Physical Activity and Basic Movement Development

in Early Childhood: A Review of Literature

Mike Jess, University of Edinburgh
Linda Gagen, Old Dominion University, Virginia, US
Jan M!"ntyre, #ity of Edinburgh
Jon $erkins, University of Edinburgh
James M!lister, University of Edinburgh
Executive Summary
Young childrens physical activity and basic movement are topics of political,
professional and academic interest. With anxieties about inactivity, sedentary
lifestyles and obesity, national and local initiatives have been introduced to help all
young children develop the positive habits and basic movement foundation needed for
a lifelong involvement in physical activity. However, there are concerns about the
quality of the physical activity and basic movement experiences children receive in
the home, pre-school, early school and community settings. he aim of this review is
to inform all those involved in young childrens physical activity and basic movement
development about our current understanding of the !ey issues in this area.
he review will investigate four !ey questions.
". What do we mean by physical activity and basic movement development in
young childhood#
$. What do we !now about young childrens physical activity#
%. What do we !now about young childrens basic movement development#
&. What do we !now about the different contexts in which young children
ta!e part in physical activity and basic movement development#
he review will conclude by presenting !ey recommendations for the future of young
childrens physical activity and basic movement development.
%
Contents
$age
E&e!utive Summary %
#ontents '
%( n "ntrodu!tion to $hysi!al !tivity and )oung #hildren *
'( +hat is $hysi!al !tivity in Early #hildhood, -
*( +hat do .e /no. about )oung #hildren0s $hysi!al !tivity, %1
2( +hat do .e /no. about )oung #hildren0s 3asi! Movement Skill
Develo4ment,
'5
5( +hat do .e /no. about )oung #hildren0s O44ortunities to Develo4
$hysi!al !tivity and 3asi! Movement #om4eten!e,
*6
-( #on!lusion and 7e!ommendations 28
7eferen!es 5'

'
Section : An !ntroduction to "oun# Children$s Physical Activity
and Basic Movement Development
9he im4ortan!e and value of 4hysi!al a!tivity a!ross the lifes4an is being
re!ognised as never before, .ith the benefits of a lifelong involvement in
regular 4hysi!al a!tivity no. .ell:do!umented and generally a!!e4ted ;United
States De4artment of <ealth and <uman Servi!es, %88-=( s a result many
ne. develo4ments, ne. 4rogrammes and ne. initiatives for all ages are being
instigated a!ross S!otland and throughout the rest of U/ ;S!ottish E&e!utive,
'11*=( <o.ever, 4hysi!al ina!tivity and sedentary lifestyles in adulthood are
still a ma>or !on!ern and, for a number of reasons, it is un!lear ho. su!!essful
adult interventions are in solving these 4roblems ;S!ottish <ealth Survey,
%886=(
Subse?uently, attention has gradually been moving to.ards the !hildhood
years as the best time to develo4 a foundation for lifelong 4hysi!al a!tivity
;<ealth Edu!ation uthority ;<E=, %886=( s su!h, young !hildren0s 4hysi!al
a!tivity and basi! movement develo4ment is no. being a!kno.ledged as a
key issue and it is .idely a!!e4ted that the early !hildhood years are the time
to begin the develo4ment of the skills, the kno.ledge and the attitudes that
lead to a!tive and healthy lifestyles ;@S$E, '111=( "n S!otland, this has led
to in!reased government su44ort through the @ational $hysi!al !tivity
Strategy ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*=, a @ational 7evie. of $hysi!al Edu!ation
;S!ottish E&e!utive, '112=, the introdu!tion of the !tive S!hools $rogramme
*
;s4orts!otland, '11*= and the in!lusion of 4hysi!al a!tivity as 4art of the
<ealth $romoting S!hools Unit ;Learning and 9ea!hing S!otland, '115=(
<o.ever, although !hildren remain the most a!tive grou4 in so!iety, they are
less a!tive than 4reviously thought ;S!ottish <ealth Survey, %886= and be!ome
in!reasingly less a!tive as they move through the adoles!ent years
;rmstrong, 3alding, Gentle and /irkby, %881A #ale, %88-=( 9his .ould
suggest that there is mu!h .ork still to be done if a solid foundation for
lifelong 4hysi!al a!tivity is to be develo4ed for all young 4eo4le(
"n !om4arison to other age grou4s, there is still relatively little resear!h or
literature on early !hildhood 4hysi!al a!tivity, but this situation is beginning to
!hange and .e are no. able to make more robust observations about our
understanding of this im4ortant area( Subse?uently, this revie. .ill !onsider
.hat .e !urrently kno. about 4hysi!al a!tivity and basi! movement
develo4ment in early !hildhood and .ill also dis!uss the different !onte&ts in
.hi!h 4hysi!al a!tivity habits and basi! movement skills are develo4ed( 9he
revie. .ill !on!lude by !onsidering re!ommendations for future
develo4ments(
2
S%MMAR" P&!'(S
An !ntroduction to "oun# Children$s Physical Activity and Movement
Development
9he benefits of 4hysi!al a!tivity a!ross the lifes4an have been re!ognised,
but adult ina!tivity is still of ma>or !on!ern(
9he im4ortan!e of develo4ing 4hysi!al a!tivity habits and basi! movement
skills early in life as the foundation for lifelong 4arti!i4ation is no. being
a!kno.ledged as never before(
9here are also !on!erns about !hildren0s and adoles!ents0 4hysi!al a!tivity
levels and sedentary behaviour(
"n S!otland, a number of government initiatives and 4rogrammes are
beginning to highlight !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity as a key issue(
5
Section ): *hat is Physical Activity and Movement Development in
Early Childhood+
*hat is physical activity+
$hysi!al a!tivity is a broad term to des!ribe the movements of the body that use
energy ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*=( s su!h, the Birst "nternational #onsensus
Statement on $hysi!al !tivity, Bitness and <ealth ;!ited in S!ottish E&e!utive,
'11*=, re!ognises that 4hysi!al a!tivity is an umbrella term ;see Bigure %=(
3eneath this umbrella are different ty4es of 4hysi!al a!tivities .hi!h !an be s4lit
into si& different !ategories(
Bigure %C 9he $hysi!al !tivity Umbrella ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*=
-
!tive
Living
7e!reational
!tivity
S4ort $lay E&er!ise Dan!e
$hysi!al !tivity
Bor good health, 4hysi!al a!tivity develo4s the health:related as4e!ts of our
fitness, .hi!h in!lude !ardiovas!ular fitness ;heart, lungs and !ir!ulatory
systems=, mus!le strength and enduran!e, fle&ibility and body !om4osition
;4er!entage of body fat=( <o.ever, it is im4ortant to stress that health:related
4hysi!al a!tivity does not ne!essarily mean vigorous 4hysi!al a!tivity( "t in!ludes
moderate 4hysi!al a!tivity e(g( brisk .alking( 9herefore, the notion of Dno 4ain, no
gain0 is not ne!essary for health gains from health:related 4hysi!al a!tivity and, as
su!h, most of the 4o4ulation are able to 4arti!i4ate in this ty4e of 4hysi!al a!tivity(
Bor 4hysi!al a!tivity 4erforman!e in games, s4ort and dan!e .e develo4 the
movement skill:related as4e!ts of fitness i(e( 4o.er, s4eed, agility, balan!e and
rea!tion time( lthough there is a geneti! element to these as4e!ts, most of the
4o4ulation !an 4arti!i4ate in this ty4e of 4hysi!al a!tivity at a level .hi!h .ill
allo. them to a!!ess many different games, s4orts and dan!e a!tivities(
9herefore, there are t.o interrelated ty4es of 4hysi!al a!tivityC health:related and
4erforman!e:related 4hysi!al a!tivity(
*hat is physical activity and movement development in early childhood+
"n this revie., early !hildhood is the 4eriod from * to - years of ageA it
therefore !overs the transition 4eriod from the 4re:s!hool years ;ages *E2F5= to
the early 4art of s!hooling ;ages 2F5E-=( #hildren in early !hildhood .ill be
referred to as young !hildren(
G
"n early !hildhood, 4hysi!al a!tivity and movement develo4ment su44orts
!hildren0s !urrent 4hysi!al a!tivity 4arti!i4ation and under4ins their future
health and 4erforman!e:related 4hysi!al a!tivity through t.o interrelated
!om4onentsC
%( Lifestyle 4hysi!al a!tivity, .hi!h in!ludes all the different 4hysi!al
a!tivities !hildren take 4art in during their normal daily living, e(g(
4hysi!al 4lay, .alking, et!
