TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1639 Paper No.

98-1019 73
Over the last 18 years, a number of rubberized pavement projects have
been built in Alaska. Initial laboratory and field investigations spon-
sored by the Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities
(AKDOT&PF) and conducted by Raad et al. indicated improved fatigue
performance of the rubberized sections in comparison with conventional
asphalt concrete pavements. The results of a follow-up investigation to
develop design equations for rubberized pavements in Alaska are pre-
sented. Laboratory studies were conducted on eld specimens using the
exural fatigue test in the controlled-displacement mode. Specically,
the rubberized mixes included asphalt-rubber concrete with AC-2.5 (wet-
process) and PlusRide RUMAC with AC-5. Tests were performed for a
range of temperatures varying between 22C and 29C. Fatigue rela-
tionships were developed in terms of repeated exure strain, dynamic
exure stiffness of the mix, and repetitions to failure. Relationships for
the dynamic exure stiffness as a function of temperature were also
developed. Dissipated energy associated with repeated exure stress and
strain was determined and used to assess the damage behavior of con-
ventional and rubberized mixes. The proposed fatigue equations were
used to compare the behavior of the rubberized mixes with conventional
AC-5 mixes at 20C and 0C. Results of the analysis show that at 20C,
asphalt-rubber and AC-5 mixes exhibit essentially similar fatigue resis-
tance, whereas PlusRide has the least fatigue life. However, at 0C, the
fatigue resistance of PlusRide and asphalt-rubber exceeds that of the con-
ventional AC-5 mix. The fatigue equations were also used to compare
the fatigue life of conventional and rubberized pavements for different
surface layer temperatures and foundation support conditions.
The interest in re-examining the performance of rubberized pave-
ments in Alaska started as a result of the original International Sur-
face Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA) to use crumb tire
rubber in pavements. Alaska would have been required to use about
226.7 Mg (250 T) of used tire rubber starting in 1994 and increasing
to about 907 Mg (1,000 T) of rubber in 1997 and each year thereafter.
These requirements have been suspended for 1994 and 1995 to pro-
vide time for studies of the benecial and detrimental aspects of re-
cycling rubber as a pavement additive. A number of pavements using
crumb rubber modiers (CRM) have been built in Alaska and have
been in service for periods ranging from 8 to 18 years. A summary of
these projects was presented in Raad et al. and Raad and Sabound-
jian (1,2). This investigation aims at developing fatigue design equa-
tions for asphalt-rubber (wet process) and PlusRide (dry process)
mixes. Specically, the following are addressed:
Fatigue test results for asphalt-rubber and PlusRide eld speci-
mens using exure beam tests for a range of temperatures varying from
22C and 29C are summarized, and corresponding relationships
for fatigue and dynamic exure stiffness are developed.
Fatigue damage in terms of the calculated dissipated energy
using exure beam test data is assessed.
Established fatigue relationships are used to compare the fatigue
performance of typical pavement sections for different surface
temperatures and pavement support conditions.
PERFORMANCE STUDIES
Experience in Alaska
In Alaska, the application of rubber-modied asphalt pavements
started in 1979. Esch reported on the placement of seven rubberized
pavements totaling 4 lane-km, using the PlusRide dry process
between 1979 and 1981 (3). He described the performance of these
sections in relation to mixing, compaction, durability, fatigue, sta-
bility and ow, and tire traction and skid resistance. Eight additional
sections, totaling 45 lane-km and using the same process, were con-
structed between 1983 and 1986 in Anchorage. The performance of
rubber-modied asphalt pavements that were constructed between
1979 and 1986 in Alaska was discussed in Takallou et al. (4). The
experience of using the PlusRide dry process in Alaska can be sum-
marized as follows:
PlusRide paving mixes have been successfully used with both
batch and drum-dryer plants and placed with conventional pavers
and rollers.
In these mixes, 3 to 4 percent CRM was used, and 1 to 2 per-
cent more asphalt was needed to attain a 3 percent void content or
lower.
The PlusRide mix properties, specically Marshall stability,
ow, and void content were very sensitive to changes in mineral
aggregate gradation. These mixes typically demonstrated lower sta-
bility and higher ow test results in comparison with hot-mix asphalt
(HMA) mixes.
