pressures associated with each component. The static
pressure tracks with the total pressure by the difference in velocity pressure, SP = TP VP. The
final static pressure is at the system connection to the engine discharge. In cases of very high
velocities at the connection duct, the velocity pressure can be greater than the total pressure
resulting in a negative static pressure.

Table III Static Pressure
DUCT COMPONENT LISTING
# DUCT SECTION inches mm Pa (N/m2) mbar fps m/s
1 -0.5 -12 -119 -1.2 0.0 0.0
2 EXIT LOSS -0.5 -12 -119 -1.2 159.2 48.5
3 DUCT FRICTION LOSS (1) -0.1 -1 -14 -0.1 159.2 48.5
4 ABRUPT CONTRACTION (1), 0.5 13 131 1.3 159.8 48.7
5 ANNULAR SILENCER (1) 1.9 48 469 4.7 170.8 52.1
6 STACK BASE BREACH TURN 5.0 127 1245 12.4 74.0 22.6
7 DUCT FRICTION LOSS (2) 3.5 89 877 8.8 160.1 48.8
7 SYSTEM SP = 3.5 89 877 8.8
ELEVATION DRAFT EFFECT
VELOCITY: PRESSURE: WATER GAUGE
STATIC PRESSURE PERFORMANCE



Note that typically there is no exit loss for static pressure because at the exit the pressure
is the same as atmospheric pressure.

Figure 5 illustrates a reactive silencer with an absorptive pack section followed by
calculations of system performance. And again note that modeling starts at the exit as noted by
the component numbering. Modeling starts at the atmospheric end of the ducting system since
that is a known pressure; that is, a known starting point. Points 1 and 9 are the start and end
points in the duct model.


8, 7, 6 5, 4 3 2 1
9
INLET AND OUTLET 950 mm DIAMETERS


Figure 5 Simple Illustration of a Silencer Identifying Components
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Table IV Total Pressure Calculation = 588 Pa
LOSS POWER
# DUCT SECTION Pa (N/m2) mbar mm inches COEF. Watts
1 DUCT / TUBE FRICTION (1) 4 0.0 0 0.02 0.02 0.1
2 TRANSITION (1) 68 0.7 7 0.27 0.28 0.8
3 ANNULAR TYPE SILENCER 179 1.8 18 0.72 6.67 2.2
4 EXTENDED TUBE EXIT (B1) 249 2.5 25 1.00 1.02 3.0
5 EXTENDED TUBE FRICTION (B1) 5 0.1 1 0.02 0.02 0.1
6 EXTENDED TUBE EXIT (1A) 37 0.4 4 0.15 0.15 0.4
7 EXTENDED TUBE INLET (1B) 37 0.4 4 0.15 0.15 0.4
8 TUBE FRICTION (1C) 10 0.1 1 0.04 0.02 0.1
9 DUCT / TUBE FRICTION (2) 4 0.0 0 0.01 0.01 0.0
9 SYSTEM TP = 588 5.9 60 2.4 PWR LOSS= 7.1
TOTAL PRESSURE PERFORMANCE
PRESSURE: DUCT COMPONENT LISTING WATER GAUGE



Since the inlet and exit connections are identical, the static pressure as calculated across
the silencer is the same as the total pressure. This is why static pressure measurements across the
silencer in the field can be used for determining the total pressure loss.

In some cases, a higher level of modeling and analysis is required to satisfied customer
requirements. This is typically performed using CFD (computational fluid dynamics) which
requires a three dimensional model of the gas path. The advantage is CFD can illustrate flow
distribution (vectors) which may be critical in some applications, particularly for determining
balanced flow into any emissions mitigation equipment. Figures 6 and 7 present a CFD analysis
of the silencer shown in Figure 5.




Figure 6 Silencer Model


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Figure 7 CFD Total Pressure Loss 590 Pa (2.4 iwg)


Note that the total pressure across the silencer using CFD was 590 Pa versus 588 Pa as
calculated using first principals.

In the case of determining the pressure loss across a device (say a silencer) as mentioned,
the net pressure loss is the difference between the inlet and exit connections. In the case of
identical connection sizes, the changes in static and total pressures across the unit are identical.

TP = SP (18)

This is the basis for simply measuring the static pressure using wall taps to determine the
total pressure loss and is frequently why system performance is specified in terms of static
pressure as opposed to correctly specifying total pressure loss limits.


9. IN-DUCT MEASUREMENTS

When having to perform measurements in the field, refer to ASME/ANSI, PTC 19.2, 19.5
and 22, and ASHRAE for recommended methods and procedures for performing pressure loss
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measurements. There are ISO and other standards that may be applicable as well. This is to
assure that a protocol is followed and agreed to prior to making any measurements. An
experienced testing agency must have a thorough understanding of the process and equipment
involved otherwise erroneous measurements may occur. Pressure taps must be sized and located
in a precise manner to avoid errors. Remember only static pressure can be measured via a tap
location and dynamic pressure or velocity can only be measured with a Pitot tube inserted into
the gas stream. Flow turbulence can dramatically affect measurements thus care in measurement
location is very important.