'( 3asi! movement skill a!tivity, .hi!h hel4s them a!!ess 4hysi!al
a!tivities re?uiring a degree of movement !om4eten!e(
3oth ty4es of 4hysi!al a!tivity are im4ortant for young !hildren as they have
the 4otential to hel4 them form 4ositive 4hysi!al a!tivity habits early in life
and !an also assist .ith !urrent and future 4arti!i4ation in a!tivities re?uiring
movement !om4eten!e(
9his is su44orted by the @ational sso!iation for S4ort and $hysi!al !tivity in the
US, .hi!h has noted thatC
'(dopting a physically active lifestyle in early life increases the li!elihood that
infants and young children will learn to move s!ilfully. )arly motor s!ills
form the foundation for later sport, dance and exercise activities.
;@S$E, '11', 4 *=
6
S%MMAR" P&!'(S
*hat is Physical Activity and Movement Development in Early Childhood+
$hysi!al a!tivity is an umbrella term !overing a!tive living, re!reation,
s4ort, 4lay dan!e and e&er!ise(
<ealth:related and 4erforman!e:related 4hysi!al a!tivity are the t.o
interrelated !ategories of 4hysi!al a!tivity in adulthood(
)oung !hildren from the ages of * through to - are !onsidered to be in
early !hildhood(
9here are t.o main interrelated !ategories of 4hysi!al a!tivity in early
!hildhoodC
i( Lifestyle 4hysi!al a!tivity
ii( 3asi! movement skill
8
Section ,: *hat do we -now a.out youn# children$s physical
activity+
!ntroduction
+ith the te!hnologi!al and digital age no. here, !om4uters, DVDs,
televisions, travel by !ar and many other labour saving devi!es are a regular
4art of life( lthough these innovations have many benefits, the fun!tional
4hysi!al a!tivity of most 4eo4le is no. mu!h less than it on!e .as and has
resulted in today0s !hildren e&4ending a44ro&imately -11 k!al of energy less
4er day than their !ounter4arts 51 years ago ;3oreham and 7iddo!h, '11%=(
9he 4o4ulation, ?uite sim4ly, is be!oming more sedentary and less a!tive .ith
ea!h 4assing de!ade( #on!erns are regularly voi!ed in the media and
4rofessional and a!ademi! >ournals about young !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity
levels, their obesity and the D!ou!h 4otato0 !ulture they no. live in(
<o.ever, .hereas mu!h is no. kno.n about the benefits and haHards of
4hysi!al a!tivity in adulthood, in !om4arison, there is relatively little kno.n
about !hildren and young 4eo4le0s 4hysi!al a!tivity ;7iddo!h, %886=(
Bortunately, the resear!h base is beginning to gro. and .e are no. able to
make more a!!urate !omment about young !hildren and their 4hysi!al a!tivity(
9his se!tion .ill !onsider .hat .e kno. aboutC
%1
o Guidelines for young !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity
o )oung !hildren0s !urrent 4hysi!al a!tivity levels
o )oung !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity and its links to health, obesity,
a!ademi! a!hievement and !ognitive develo4ment
o 9he assessment of young !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity(
Physical Activity /uidelines for "oun# Children
$hysi!al a!tivity guidelines ;and 4hysi!al edu!ation !urri!ula= are im4ortant as
they 4resent a !lear indi!ation, given our !urrent kno.ledge, as to the most
a44ro4riate ty4e of 4hysi!al a!tivity e&4erien!es .e should be offering
!hildren( <o.ever, although there is strong agreement about the fre?uen!y,
intensity, time and ty4e of 4hysi!al a!tivity a44ro4riate to hel4 develo4 and
maintain adult health, the eviden!e base is mu!h less strong for !hildren
;<E, %886=(
"n the %861s, numerous attem4ts .ere made in @orth meri!a to develo4
guidelines for !hildren but these tended to mirror adult re!ommendations and
it soon be!ame !lear that given the many develo4mental differen!es, these
.ere ina44ro4riate( Even although the s!ientifi! base is still relatively .eak,
!onsiderable 4rogress has been made over the last de!ade( Develo4ments stem
largely from the more age:related #hildren0s Lifetime $hysi!al !tivity Model
;#orbin, $angraHi and +elk, %882=, .hi!h has led to subse?uent guidelines
being develo4ed in England ;3iddle, Sallis and #avill, %886A <E, %886=,
%%
S!otland ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*= and most re!ently the US ;@S$E,
'112=( "n addition, @S$E ;'11'= has also develo4ed one of the fe. sets of
guidelines for young !hildren in the *E5 age grou4(
Physical Activity /uidelines for School0A#ed Children
lthough !hildren0s guidelines are different around the .orld a key
re!ommendation is that !hildren should accumulate at least one hour of
moderate activity on most days of the week ;<E, %886=( "n S!otland, the
@ational $hysi!al !tivity Strategy ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*= su44orted this
re!ommendation but highlighted the need for ?uality e&4erien!es that hel4
establish the under4inning attitudes, skills and behaviours for lifelong 4hysi!al
a!tivity and health( s su!h, there is a need for lifestyle 4hysi!al a!tivity to
be!ome a 4ositive habit in early !hildhood(
t this time, the most re!ent guidelines for 4re:s!hool and s!hool:age !hildren
in!lude the follo.ingC
%'
Physical Activity /uidelines for Children a#ed 12) 3'ASPE4 )5567
%( !!umulate at least -1 minutes, and u4 to several hours, of age:a44ro4riate
4hysi!al a!tivity on all, or most, days of the .eek(
'( $arti!i4ate in several bouts of 4hysi!al a!tivity lasting %5 minutes or more
ea!h day(
*( $arti!i4ate ea!h day in a variety of age:a44ro4riate 4hysi!al a!tivities designed
to a!hieve o4timal health, .ellness, fitness and 4erforman!e benefits(
2( E&tended 4eriods ;4eriods of t.o hours or more= of ina!tivity are dis!ouraged
for !hildren, es4e!ially during the daytime hours(
Physical Activity /uidelines for Children A#ed ,21 3'ASPE4 )55)7
%( !!umulate -1 minutes stru!tured 4hysi!al a!tivity daily(
'( t least -1 minutes, and u4 to several hours, of daily, unstru!tured 4hysi!al
a!tivity and not to be sedentary for more than -1 minutes at a time e&!e4t
.hen aslee4(
*( Develo4ing !om4eten!e in movement skills that are building blo!ks for
more !om4le& movement tasks(
2( <ave indoor and outdoor areas that meet or e&!eed re!ommended safety
standards for 4erforming large mus!le a!tivities(
5( "ndividuals res4onsible for the .ellbeing of 4re:s!hoolers to be a.are of
the im4ortan!e of 4hysi!al a!tivity and fa!ilitate the !hild0s movement
skills(
%*
Given the im4ortan!e of develo4ing 4ositive habits early in life, these
guidelines have a number of im4ortant strengths( 9he -1 minutes of moderate
4hysi!al a!tivity 4er day, around the level of brisk .alking, is attainable by
most young !hildren and moves a.ay from the notion of D@o $ain, @o Gain0,
.hi!h some !hildren and adults find off:4utting( 9hey also highlight that
!hildren .ill have different levels of 4hysi!al a!tivity on different days and
that there is a need to !ombat long bouts of sedentary behaviour( "t is also
en!ouraging to see movement skill develo4ment, stru!tured and unstru!tured
a!tivity, and both indoor and outdoor a!tivity in!luded in the guidelines(
Binally, it is hel4ful that the S!ottish guidelines have been differentiated in that
ina!tive !hildren should start .ith less time 4er day, e(g( *1 minutes ;S!ottish
E&e!utive, '11*=(
#hild:related guidelines are a relatively ne. addition to the 4hysi!al a!tivity literature
and give !hildren, 4hysi!al a!tivity 4rofessionals, 4arents, tea!hers and other adults a
!lear indi!ation of the most u4:to:date suggestions that .ill hel4 young !hildren meet
a44ro4riate 4hysi!al a!tivity levels(
8ow physically active are youn# children+
Over the last %5 years, re4orts about the 4hysi!al a!tivity 4arti!i4ation of older
!hildren and adoles!ents have be!ome more evident in the literature( "t is only
%2
re!ently that studies of younger !hildren have begun to emerge, 4arti!ularly in
S!otland through the .ork of staff at the University of Glasgo. ;7eilly et al, '11'=(
number of im4ortant trends are beginning to emerge from this .ork and should
im4a!t u4on future develo4ments in terms of interventions and 4rogramme
develo4ment(
1. Young children are less active than older children
$re:s!hool !hildren have been found to be less a!tive than older !hildren ;see Bigure '=
;Davies et al, %885, S!ottish <ealth Survey, %886=( <o.ever, given the develo4ing bodies of
younger !hildren and their inability to sustain 4hysi!al a!tivity for longer 4eriods of time, this
is not as sur4rising a finding as may at first be e&4e!ted(
Figure 2: Percentage of children and young people reaching recommended
level of physical activity (Scottish Health Survey, 1998
!