Fatigue studies using the diametral split-tension test indicate that
the fatigue life of PlusRide pavements could be more than 10 times
greater than conventional mixes.
Compaction to the highest density with minimal void content is
necessary for good performance. The recommended void content is
less than 5 percent.
The presence of the rubber in the PlusRide mix seems to mini-
mize bleeding because the rubber and asphalt combine to form a
more elastic binder.
Increased rubber contents above 3 percent could cause durabil-
ity problems if coupled with high void content. A case study illus-
trating this was reported by Esch on the durability performance of
some sections of a rubber-asphalt overlay placed on the Old Seward
Highway in Anchorage (3). In this case, the durability of the high-
void rubber asphalt pavement placed was very low, particularly for
those sections that had rubber contents above 3 percent. Raveling
Fatigue Behavior of Rubber-
Modied Pavements
LUTFI RAAD AND STEPHAN SABOUNDJIAN
Transportation Research Center, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK
99775-5900.
74 Paper No. 98-1019 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1639
commenced soon after placement, and it was necessary to patch and
eventually repave over the 4-percent-rubber area.
Stopping distances were reduced on the average by 25 percent
in comparison with conventional pavements, by using PlusRide
pavements. In addition, improved skid-resistance and signicant
reduction in tire noise were also observed.
The rst Alaskan application of rubber-modied pavements using
the wet process took place in 1988. These pavements were used in
the construction of Danby Street in Fairbanks. This street was
designed as a test site for rubber and latex-modied asphalt pave-
ments. The asphalt-rubber pavement consisted of a 50-mm surface
layer underlaid with a 150-mm crushed aggregate base course and
910-mm of borrow. Saboundjian and Raad (5) observed that the lab-
oratory fatigue resistance of this asphalt-rubber exceeded that of a
corresponding conventional AC-2.5 mix at 4C and 22C.
Experience in Other States
In other states, the widespread application of ground tire rubber in
pavements started about 20 years ago in Arizona (6), mainly in the
form of stress-absorbing membrane (SAM) and stress-absorbing
membrane interlayer (SAMI) systems using asphalt-rubber binders,
with smaller quantities of asphalt-rubber used in hot-mix asphalt
concrete and as crack and joint sealant. Other applications of both
the wet process and the dry process have been reported since 1988
in Arizona (69), California (10,11), Connecticut (12), Florida
(13,14), Massachusett (15), Minnesota (16), Ontario, Canada (17),
Texas (18,19), and Washington (20). A summary of the main nd-
ings includes the following:
SAM and SAMI could reduce, and in some cases eliminate,
reflective crack propagation in overlays, at least in warmer cli-
mates. These membrane applications, however, have not been effec-
tive in stopping transverse thermal cracking if the original cracks
on the pavement surface have not been treated through the appli-
cation of crack sealants. Appropriate treatment of original surface
cracks would reduce the reflection of thermal cracks through the
overlay.
Asphalt-rubber pavements seem to exhibit less spalling and
secondary cracking than traditional pavements. They also signi-
cantly reduce reective cracking of the alligator and block types.
In cold climate applications, asphalt-rubber pavements exhibit
improved durability, exibility, and temperature susceptibility in
comparison to standard asphalt under similar conditions.
Under certain conditions, asphalt-rubber pavements last at
least twice as long as standard asphalt pavements and in many cases
three to four times longer. California Department of Transportation
(Caltrans) guidelines on thickness equivalencies between asphalt-
rubber hot-mix (gap-graded) and conventional HMA concrete
(dense-graded) specify a thickness of the asphalt-rubber overlay
equal to 50 percent of the thickness requirements for a conventional
HMA overlay.
The performance of rubber-modied pavements using the Plus-
Ride dry process, as reported from eld observations, is controver-
sial. Some eld applications indicate benecial effects of PlusRide
overlays in terms of reducing both fatigue and thermal reection
cracking. However, reports on eld performance of PlusRide in
Minnesota (16) indicate problems with raveling, in addition to no
signicant improvement in retarding reective cracking.