In most applications ducts have fairly low velocity and static pressures. To measure such
low pressures Pitot tubes and manometers are used. Figure 8 illustrates a Pitot tube and
manometer set up. The hash marks indicate that this part of the Pitot tube can be quite long to
facilitate insertion into the duct and it is critical that the axial orientation be held to within 10
degrees to be within 2% of measurement error. The end of the Pitot tube has two ports, one for
total pressure (arrow) which includes velocity and static pressures and the small side ports (two
shown) that measure static pressure. Total system accuracy is generally 5%.















FIGURE 8 TYPICAL PITOT TUBE DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER SET-UP.


Figure 8 shows the manometer set up used to measure velocity pressure which is the
difference between total and static pressures, VP = TP - SP. Total pressure is measured by
disconnecting the static tube connection and static pressure is measured by disconnecting the
total pressure tube. It is important to record negative pressures (static typically) to check the
system balance or continuity; recall,

TP = SP + VP (3)

Generally, static pressure is uniform across a duct which simplifies having to perform
extensive measurements but total and velocity pressures are a function of the flow distribution in
Pitot Tube
Manometer
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the duct and a thorough measurement protocol is needed. Figure 9 illustrates performing a
simple static pressure measurement that is frequently done on many installations but be aware
that very high in-duct velocities will result in very low or even negative static pressure. What
this means is the total pressure is essentially equal to or close to the velocity pressure; see
Equation (3).














FIGURE 9 STATIC PRESSURE TEST PORT U-TUBE OPEN MANOMETER SET-UP.


P(base) = h ( is density of fluid in tube) (19)

P(duct) = P(base) (L ) ( is density of fluid in duct) (20)


Figure 9 shows h as the dimensional change in manometer height (gauge) as caused by
the static pressure. If the manometer fluid (colored red) is water and h is measured in inches or
millimeters, it would be the static pressure in those units.

The pressure calculations, Equations (19) and (20), will be either in pounds per square
foot or kilograms per square meter depending upon the density units used. It is a simple
conversion to inches or millimeters water or other units of pressure (e.g. one atmosphere pressure
equals 406.8 inches water).

Equation (20) shows the importance of knowing the gas density. If the fluid in the duct
is air, and the elevation change L from the duct centerline is not too large, or located on the duct
centerline in the case of a horizontal duct, then it is usually unnecessary to perform Equation
(20). Be aware though that if performing such measurements on a vertical system that elevation
affects must be considered.



h
L
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10. LOW PRESSURE LOSS DESIGN

This section presents generalized concepts about basic duct geometry (good versus bad
design). A false concept is the gas or fluid expands uniformly to fill the duct as the flow goes
from one area to the next and the flow is uniform. Keep in mind that mass momentum (mv) is
the key physical process and fluids like to follow the leader. Once a flow path is established,
the majority of the flow follows that path.

1. Duct turns (90 degrees) are generally high-pressure loss components; the velocity into the
elbow or turn determines the loss. A small turn or elbow means high losses; however, these
losses can be greatly reduced by putting an inside radius or break on the elbow. The greatest loss
occurs on the downstream inside wall of the turn where flow separation and reverse flow occurs.







Area causing major pressure loss
is flow separation on the inside
corner causing reverse flow and eddies
and high velocity up the back wall.








FIGURE 10 TYPICAL ELBOW FLOW REGIME


Leaving the inside corner a sharp 90 degrees and placing a ramp or radial turn on the outside
corner does a little in reducing losses. An inside break on the turn improves performance and a
full radial turn on the inside corner is as efficient as a single turning vane. Combine the inside
radial with a bevel on the outside corner is a great improvement.

2. Duct Turns - Downstream Effects: The flow separation mentioned above causes flow
distribution problems downstream including flow noise. The following illustration shows the
velocity distribution (dashed lines) and it takes almost 5 hydraulic diameters (d) for the flow
becomes fairly uniform after the turn.







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Velocity at least 2 x average (and up to 3to5xV)






2d 3d 4d 5d

Velocity Profile diameter (d)



FIGURE 11 GENERALIZED VELOCITY PROFILES AFTER A TURN

The velocity at the back wall of the turn is at least two to three times the area-averaged value and
is further complicated when silencers or devices are placed in this area which is strongly
discouraged. In severe flow cases, the back wall velocity can be close to five times the area
averaged velocity.