2!
"!
#!
8!
1!!
2$% "$& #$' 8$9 1!$11 12$1% 1"$1&
(ge
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
)oys
*irls
+ith the gro.ing eviden!e that many older !hildren and adoles!ents do not
meet the 4hysi!al a!tivity guidelines it must be of !on!ern that large numbers
of young !hildren are already so ina!tive(
%5
2. Young Children are becoming more sedentary
"t is be!oming a44arent from re!ent eviden!e that young S!ottish !hildren are
4arti!ularly sedentary, .ith *:year:olds s4ending G8I and 5 year olds G-I of
their times ina!tive ;7eilly et al, '112=( 9hese figures have been re4li!ated
else.here, e(g( in "reland ;/elly et al, '115=( "nterestingly, although television
vie.ing is a signifi!ant sedentary behaviour, it is un!lear if this a!tually !auses
young !hildren to be less 4hysi!ally a!tive(
3. Young boys are more active than young girls
9he eviden!e !onsistently suggests that young boys are more a!tive than
young girls ;Montgomery et al, '112A /elly et al, '115=( lthough this finding
has often been re4orted in late !hildhood and, in 4arti!ular, adoles!en!e, this
dis4arity at su!h a young age suggests that the 4roblem of girls0 ina!tivity may
develo4 mu!h earlier in life than originally thought( "f this is the !ase,
!onsideration may need to be given to the ty4es of 4hysi!al a!tivity,
movement develo4ment and 4hysi!al edu!ation 4rogrammes offered to young
boys and young girls(
. Young children!s "hysical activity is mostly of low intensity
7e!ent studies on both young and older !hildren have revealed that most of
!hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity is both transitory and lo. intensity, .ith very
o!!asional bursts of moderate or high intensity a!tivity ;#ale and <arris,
%-
'115=( s noted earlier, this may not be sur4rising given the 4hysi!al,
!ognitive and affe!tive develo4mental level at .hi!h young !hildren are
fun!tioning(
#. Young children!s "hysical activity a""ears to track through early childhood
lthough there is still some dubiety about the e&tent to .hi!h 4hysi!al a!tivity
in !hildhood tra!ks through to adulthood ;Malina, '11%=, there is some
eviden!e not only that young !hildren be!ome more a!tive as they get older
but that those .ho are a!tive at a younger age tend to remain a!tive in early
!hildhood ;$ate et al, %88-=( <o.ever, it is im4ortant that future 4hysi!al
a!tivity 4rogrammes seek to ensure that 4hysi!al a!tivity 4arti!i4ation
!ontinues as !hildren get older, 4arti!ularly through the adoles!ent years into
adulthood(
$. %ctive and inactive children are "olarised
n additional issue in older !hildren, but one that may start in early !hildhood,
is the a44arent 4olarisation bet.een more a!tive !hildren and non or less
a!tive !hildren( +hile many !hildren meet the 4hysi!al a!tivity guidelines,
there is a substantial number ;4ossibly as high as '1I= .ho are almost
sedentary throughout most of their daily lives ;#ale and <arris, '115=(
&. 'hysical "lay is still very im"ortant
%G
lthough 4hysi!al 4lay is often !onsidered to be less !ommon than in 4revious
generations, s4ontaneous 4lay is still the most likely sour!e of 4hysi!al
a!tivity for many !hildren ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*=(
9herefore, it .ould a44ear that a number of themes are beginning to emerge from the
4hysi!al a!tivity studies in early !hildhood( <o.ever, as the number, siHe and
duration of studies !arried out in this area are relatively limited, it has been suggested
that
'* future developments should include the implementation of large-scale,
longitudinal studies spanning childhood and young adulthood.
3oreham and 7iddo!h ;'11%, 4 8%5=
"oun# Children$s Physical Activity and its Lin-s to 8ealth4 &.esity4 Academic
Achievement and Co#nitive Development
Physical Activity and 8ealth
"n re!ent years there is in!reasing eviden!e that 4hysi!al a!tivity brings about dire!t
health benefits for young !hildren, some of .hi!h may 4ass into adulthood(
"n young !hildren, skeletal health and bone mineral density are aided through
.eight:bearing a!tivities ;/em4er, '111A M!/elvie, /ahn and M!/ay, '111=
%6
and it has been suggested that this enhan!ed bone mass from 4hysi!al a!tivity
has the 4otential to redu!e the risk of osteo4orosis and asso!iated fra!tures in
later life ;3oreham and 7iddo!h, '11%=( "n addition, there is also eviden!e that
4hysi!al a!tivity redu!es the risk fa!tors for heart and !ir!ulatory diseases
;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*=( <o.ever, 4hysi!al a!tivity does not seem to
im4a!t on blood li4ids and blood 4ressure during !hildhood and adoles!en!e
;9.isk, '111=(
Over the last de!ade the links bet.een 4hysi!al a!tivity and mental health
benefits in adults have be!ome in!reasingly .ell established ;3iddle and
3iddle, '11%=( <o.ever, there is a distin!t la!k of studies in !hildhood,
4arti!ularly .ith young !hildren, but Sallis ;'111= has suggested that the
strongest health benefit of 4hysi!al a!tivity for !hildren and young 4eo4le may
a!tually be im4roved 4sy!hologi!al health( 9herefore, be!ause 4sy!hologi!al
health is kno.n to affe!t the daily .ellbeing of young 4eo4le and adults, this
may be reason enough to ensure that !hildren and young 4eo4le are regularly
a!tive in an a44ro4riate manner(
Physical Activity4 &.esity and &verwei#ht
Obesity and over.eight are ma>or health issues at the start of the '%
st
!entury(
On!e !onsidered adult 4roblems, both re!ently emerged as signifi!ant
4aediatri! !on!erns, .ith terms like De4idemi!0 regularly used in 4rofessional
and a!ademi! >ournals(
%8
"n S!otland, more !hildren are be!oming over.eight and obese at an alarming
rate .ith an estimated '1I over.eight ;<E3S, '115=, 6(-I of *E2:year:olds
and %5I of %2:year:olds obese ;rmstrong et al, '11%=, .hen the U/
referen!e standard is 5I( 9here is no a44arent differen!e bet.een boys and
girls, but the

figures are a siHable in!rease from the early %881s( Of greater
!on!ern, ho.ever, is the eviden!e that obesity tra!ks or 4ersists from
!hildhood into adulthood ;3arano.ski et al, '111A Steinbe!k, '11%=(
t this time, it is un!ertain ho. effe!tive 4hysi!al a!tivity is in both the
4revention and treatment of obesity( 7eilly et al ;'11'= have noted that
!hildhood obesity is diffi!ult to treat be!ause of the un!ertainty surrounding
as4e!ts like 4revalen!e, diagnosis and treatment( <o.ever, it .ould a44ear
that su!!essful treatment interventions are both !om4le& and resour!e
intensive involving multi:fa!eted a44roa!hes develo4ed around diet, ina!tivity,
4hysi!al a!tivity, s!hools and family ;Goran et al, %888A Gortmaker et al,
%888=(
!tion, ho.ever, is ne!essary as the 4roblem of obesity is not only getting
.orse but 4re:s!hool !hildren .ith lo. levels of 4hysi!al a!tivity have been
sho.n to gain !onsiderably more

fat than more a!tive !hildren ;Moore et al,
%885=( +ith 4aediatri! obesity su!h a serious 4roblem in S!otland, a multi:
organisational !ollaborative study involving the 3ritish <eart Boundation,
Glasgo. #ity #oun!il, the University of Glasgo. and )orkhill <os4ital may
soon offer im4ortant su44ort and guidan!e( 9he 4ro>e!t, Movement and
!tivity Glasgo. "ntervention for #hildren ;MG"#=, is investigating ho.