In addition to eld investigations, limited laboratory studies have
been reported in the literature on the properties of asphalt-rubber
and rubber modied asphalt mixes. Hoyt et al. (21) conducted lim-
ited tests to generate laboratory properties that would allow the ana-
lytical prediction of rutting and cracking damage to a runway model,
using nite element analysis. Results indicated that asphalt-rubber
pavements will, in general, perform better than conventional asphalt
pavements, and their use is more cost effective. Raad et al. (22) com-
pared the exural fatigue properties of asphalt-rubber hot mix (gap-
graded) to that of conventional HMA (dense-graded). Laboratory
fatigue data were combined with multilayer elastic analysis to derive
thickness equivalencies between materials required to yield the
same remaining fatigue life. Results showed that the thickness
equivalency (ratio of the thickness of conventional HMA pavement
to the thickness of asphalt-rubber pavement for a given remaining
fatigue life) varies between 1.51 and 31, depending on the stiff-
ness of the supporting layer under the pavement. Larger equivalency
values are associated with stiffer support.
MATERIALS AND TEST PROCEDURES
Flexure beam fatigue tests were conducted on beam specimens of
approximately 50 mm by 50 mm by 410 mm. These specimens were
cut from 150 mm by 600 mm beams. All asphalt-rubber specimens
were obtained from Danby Street in Fairbanks. PlusRide specimens
were obtained from A-Street in Anchorage. In each fatigue test, the
specimen was placed in the fatigue setup and conditioned to the
required temperature using a temperature control cabinet. Controlled-
strain tests were performed using third-point loading setup and a
0.1-s repeated haversine displacement pulse with 0.9-s rest period.
A four-point support system with equal spans was used with the
exure load applied at the middle two supports. The specimen was
instrumented with strain transducers attached to the middle 25.4 mm
(1 in.) of the beam. The central deection, strains at the center of the
beam, and specimen temperature were monitored during testing.
The exure beam stiffness was computed as follows:
where
P = load applied by actuator,
a = space between inside clamps,
b = average specimen width,
h = average specimen height,
= maximum deection at the center of the beam, and
L = length of beam between outside clamps.
Fatigue tests were conducted for four temperature levels equal to
22C, 2C, 12C, and 29C. Fatigue failure was assumed to
occur when the exure stiffness of the specimen decreased under
repeated load applications by 50 percent of its initial value at the
start of the test. Properties for both the conventional and rubber-
modied mixtures are summarized in Table 1.
TEST RESULTS
Fatigue and Stiffness Relationships
A direct result of fatigue is the reduction of exure stiffness associ-
ated with material damage. Such behavior is illustrated in Figures 1
E Pa L a bh = ( ) ( ) ( ) 3 4 4 1
2 2 3

Raad and Saboundjian Paper No. 98-1019 75

and 2. The reduction of the stiffness proceeds at a slow rate, then
increases with accumulation of load repetitions. The relation between
tensile strain and repetitions to failure for different temperatures is
shown in Figures 3 and 4. Results of a previous study by Coetzee et al.
(23) for conventional AC-5 mixes are also presented in Figure 5 for
comparison purposes. It is interesting to note that for the test temper-
ature of 29C, PlusRide and the asphalt-rubber mixes exhibit simi-
lar fatigue behavior, whereby the exure strain required to cause
fatigue failure maintains essentially a constant value of 550 10
6
. A
similar behavior is observed for the conventional AC-5 mix at a tem-
perature of 12C, whereby the exure strain value associated with
fatigue reaches 250 10
6
. At these temperatures, 12C for AC-5
mixes and 29C for asphalt-rubber and PlusRide mixes, the materials
seem to have attained their respective glass transition states.
FIGURE 1 Flexural stiffness reduction with applied repetitions for PlusRide.
TABLE 1 Properties of Conventional and Rubberized Mixes
76 Paper No. 98-1019 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1639
The fatigue equations in this study are expressed as follows:
where
N
f
= repetitions to failure,

t
= repeated tensile strain (mm/mm),
E = exure stiffness (MPa), and
a, b, and c are regression coefficients.