3. Diffuser geometry is critical in exhaust systems. The ideal diffusion angle is 14 degrees or
less (total angle across the diffuser). Once the angle exceeds 20 degrees flow separation begins
to occur and at 40 degrees flow separation is fully developed and leads to high loss and possible
flow noise.


















FIGURE 12 GENERALIZED VELOCITY PROFILE OF SHARPLY DIVERGING FLOW













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Too short a diffuser, or too abrupt a transition can be disastrous as the exhaust gas does
not expand uniformly. The mass momentum of the gas continues downstream like a jet and can
cause some unexpected results. What happens are three possible scenarios: 1) the flow becomes
asymmetric where it hugs to one side of the diffuser; 2) the flow may oscillate from side to side
with aerodynamic beating across the diffuser; or, 3) the central core of exhaust gas just blasts
down the central area of the duct until it hits something such as turn or possibly the baffles of a
silencer. The latter two cases are the most common occurrences and oscillating flow may
generate low frequency tonal content increasing system noise. When the flow impacts the baffles
it can dramatically increase the self-flow noise to the point that it overcomes the available
attenuation of the silencer. This then means the silencer is compromised and even generates
more noise in the system. Blevins and Idelchik provide excellent reviews on diffuser flow.

4. For converging transitions, static pressure decreases, velocity pressure increases, and total
pressure decreases. Generally, converging ducts have low losses because there is very little flow
separation at the duct walls; however, do not make such a sharp convergence that the flow
exiting the transition will overshoot causing downstream flow separation.















Figure 13 Generalized Velocity Profile of Converging Flow
Caused by High Velocity or Sharp Convergence Angle


5. Small stack or chimney diameters cause high exit velocity causing high exit losses.

6. Silencers having baffles (or splitters) are one of the major pressure loss elements of a system.
Rounded noses and tails are one way to reduce their impact balanced with moderate to low gas
velocity. Round tails are easy and quite effective; tapered tails are more expensive and are only
slightly better than round tails. Be very sensitive to placing absorptive type silencers in unstable
flow regimes and downstream of turns as the flow and pressure differentials will cause loss of
fill.





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11. BALANCED FLOW

Machine performance is sensitive to entry flow but not so much on exit flow other than
pressure loss. Flow entering fans and especially combustion turbines, must be balanced across
the machine inlet. Flow needs to be evenly distributed across any exhaust emission devices as
well. Figure 11 illustrated the flow downstream of an elbow so placement of equipment
downstream of an elbow requires careful evaluation.

Unbalanced flow will adversely affect machine performance and efficiency and in the
case of combustion turbines or other high speed machines, the unbalanced flow will induce
unbalanced loads in the compressor section leading to excessive vibration and either damaging
the machine or causing it to trip off. ASHRAE and SMACNA provide information with regard
to balanced flow into fans.

Flow into silencer baffles needs to be balanced as well. As mentioned, pressure is
inversely proportional to velocity and high differential velocities through the air gaps across a
silencer causes differential pressures which causes flow through the baffles degrading pack
retention.


12. SUMMARY

This paper presented the concepts of total, static and velocity pressures that encompass
the aerodynamic performance of a system or component. Basic concepts in aerodynamic design
were presented including design practices.

Static pressure is frequently specified as the metric to use in aerodynamic design but is
not the proper metric and the results of any measurement are critical upon how and where the
measurement is made. The one benefit of performing static pressure measurements is the static
pressure across a silencer or other device, having equal inlet and outlet areas, is equal to the total
pressure across the device. Total pressure is the true measure of the energy loss.

Idelchik states, A portion of the total energy that is expended to overcome the
resistance forces arising from the flow of real (viscous) fluids through pipes and channels is
irretrievably lost for a given system or network. This loss of energy is due to irreversible
conversion of mechanical energy (the work of resistance forces) into heat. Therefore, the term
fluid resistance, or hydraulic loss, represents the irreversible loss of total energy over a given
system length.






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13. REFERENCES

1. Blevins, R.D., Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, Krieger Publishing Company,
1984 (2003 printing w/corrections)
2. Miller, R.W., Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, 3
rd
Edition, McGraw-
Hill, 1996
3. Idelchik, I.E., Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 3
rd
Edition, CRC Press, 1994
4. 2005 ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals, American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc. 2005
5. HVAC Systems Duct Design, SMACNA, 1990
6. ASME/ANSI PTC (Performance Test Codes) 19.2-1988, Part 2, Pressure
Measurement
7. ASME/ANSI PTC (Performance Test Codes) 19.5-1987, Flow Measurement
8. ASME/ANSI PTC (Performance Test Codes) 22-1985, Gas Turbine Power Plants
9. ISO 11820:1996, AcousticsMeasurements on silencers in situ
10. ASHRAE Chapter 14, Measurements and Instruments