different forms of 4hysi!al a!tivity !an redu!e the likelihood of !ardiovas!ular
'1
and obesity risk fa!tors in 4re:s!hool !hildren( 9he intervention involves *-
nursery s!hools in Glasgo. and .ill measure a .ide variety of different
fa!tors( "nitial results should be available in early '11-(
@evertheless, even .ith the !ontroversy surrounding the role of 4hysi!al
a!tivity in obesity at 4resent, it .ould seem a44ro4riate to take the advi!e
offered by Steinbe!k ;'11%= .hen he 4ro4osed thatC
'+n balance, increasing physical activity in children is an attractive
and non-restrictive approach to obesity prevention. o adopt this
approach requires the support and involvement of many community
sectors other than health.
;4 %%G=
Physical Activity4 Academic Achievement and Co#nitive Development
9he issue of the relationshi4 bet.een 4hysi!al a!tivity and a!ademi! a!hievement and
!ognitive develo4ment has long been debated but the links are still e?uivo!al(
9here is general a!!e4tan!e that, given the develo4mental level of infants and
young !hildren, 4hysi!al a!tivity is Dan im4ortant !om4onent of early brain
develo4ment and learning0 ;@S$E, '11'= and there is !onsiderable eviden!e
that it also hel4s develo4 !hildren0s 4er!e4tual develo4ment in terms of s4atial
a.areness and kinaesthesis ;<ay.ood and Get!hell, '112=( <o.ever, as
!hildren get older, and their !ognitive abilities develo4, the link be!omes less
obvious(
'%
"n terms of a!ademi! a!hievement, the resear!h findings, generally .ith older
!hildren, are less !lear( She4hard ;%88G= and lmond and M!George ;%886=,
revie.ed findings from a number of longitudinal studies and !ame to the same
!on!lusion that more time s4ent in 4hysi!al a!tivity or 4hysi!al edu!ation in
s!hool does not negatively im4a!t on a!ademi! 4erforman!e ;+illiams,
<ughes and Martin, %86'A $ollats!hek and O0<agan, %868= and may a!tually
lead to im4rovements ;She4hard and Lavalee, %882=( 7e!ently, a large:s!ale
!ross:se!tional study in the US re4orted that !hildren aged %1, %' and %2
.ho .ere 4hysi!ally fitter !onsistently a!hieved higher a!ademi! s!ores
;#alifornia De4artment of Edu!ation De4artment, '11'=( s yet, ho.ever,
although !laims are often made, the reasons under4inning these a!ademi!
gains are as yet un!lear and more studies are needed to as!ertain if 4hysi!al
a!tivity itself is a signifi!ant reason for these im4rovements(
lthough there have been a limited number of studies investigating the im4a!t of
young !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity on health, obesity, a!ademi! a!hievement and
!ognitive develo4ment, there are en!ouraging signs that involvement in 4hysi!al
a!tivity !an have 4ositive benefits to the lives of young !hildren( <o.ever, there is a
need for more studies, 4arti!ularly longitudinal, in the future(
''
Assessin# "oun# Children$s Physical Activity
9he assessment or monitoring of young !hildren0s daily 4hysi!al a!tivity is not
yet a !ommon o!!urren!e( <o.ever, .ithout this information, adults .ill find
it diffi!ult to develo4 a44ro4riate 4hysi!al a!tivity 4rogrammes or
interventions to hel4 !hildren meet national 4hysi!al a!tivity guidelines( "t is
therefore im4ortant that efforts are made to !olle!t a!!urate information about
!hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity levels in relation to these guidelines(
<o.ever, assessing 4hysi!al a!tivity is a !om4le& 4ro!ess, 4arti!ularly .ith
young !hildren( 9his is due to their intermittent 4atterns of lo. intensity
a!tivity inters4ersed .ith short bouts of moderate to vigorous a!tivity, their
less .ell develo4ed !ognitive skills, the differen!es in their metabolism and
the la!k of effi!ien!y in their movements ;+elk, #orbin and Dale, '111=(
Subse?uently, self:re4ort studies, the most !ommon assessment tool .ith older
!hildren and adoles!ents, are ina44ro4riate for this age grou4 and the more
!om4le& 4hysiologi!al methods of assessment, namely indire!t !alorimetry
and the double labelled .ater, are only really a44ro4riate for more detailed
resear!h studies ;#ale and <arris, '115=( <o.ever, re4orts by 4arents or
signifi!ant adults, 4hysi!al a!tivity observations, the use of 4edometers or
heart:rate monitors may all be viable alternatives as they are not 4arti!ularly
e&4ensive or time:!onsuming and .ill hel4 adults develo4 a mu!h more
a!!urate a!!ount of !hildren0s a!tivity levels(
'*
"f 4rogrammes are to be develo4ed that im4a!t u4on !hildren0s 4hysi!al
a!tivity levels, a!!urate ongoing assessment is !riti!al(
S%MMAR" P&!'(S
*hat we -now a.out youn# children$s physical activity
Guidelines for early !hildhood 4hysi!al a!tivity suggest -1 minutes of
a!!umulated a!tivity on most days of the .eek(
Research evidence su##ests
%( )oung !hildren are less a!tive than older !hildren(
'( )oung !hildren are be!oming more sedentary(
*( )oung boys are more a!tive than young girls(
2( )oung !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity is mostly of lo. intensity(
5( )oung !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity a44ears to tra!k through early
!hildhood(
-( !tive and ina!tive !hildren are 4olarised(
G( $hysi!al 4lay is still very im4ortant(
44ro4riate 4hysi!al a!tivity a44ears to have the 4otential to 4ositively influen!e
health, obesity, !ognitive develo4ment and a!ademi! a!hievement(
!!urate monitoring of young !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity levels is im4ortant for
4rogramme develo4ment and tra!king 4ur4oses(
'2
Section 6: *hat do we -now a.out youn# children$s .asic
movement s-ill development+
!ntroduction
"n the U/, the im4ortan!e of young !hildren develo4ing a basi! movement
foundation for lifelong involvement in 4hysi!al a!tivity has re!eived
!onsiderable su44ort in mu!h !ontem4orary literature( Bor e&am4le, the
@ational $hysi!al !tivity 9ask Bor!e stated that 'basic movement s!ills
support all our physical activity in later life ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*, 4 2*=
and the $hysi!al Edu!ation 7evie. Grou4 !ommented that 'all will need the
basic s!ills and understanding for lifelong activity ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '112,
4 %2=(
'B 3asi! movement skills are also !alled fundamental movement skills in
mu!h of the literature(
<o.ever, the 9ask Bor!e also !ommented that there is still a 'common belief
that children 'naturally develop the competence to en,oy being active
;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*, 4 2*=( 9his vie., .hi!h stems ba!k to the %8'1s
and is based on a maturational inter4retation of resear!h findings, has been
sho.n not to be the !ase for, as Gallahue and OHmun ;%886, 4 62= have said,
'5
'(lthough maturation does play a role in the development of
fundamental -basic. movement patterns, it should not be viewed as the
only influence. he conditions of the environment / namely,
opportunities for practice, encouragement, instruction and the ecology
-setting. of the environment itself / all play important roles in the
degree to which fundamental movement patterns develop.