Values for a, b, and c are summarized in Table 2. Equations 2 and 3
can be used for estimating the fatigue life for the rubberized mixes.
Equation 3 is more general and has a similar form to the Asphalt
N a E
f t
b c
= ( ) 3
N a
f
b
= ( ) 2
Institute fatigue equation (24) because it includes the effect of mix
stiffness, in addition to strain, on fatigue life.
In addition to the above fatigue equations, correlations between
mix stiffness and temperature were also established (Figure 6). This
relationship is expressed in the following form:
where
E = exure stiffness (MPa),
T = mix temperature (C), and
a, b, and c are regression coefficients summarized in Table 3.
Equations 2 to 4 were used to compare the fatigue performance of
asphalt-rubber and PlusRide mixes with conventional AC-5 mix. The
Log E a b T c T = + +
2
4 ( )
FIGURE 2 Flexural stiffness reduction with applied repetitions for asphalt-rubber.
FIGURE 3 Repetitions to failure versus tensile strain for asphalt-rubber.
Raad and Saboundjian Paper No. 98-1019 77
analysis was conducted for 20C and 0C. Results are illustrated in
Figures 7 and 8. The comparison shows that at 20C, asphalt-rubber
and AC-5 mixes exhibit essentially similar fatigue resistance, whereas
PlusRide has the least fatigue life. However at 0C, the fatigue resis-
tance of PlusRide and asphalt-rubber exceeds that of the AC-5 mix.
The fatigue resistance of asphalt-rubber in this case is the highest.
Dissipated Energy
The use of dissipated energy to characterize fatigue behavior has been
investigated under Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP)
Project A-003A (25). Dissipated energy refers to the work done on the
specimen per unit volume as it is subjected to one cycle of stress and
strain. Schematically, it is equal to the area enclosed by the hysteresis
loop of stress and strain, as illustrated in Figure 9. This work or energy
is not recovered but dissipated through viscous damping, plastic work,
microcrack development and growth, particle rearrangement, and
frictional losses. Accordingly, dissipated energy could be used to
interpret damage associated with repeated cyclic stresses. For exam-
ple, if in a pavement the viscous component in the dissipated energy
term is known, then the remaining component of dissipated energy
will be essentially equal to the energy consumed in microcracking of
the asphalt-aggregate matrix. Although such detailed analysis is not
FIGURE 4 Repetitions to failure versus tensile strain for PlusRide.
FIGURE 5 Repetitions to failure versus tensile strain for AC-5 mix.
78 Paper No. 98-1019 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD 1639
within the scope of this paper, computation of dissipated energy from
tensile strain and stress cycles illustrates the following:
As expected for controlled-strain fatigue testing, the dissipated
energy per cycle decreases with increasing applications of load
cycles (Figure 10). It is interesting to note that initially the dissi-
pated energy for the conventional mix (CAC) is higher than that of
the rubberized mixes, but it drops very fast when fatigue failure
(i.e., 50 percent reduction in stiffness) is approached.
Correlations between cumulative dissipated energy and repeti-
tions to failure (Figure 11) indicate higher cumulative dissipated
energy for the rubberized mixes in comparison with the conven-
tional mix for a given fatigue life. This illustrates the ability of the
rubberized mixes to dissipate more energy before the 50 percent
reduction in exure stiffness (i.e., fatigue failure) occurs.
The cumulative dissipated energy associated with fatigue failure
increases with increasing temperature and repetitions to failure and is
higher for the asphalt-rubber mix than for PlusRide or conventional
AC-5 mixes (Figure 11).
APPLICATIONS
Equations 3 and 4 were applied to compare the fatigue life of con-
ventional and rubberized pavement sections. Typical pavement
sections were analyzed for both average summer (20C) and aver-
age spring (0C) conditions using the ELSYM5 computer pro-
gram. Pavement section data and results are shown in Figures 12
and 13.