Unfortunately, over many years, this maturational 4ers4e!tive has had a
signifi!ant im4a!t on both the !ontent and delivery of young !hildren0s
movement 4rogrammes in 4re:s!hool and the early years of s!hooling and has
often resulted in basi! movement skill develo4ment not being the key goal of
the 4rogramme( <o.ever, there is in!reasing eviden!e that 4hysi!al
edu!ationists are no. mu!h more su44ortive of basi! movement !om4eten!e
as the foundation for lifelong 4hysi!al a!tivity( 9his is a44arent in both the U/
literature ;SOED, %88'A 3ailey and M!Badyen, '111A <M"E, '11%A Jess and
#ollins, '11*= and from the rest of the .orld ;+alkley et al, %88*A @S$E,
%885A +hitehead and #orbin, %88GA Graham, <olt:<ale and $arker, '11%A
Gallahue and OHmun, '11'= and has resulted in more 4rogrammes emerging
to a!!ommodate this vie.4oint ;Jess, De.ar and Braser, '112=(
*hat is .asic movement competence+
'-
9he key to the develo4ment of a movement foundation is an understanding of
basi! movement !om4eten!e( 9his has been defined asC
'the ability to consistently perform basic movements in a technically
efficient, adaptable and creative manner and then apply these in
different games, sports, dance and other contexts
;Jess, De.ar and Braser, '112, 4 '*=
Basic Movement
Cate#ories
made ada"table and
creative by
Movement
Concepts
9ravel
Ob>e!t !ontrol
3alan!e and
!o:ordination
S4a!e
Effort
7elationshi4s
(a.le Basic Moves 9ramewor-
9able % highlights the basi! movement !ategories and movement !on!e4ts
.hi!h hel4 !hildren develo4 te!hni!ally effi!ient ;or mature=, ada4table and
!reative movement 4atterns(
'G
9he !ategories of basi! movements areC
o (ravelling )ovements, .here the body, usually u4right, moves from one
4oint on the ground to another, e(g( running, >um4ing and ski44ing
o *b+ect Control )ovements involve small ob>e!ts being sent, re!eived,
travelled .ith and re!eived, e(g( thro.ing, !at!hing, dribbling
o ,alance and Coordination, .hi!h under4in and 4ermeate the travelling
and ob>e!t !ontrol !ategories(
'B "n @orth meri!a these movement !ategories are kno.n as lo!omotor
mani4ulative and stability or non:lo!omotor ;Graham et al, '11%A
Gallahue and #leland:Donnelly, '11*=(
9he Movement concepts are the means of develo4ing ada4tability and !reativity(
9hey are not movements, but !ognitive and affe!tive fa!tors that hel4 !hildren
kno. where ;s"ace=, how ;effort= and who or what their body moves .ith
;relationshi"s= ;see 9able %=(
9he !om4le& intera!tion bet.een the develo4ing movement 4atterns and the
movement !on!e4ts hel4 !hildren a!?uire their te!hni!al, ada4table and !reative
movement !om4eten!e(
'6
*hy is Basic Movement Competence so !mportant+
Over many years, it has be!ome evident that many basi! movements develo4
from an emerging immature 4attern, 4ass through a transitional 4hase of
develo4ment and, over time, rea!h a mature or effi!ient 4hase .hi!h hel4s
!hildren a!!ess the more !om4le& 4hysi!al a!tivities they meet in late
!hildhood and later in life ;+i!kstrom, %8GGA Gallahue, %86'A Seefeldt and
<aubenstri!ker, %86'A 7oberton and <alverson, %862=( Bor most !hildren,
basi! movements a44ear in their immature form bet.een the ages of % and '
and have the 4otential to rea!h maturity by the age of - or G, although this is
not !ommon ;Gallahue and OHmun, %886=( 9his mature level is the key to
su!!essful 4arti!i4ation as it hel4s !hildren 4ass through the 'proficiency
barrier from the early years foundation 4hase to the more !om4le& a!tivities
of the u44er 4rimary and se!ondary s!hool 4hases ;Seefeldt, %861A /elly,
%868A SOED, %88'A @S$E, %885A Jess and #ollins, '11*= ;See Bigure '=( Bor
e&am4le, !hildren .ho are unable to !at!h a ball effi!iently .ill find it very
diffi!ult to take 4art su!!essfully in many, most or all of the 4hysi!al a!tivities
.hi!h in!lude !at!hing(
'8
9i#ure ) (he Proficiency Barrier .etween Early "ears and %pper
Primary:Secondary "ears
9he im4ortan!e of this D4rofi!ien!y barrier0 to many !hildren !annot be
overem4hasised for, as the $hysi!al Edu!ation 7evie. Grou4 has re!ently said,
'Without the basic movement s!ills, pupils will be excluded from
participation in many activities, or may find their en,oyment
compromised. herefore, the development of s!ills is fundamental
to continuing involvement and full participation in physical education.
;S!ottish E&e!utive, '112, 4 'G=
*1
+pper primary and
Secondary Phase
,arly -ears
Foundation Phase
(he Proficiency Barrier
*hat we -now a.out youn# children$s .asic movement s-ills
Studies investigating !hildren0s basi! movement skills, 4arti!ularly in the U/,
are fe., 4arti!ularly in the early !hildhood years( 9here have been a number of
large:s!ale studies in @orth meri!a and ustralia re4orting lo. levels of
basi! movement skills in !hildren and adoles!ents often !aused by
ina44ro4riate and limited 4ra!ti!e o44ortunities ;e(g( 7eu!hslein and Vogel,
%865A 7oss, Dotson, Gilbert, and /itH, %865A +alkley et al, %88*A 3ooth et al,
%88G, #ooley et al D, %88GA Okley and 3ooth, '112=( "n S!otland, the
longitudinal 3asi! Moves Study has been under .ay sin!e '11' and is
tra!king the im4a!t of a generi! movement 4rogramme on si& !lasses of young
!hildren in East Lothian ;Jess, '11*=( "nitial results from this study should be
available in late '11-(
Generally, differen!es in basi! movement 4erforman!e bet.een boys and girls
are lo. to moderate during the !hildhood years but this !hanges ?uite
markedly after 4uberty .hen boys tend to out4erform girls ;9homas and
Bren!h, %865=( <o.ever, overarm thro.ing ;and 4ossibly ki!king= is the one
e&!e4tion in .hi!h younger boys !onsistently out4erform girls(
"n re!ent years, studies investigating individual basi! movements have be!ome
more !ommon in!luding those looking into develo4mental !hanges in >um4ing
;$hili4s and #lark, %88G=, ho44ing ;7oberton et al, %88G=, thro.ing
;Langerdorfer and 7oberton, '11'A Southard, '11'=, !at!hing ;Good.ay et al,
'11'=, ball striking ;3eak et al, '11'= and lo!omotion or travelling ;+hitall,
*%
'11*=( !onsistent finding from these studies is that movement develo4ment
to maturity usually takes a !onsiderable 4eriod of time and that staff .orking
.ith !hildren must be!ome more a.are of the im4a!t of im4ortant
environmental fa!tors on the 4erforman!e and learning of the basi! movement(
9hese environmental fa!tors in!lude a44ro4riate e?ui4ment, !ue information,
feedba!k and other 4edagogy issues( "n addition, findings from these studies
highlight the need to reassess the idea of the Dnatural0 develo4ment of basi!
movement skills(
More re!ently, given the su44ort for the rationale that basi! movement
!om4eten!e under4ins lifelong involvement in 4hysi!al a!tivity, a number of
studies have started to investigate the relationshi4 bet.een basi! movements
and 4hysi!al a!tivity 4arti!i4ation( )oung !hildren0s total 4hysi!al a!tivity and
time involved in moderate to vigorous a!tivity ;MV$= have been found to
signifi!antly !orrelate .ith movement skills, but the time s4ent in light:
intensity 4hysi!al a!tivity does not( 9herefore, as young !hildren are only
involved in small amounts of MV$ this finding ?uestions if there is a
relationshi4 bet.een motor skills and 4hysi!al a!tivity levels in young
!hildren ;Bisher et al '115=( <o.ever, Okely et al ;'11%= have found that
fundamental movement skills in adoles!ents signifi!antly 4redi!t the time
involved in organised 4hysi!al a!tivity .ith this 4redi!tion being stronger for
girls than for boys( Other studies, ho.ever, have 4resented less 4ositive
findings ;M!/enHie et al, '11'A 7eed et al, '112=( 9herefore, at this time, the
relationshi4 bet.een basi! movements and 4hysi!al a!tivity 4arti!i4ation does
not a44ear to be 4arti!ularly strong, although this may, in 4art, be due to the
*'
fa!t that fe. 4hysi!al edu!ation 4rogrammes a!tually fo!us on this
relationshi4( Burther longitudinal study based on a44ro4riate foundation
4rogrammes is needed(
Children with Basic Movement Pro.lems
#hildren .ith basi! movement 4roblems ;often !alled develo4mental
!oordination disorder ;D#D= andFor dys4ra&ia= are a grou4 .ho have re!eived
some attention over the years( 9his may not be sur4rising given that u4 to '1I
of !hildren find the 4erforman!e and learning of motor skills very diffi!ult
and, subse?uently, find it hard to 4arti!i4ate in a!tivities .ith their 4eers
;$arker and Larkin, '11*=( 9he movement 4roblems e&4erien!ed by these
!hildren in!lude !ontinual mis>udgement of distan!e and time, e(g( bum4ing
into ob>e!tsF4eo4le, tri44ing over, et!(, an inability to !oordinate movements
needed to take 4art in age:a44ro4riate a!tivities and diffi!ulties .ith fine
motor skills like .riting and dressing( 9hese 4roblems are therefore likely to
im4a!t u4on their learning in other domains( s $arker and Larkin ;'11*, 4
%16= say,
'he !ey issue in movement dysfunction is that children are
unable to perform the required actions of daily living in a
culturally acceptable way.
Brom the 4ers4e!tive of 4hysi!al a!tivity 4arti!i4ation, movement 4roblems of
this nature .ill not only interfere .ith !hildren0s motor develo4ment but .ill
**
also be likely to im4a!t on their so!ial relationshi4s and their o44ortunities to
lead an a!tive life( Bor e&am4le, Losse et al ;%88%= found that !hildren
identified as D!lumsy0 at age - !ontinued to have motor diffi!ulties as .ell as
so!ial, emotional and edu!ational 4roblems at age %-( Other authors suggest
that these diffi!ulties may lead to lifelong 4roblems ;#antell et al, %882A
BitH4atri!k, '111A 7asmussen and Gillberg, '11'=(
"dentifying !hildren .ith movement 4roblems early in life is im4ortant as this
!an lead to some form of su44ort being 4ut in 4la!e to 4revent many of the
4roblems of later life( 9.o main ty4es of interventions have been used for
!hildren( 9he first is a 4ro!ess:oriented a44roa!h used by o!!u4ational
thera4ists and 4sy!hologists ;e(g( /e4hart, %8-1= fo!using on the underlying
4ro!esses of movement !ontrol like sensory re!e4tion, 4er!e4tion and
integration( 9his a44roa!h is based on the assum4tion that these 4ro!esses .ill
under4in im4roved 4erforman!e in fun!tional tasks like dressing and .riting(
"t has also been linked to im4roved a!ademi! develo4ment, but the eviden!e
for this is e?uivo!al ;/avale and Mattson, %86*A $olat>ako et al, %88'=(
#urrently, the more 4o4ular a44roa!h is the task:oriented a44roa!h .hi!h is
used by 4hysi!al edu!ators and fo!uses on the motor skills that !hildren
a!tually need to 4erform at home and at s!hool ;Sugden and #hambers, %886=(
Many lo!al authorities throughout S!otland have introdu!ed motor
4rogrammes like this to assist !hildren .ith their movement, and related,
4roblems(
*2
number of assessment tools or batteries have been !reated to s4e!ifi!ally
assess !hildren0s movement 4roblems in!luding Movement 3# ;<enderson
and Sugden, %88'= and the 9ests of Gross Motor Develo4ment ;Ulri!h, '111=(
Basic Movement S-ill Assessment
s .ith 4hysi!al a!tivity, it is im4ortant for adults and young !hildren to have
a!!urate information about their movement 4erforman!e so that a44ro4riate
4rogrammes !an be develo4ed( +ithout this information, develo4ment is
likely to be ha4haHard and left mu!h to !han!e(
<o.ever, the assessment of basi! movements has long been an area of some
!ontroversy( Should ?uantitative movement out!omes like times or distan!es
be measured, or should ?ualitative movement 4atterns be observed and
assessed or should the underlying movement abilities like 4er!e4tion and
kinaestheti! a.areness be analysed, "n!reasingly, the value of the ?uantitative
assessments has been !onsidered of limited value to edu!ators, .hereas the
a!tual e&isten!e of movement abilities has been ?uestioned by many authors
;3urton and Miller, %88G=( 9herefore, in re!ent years the assessment of the
4erforman!e of basi! movement skills has be!ome mu!h more !ommon as it
hel4s tra!k movement develo4ment from the emerging immature 4attern
through to the effi!ient mature 4attern and !an assist adults and !hildren
monitor 4rogress and learning(
*5
9.o main a44roa!hes have been taken to this ty4e of assessment, namely a
.hole:body a44roa!h .hi!h !onsiders ho. the .hole body develo4s through
a series of stages ;e(g( Gallahue, %86'A Seefeldt and <aubenstri!ker, %86'= and
a more !om4le& body !om4onent a44roa!h .hi!h !onsiders the
develo4mental se?uen!es of the different body 4arts ;7oberton and <alverson,
%862A #lark and $hilli4s, %865=( 3oth a44roa!hes are useful as they give
4rofessionals a !lear understanding of the develo4mental !hanges that are
likely to emerge as !hildren develo4 their basi! movement !om4eten!e(
<o.ever, none of these assessments have been develo4ed to hel4 assess
!hildren0s ability to be ada4tive or !reative in their movements, although
attem4ts have been made in re!ent years to more effe!tively fit basi!
movement assessment into this more authenti! !onte&t ;e(g( #leland, %88*A
3urton and Davis, %88-=(
s .ith 4hysi!al a!tivity, if young !hildren are to be offered ?uality movement
and 4hysi!al edu!ation e&4erien!es to develo4 a solid basi! movement
foundation, it is !riti!al that the adults and !hildren themselves are able to
effe!tively observe and assess the emerging movement !om4eten!e(
*-
S%MMAR" P&!'(S
*hat we -now a.out youn# children$s movement s-ill development
Basic movement s-ills:
are believed to under4in lifelong 4hysi!al a!tivity involvement
involve travelling, ob>e!t !ontrol, balan!e and !oordination
should be effi!ient, ada4table and !reative
hel4 young !hildren 4ass through the D4rofi!ien!y barrier0 to more !om4le&
4hysi!al a!tivities(
Eviden!e suggests that many !hildren are demonstrating lo. levels of basi!