Results of analysis indicate that for summer loading conditions
(Figure 12), the conventional AC-5 mix has a longer fatigue life than
both PlusRide and asphalt-rubber mixes. It is estimated fatigue life
is about twice that of asphalt-rubber and eight times the fatigue life
of PlusRide. The most critical fatigue, however, occurs during
spring-thaw (Figure 13). In this case, the fatigue life of the conven-
tional pavement drops from about 3.4 million load repetitions (in
summer) to 7,000 load repetitions (in spring). The fatigue life of both
PlusRide and asphalt rubber layers exceeds that of the conventional
section. Using an asphalt-rubber layer would in this case increase
the fatigue life by a factor of 7, whereas a PlusRide mix will increase
the fatigue life by a factor of 3.
TABLE 2 Regression Coefficients for Fatigue Equations
FIGURE 6 Variation of exural stiffness with temperature.
TABLE 3 Regression Coefficients for Stiffness-Temperature
Relationships
FIGURE 7 Comparison of fatigue resistance at 20C.
FIGURE 8 Comparison of fatigue resistance at 0C.
FIGURE 9 Typical hysteresis loop for cycle of loading in fatigue test.
FIGURE 10 Variation of dissipated energy per cycle with load repetitions.
FIGURE 11 Cumulative dissipated energy variation with fatigue life.
FIGURE 12 Fatigue life comparison for summer conditions
(T = 20C).
Raad and Saboundjian Paper No. 98-1019 81
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In this study, fatigue tests for asphalt-rubber and PlusRide eld
specimens were conducted using repeat load exure tests. The tests
were performed for a temperature range between 22C and 29C.
Relationships for fatigue life expressed in terms of repetitions to
failure, as a function of exure strain and stiffness of the rubberized
mixes, were developed. In addition, the variation of exure stiffness
with temperature for the tested materials was also determined.
Results were compared with fatigue and stiffness properties of con-
ventional AC-5 mixes. The fatigue and stiffness relationships
obtained in this study were used to analyze typical pavement sec-
tions under summer and spring loading conditions and to compare
fatigue performance of the rubberized and conventional mixes.
The main ndings of this study can be summarized as follows:
For tests conducted at 29C, both PlusRide and the asphalt-
rubber mixes exhibit similar fatigue behavior whereby the exure
strain required to cause fatigue failure maintains essentially a con-
stant value of 550 10
6
. A similar behavior is observed for the con-
ventional AC-5 mix at a temperature of 12C, whereby the exure
strain value associated with fatigue reaches 250 10
6
. At these tem-
peratures (12C for AC mixes and 29C for asphalt-rubber and
PlusRide mixes), the materials seem to have attained their respective
glass transition states.
The dynamic exure stiffness of the conventional AC-5 mix is
higher than the rubberized mixes for the range of temperatures con-
sidered. Both rubberized mixes, PlusRide and asphalt-rubber, exhibit
essentially equal stiffness variation with temperature.
Compared to the conventional mix, the rubberized mixes seem to
have the ability to dissipate more energy before 50 percent reduction
in exural stiffness (i.e., fatigue failure).
Comparison of fatigue behavior shows that at 20C, asphalt-
rubber and AC-5 mixes exhibit essentially similar fatigue resis-
tance, whereas PlusRide has the least fatigue life. However, at 0C
the fatigue resistance of PlusRide and asphalt-rubber exceeds that
of the AC-5 mix. The fatigue resistance of asphalt-rubber in this
case is the highest.
Results of multilayer elastic analysis for typical pavement sec-
tions show that the most critical fatigue occurs during spring thaw. In
this case, the fatigue life of the conventional pavement drops from
about 3.4 million load repetitions (in summer) to 7,000 load repetitions
(in spring). The spring fatigue life of both PlusRide and asphalt rubber
layers exceeds that of the conventional section. Using an asphalt-rub-
ber layer would in this case increase the fatigue life by a factor of 7,
whereas a PlusRide mix will increase the fatigue life by a factor of 3.
Finally, it should be emphasized that the analysis in this study
addressed only the fatigue of the surface layer, with no considera-
tion to other modes of surface failure or potential failure in the
underlying base or subgrade. These issues need to be addressed in
future research work.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was funded by the Alaska Department of Transporta-
tion and Public Facilities and FHWA. This support is gratefully
acknowledged.
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