movement skill(
#hildren .ith basi! movement 4roblems re?uire su44ort early in life as they
!an be 4ut off taking 4art in 4hysi!al a!tivity later in life(
ssessment of basi! movement !om4eten!e is essential for the a44ro4riate
delivery of movement e&4erien!es that develo4 !hildren0s learning(
*G
Section 1: "oun# Children$s &pportunities to Develop Physical
Activity and Basic Movement Competence
!ntroduction
s !hildren 4rogress through the early !hildhood years, the !onte&ts in .hi!h
they have the o44ortunity to be 4hysi!ally a!tive !hange and in!rease in
number( 9hese, ho.ever, are mainly fo!used in the home, 4re:s!hool, s!hool
and lo!al !ommunity settings( 9his se!tion .ill !onsider key 4oints emerging
from the literature in ea!h of these areas( <o.ever, it is im4ortant to reiterate
the 4oint that s4ontaneous 4lay .ill remain the most likely sour!e of 4hysi!al
a!tivity for many !hildren, both indoors and outdoors ;S!ottish E&e!utive,
'11*=(
8ome and 9amily
Bamilies 4lay a key role in !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity and 4arents influen!e
the ?uality of a !hildJs 4hysi!al a!tivity from birth ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*=(
9his influen!e !an be in the guise of 4ositive Dfa!e value0 feedba!k about
young !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity 4arti!i4ation or 4erforman!e ;Bry, '11%= but
!an also be dire!tly through family a!tivities, e(g( tri4s to the s.imming 4ool,
and the trans4orting of !hildren to 4hysi!al a!tivity !lubsF!lasses .ithin the
!ommunity( $arents, ho.ever, need su44ort in their efforts to hel4 their
!hildren be!ome more a!tive, 4arti!ularly as its 4er!eived DnaturalnessJ
a44ears to influen!e 4arental attitudes often leading them to a laisseH:faire
*6
a44roa!h ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11'=( "n addition, ho.ever, 4arents also need
to be reassured they are offering their !hildren a44ro4riate e&4erien!es,
4arti!ularly during the later early !hildhood years .hen develo4ing !ognitive
skills indi!ate that the !hildren should be e&4osed to a greater variety of
a!tivities( s a result, 4arents often turn to 4re:s!hool servi!es to 4rovide
4rimary a!!ess to 4hysi!al a!tivity, but also seek out !ommunity o44ortunities
for their !hildren in terms of 4lay areas and organised !ommunity a!tivity(
9his then be!omes the stage .hen a number of key barriers to !hildren0s
4hysi!al a!tivity begin to emerge, e(g( !ost, a!!ess, a.areness of fa!ilities, et!(
;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11'=(
signifi!ant 4hysi!al a!tivity issue for most 4arents is safety, 4arti!ularly in
relation to outdoor 4lay( Eviden!e suggests that !hildrenJs e&4erien!es of
outdoor 4lay are !hanging, .ith fe.er !hildren 4laying outdoors and younger
!hildren tending to 4lay in the areas around their homes ;Greenhalgh and
+or4ole, %885A Valentine and M!/endri!k, %88GA #hildren0s $lay #oun!il and
#hildren0s So!iety, '11%=( $arents also a44ear to see safety as the key fa!tor
.hen sele!ting outdoor 4lay s4a!es for their young !hildren ;Sallis et al,
%88G=(
s !hildren gro. older, the beliefs, e&4e!tations and behaviours of their
4arents be!ome in!reasingly im4ortant( $arents .ho re!ognise and reinfor!e
their !hildren0s interest in 4hysi!al a!tivity and also model en>oyment of
4hysi!al a!tivity have been found to 4ass on a 4ositive message about the
im4ortan!e of 4hysi!al a!tivity( #onse?uently, their !hildren tend to develo4
*8
higher 4er!e4tions of !om4eten!e and are generally more attra!ted to 4hysi!al
a!tivity ;3rustad, %88-=( "n terms of moderate to vigorous 4hysi!al a!tivity
;MV$=, it has been found that 4arents0 a!tual 4hysi!al a!tivity behaviour is
not as im4ortant as the 4hysi!al a!tivity beliefs they !onvey to their !hildren
;/imie!iek and <orn, %886=( "n fa!t, it is suggested that !hildren0s 4er!e4tions
of their 4arents0 beliefs and behaviours are a!tually more im4ortant than
4arents0 re4orted beliefs and behaviours(
$hysi!al a!tivity 4rofessionals have an im4ortant role to 4lay in edu!ating
4arents and families on ho. best to su44ort their !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity(
9his .ould a44ear to be 4arti!ularly true for 4arents of girls as there is
eviden!e that 4arents are more likely to en!ourage boys to be a!tive ;3rustad,
%88*=(
Pre0school and Early School Physical Education
$re:s!hool and s!hool settings are the only 4la!es able to 4rovide De?ual
o44ortunities and a !onsistent, high ?uality, safe and develo4mentally
a44ro4riate learning environment0 for all !hildren ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*=(
s su!h, both settings have the 4otential to 4lay a signifi!ant role in the
develo4ment of young !hildren0s foundation for a lifelong involvement in
4hysi!al a!tivity( 9he $E !urri!ulum, and its delivery, in 4re:s!hool and
4rimary s!hool, therefore, .ill have a signifi!ant im4a!t on the ?uality of
!hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity and movement e&4erien!es(
21
"t is im4ortant to a!kno.ledge here that although the 4re:s!hool and 4rimary
s!hool years may be the most a44ro4riate time to begin the 4ro!ess of
develo4ing this lifelong foundation ;Jess and #ollins, '11*=, both se!tors have
traditionally re!eived mu!h less attention than se!ondary s!hool 4hysi!al
edu!ation and are often !onsidered to be marginalised ;+illiams, %868=(
#onse?uently, !on!erns about 4re:s!hool and 4rimary 4hysi!al edu!ation are
!ommon ;Jess, %88'A #arney and Guthrie, %888A <M"E, '11%=( "n addition, the
transition 4eriod bet.een the 4re:s!hool and the 4rimary s!hool years does not
yet a44ear to be a 4rogressive, develo4mental e&4erien!e as the !urri!ulum
!hanges from being D4hysi!al develo4ment0 to an De&4ressive art0(
9he re!ommendations from the 7e4ort of the $hysi!al Edu!ation 7evie.
Grou4 ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*=, ho.ever, are beginning to influen!e the
future dire!tion of 4hysi!al edu!ation in 4re:s!hool and 4rimary s!hools in
S!otland( 9hese re!ommendations .ill soon lead to a ne. develo4mental and
4rogressive *E%6 4hysi!al edu!ation !urri!ulum, all !hildren re!eiving t.o
hours of ?uality 4hysi!al edu!ation 4er .eek, an additional 211 4hysi!al
edu!ation tea!hers .orking in 4rimary s!hools and an in!rease in the amount
and ?uality of !ontinuing 4rofessional develo4ment o44ortunities for all 4re:
s!hool and 4rimary s!hool staff( $hysi!al edu!ation in the early years .ould
a44ear to be entering a ne. and e&!iting era(
2%
Pre0school Physical Education
$hysi!al edu!ation in the 4re:s!hool se!tor has only re!ently be!ome the fo!us
of mu!h attention, .hi!h is demonstrated by the many different .ays it is
4ortrayed throughout the .orld( Bor e&am4le, in different !ountries it is
!urrently !alled 4hysi!al edu!ation, 4hysi!al a!tivities, 4hysi!al !oordination,
4hysi!al develo4ment, 4hysi!al health and understanding, 4hysi!al
develo4ment and .ell:being, body and movement and healthy 4hysi!al
develo4ment ;3ertram and $as!al, '11'=( 9herefore, although it is more or
less a universal a!tivity in the 4re:s!hool setting there a44ears to be little
!onsensus as to the s4e!ifi! role it 4lays( "n the U/, it has re!ently been !alled
4hysi!al develo4ment ;S###, %888A K#, '11%= and in!ludes a range of
different 4hysi!al a!tivity and movement e&4erien!es !entred on 4lay and the
o44ortunity for so!ial intera!tion, .ith only 4assing mention of the a!tual
develo4ment of basi! movement skills( "n @orth meri!a, there has been a
mu!h !learer fo!us on develo4mentally a44ro4riate 4re:s!hool movement
4rogrammes and @S$E ;'11'= has develo4ed guidelines for *E5:year:olds
.hi!h in!lude a number of key re!ommendations .orthy of mention( 9hese
in!ludeC
2'
; (eachers of youn# children are #uides or facilitators
#hildren learn by doing and by being a!tively involved in their o.n learning(
9herefore, tea!hers must !onstru!t the learning environment .ith s4e!ifi!
learning out!omes in mind and then guide !hildren to.ards these goals(
); Children should en#a#e in a movement:physical education pro#ramme
desi#ned for their developmental levels;
"n the 4re:s!hool years, young !hildren need a range of movement e&4erien!es
that lead them to.ards mature basi! movement 4atterns( 9ea!hers therefore
need to fully understand the !ontinuum of motor develo4ment from infan!y
through to age 5F- as the develo4ment of !hildren0s basi! movements is age
related not age de4endent(
,; "oun# children learn and develop in an inte#rated fashion
#hildren learn through an intera!tion bet.een the motor, !ognitive, so!ial and
emotional domains( 9herefore, in 4hysi!al edu!ation, although !hildren should
4rimarily learn through e&4erien!es that fo!us on basi! movement skills,
e&4erien!es involving the other domains must also be in!luded(
2*
6; Planned movement e<periences enhance play e<periences
!ombination of 4lay and 4lanned movement e&4erien!es, s4e!ifi!ally
designed to hel4 !hildren develo4 basi! movement skills, is benefi!ial in
hel4ing young !hildren in their develo4ment( "n addition, regular and
a44ro4riately designed movement e&4erien!es are enhan!ed by regular
indoor and outdoor 4lay e&4erien!es, giving !hildren an o44ortunity to
freely 4ra!tise and develo4 skills(
"t is im4ortant to reinfor!e the key role of 4lay, the indoor and outdoor environment,
and the develo4ing of basi! movement skills in these guidelines( t this time,
ho.ever, there is no mention of the 4hysi!al a!tivity guidelines(
Early "ears School PE /uidelines
s !hildren move into 4rimary s!hool their 4hysi!al edu!ation e&4erien!es are
no. 4art of the 5E%2 E&4ressive rts 4rogramme ;SOED, %88'=( 9hese $E
guidelines are develo4mental in nature and offer a !urri!ulum that moves
through broad a!tivity strands( <o.ever, until re!ently, these strands have had
little signifi!ant im4a!t on 4ra!ti!e .ith the early years 4rogramme still taught
through the traditional a!tivities of games, gymnasti!s and dan!e ;<M"E,
'11%=( 9here is eviden!e that more !hildren have been re!eiving generi!
movement:based 4rogrammes ;Jess, '115=, .hi!h are more !ommon in other
22
4arts of the .orld ;State of Vi!toria De4artment of Edu!ation, %88-A Graham
et al, '11%A lberta Learning, '112=( "nterestingly, ho.ever, there is no
mention of the 4hysi!al a!tivity guidelines and little referen!e is made to the
im4ortan!e of 4lay(
Develo4ments in 4rimary s!hool 4hysi!al edu!ation are very mu!h in eviden!e
at this time .ith more s4e!ialist 4hysi!al edu!ation tea!hers being em4loyed
throughout S!otland, e(g( #la!kmannan, the smallest lo!al authority, no. has
%- 4hysi!al edu!ation s4e!ialists .orking in its %8 4rimary s!hools( "t is also
en!ouraging that the role of 4hysi!al edu!ation s4e!ialist tea!hers in 4rimary
s!hools has been 4raised in re!ent <M"E re4orts, but it has also been noted
that the number of s4e!ialists throughout the !ountry is in!onsistent ;<M"E,
'11%=( "t is anti!i4ated that the additional 211 ne. 4hysi!al edu!ation tea!hers
.ill make a 4ositive im4a!t on both the !hildren0s and generalist staff
e&4erien!es(
9he in!reased interest in !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity and movement
develo4ment has also resulted in a number of national initiatives and
4rogrammes being introdu!ed in!luding 9he #lass Moves ;<E3S, '11*=,
3asi! Moves ;Jess, De.ar and Braser, '112=, the 9O$S 4rogramme ;)outh
S4ort 9rust, %88-= along .ith many other national and lo!al develo4ments( "n
addition, the !tive S!hools 4rogramme ;s4orts!otland, '11*= has seen the
addition of almost *11 full:time staff to su44ort the develo4ment of 4hysi!al
a!tivity in 4rimary s!hool settings( 9his is not a 4hysi!al edu!ation !urri!ulum
25
develo4ment but one that su44orts s!hools in their efforts to in!rease the
4hysi!al a!tivity levels of all their !hildren(
lthough 4rogress is evident, a number of !on!erns have been raised in the
literature( 9hese in!lude the minimal !urri!ulum time ;4arti!ularly in the first
t.o years of s!hooling=, the initial training and !ontinuing 4rofessional
develo4ment of generalist !lass tea!hers, the a44ro4riateness of fa!ilities, the
lo. levels of young !hildren0s fitness and the limited number of e&tra:
!urri!ular o44ortunities for young !hildren ;Jess, %88'A S!ottish S4orts
#oun!il, %888A #arney and Guthrie, %888A <M"E, '11%A OBS9ED, '115=(
<M"E ;'11%= has a!kno.ledged these !on!erns and has identified si& key
areas to be im4roved to raise a!hievement in 4hysi!al edu!ation in 4rimary
s!hools( 9hese areC raising e&4e!tationsA develo4ing 4rogrammes to in!rease
o44ortunities in and out of s!hoolA im4roving learning and tea!hingA making
better use of assessmentA 4roviding tea!hers .ith better advi!e on ho. to
develo4 their tea!hing skillsA and im4roving the management of 4hysi!al
edu!ation(
9herefore, although there are many e&!iting develo4ments !urrently taking 4la!e, and
about to take 4la!e, in 4re:s!hool and 4rimary s!hool 4hysi!al edu!ation, there are
still a number of im4ortant issues to be addressed(
2-
Community Activities
s so!iety be!omes more sedentary, !ommunity o44ortunities for young
!hildren to be 4hysi!ally a!tive and take 4art in 4hysi!al 4lay have tended to
be relatively limited, along .ith safety !on!erns being voi!ed about 4arks and
4laygrounds and fe.er !hildren .alking to s!hool ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11*=(
s noted above, more and more 4lay is taking 4la!e .ithin the home
environment( 9here are also a number of different !ommer!ial and lo!al
authority movement !lasses available throughout the !ountry, along .ith
home:based a!tivities, e(g( 9he $lay L <ome 4re:s!hool 4rogramme
develo4ed by Bife 7egional !oun!il ;Bife #oun!il, '111=( 9raditionally,
ho.ever, as !hildren move through early !hildhood they are introdu!ed to
more organised, semi:stru!tured a!tivities su!h as s.imming, football,
gymnasti!s, dan!ing or martial arts( 9hese a!tivities in!lude a degree of
instru!tion and !om4etition, .ith a vie. to the !hild develo4ing greater ;and
often more s4e!ifi!= 4hysi!al skills ;S!ottish E&e!utive, '11'=( 9hese
o44ortunities are likely to in!rease in the future as the !tive S!hools
4rogramme develo4s further ;s4orts!otland, '11*= and national governing
bodies of s4ort develo4 introdu!tory 4rogrammes as 4art of s4orts!otland0s
Long 9erm thleti! Develo4ment 4rogramme ;s4orts!otland, '112=(
2G
S%MMAR" P&!'(S
"oun# Children$s &pportunities to Develop Physical Activity and
Basic Movement Competence
)oung !hildren take 4art in 4hysi!al a!tivity and movement develo4ment
a!tivities at home, in 4re:s!hool and s!hool and also in the lo!al !ommunity(
$arents and families have a !riti!al role in su44orting young !hildren0s
4hysi!al a!tivity early in life, but may need assistan!e to effe!tively su44ort
their !hildren(
E&!iting develo4ments are 4lanned for 4re:s!hool and 4rimary 4hysi!al
edu!ation, i(e(
a ne. *E%6 4hysi!al edu!ation !urri!ulum
t.o hours of $E 4er .eek
211 ne. tea!hers : 4rimary $E s4e!ialist(
#on!erns about the ?uality of the 4hysi!al edu!ation !urri!ulum in 4re:s!hool
and 4rimary s!hool settings still e&ist(
#hildren should be involved in unstru!tured and stru!tured 4hysi!al a!tivities
in the !ommunity(
S4ontaneous 4lay is still the most likely 4hysi!al a!tivity for many young
!hildren(
26
Section =
Conclusions and Recommendations
9hese are very e&iting times for all involved in the 4hysi!al a!tivity e&4erien!es and
basi! movement develo4ment of young !hildren( lthough universally in!luded
a!ross the 4re:s!hool and s!hool se!tors, 4hysi!al a!tivity and basi! movement
develo4ment have often been marginalised( <o.ever, they are no. beginning to 4lay
a more 4rominent role in the life of young !hildren( Bortunately, .e have a better
understanding of the different ty4es and amount of 4hysi!al a!tivity that are im4ortant
for young !hildren and are more a.are of ho. to develo4 a solid basi! movement
foundation for lifelong 4arti!i4ation(
@evertheless, mu!h has still to be done( 9he 4roblems of ina!tivity, sedentary
behaviours and obesity .ill be diffi!ult to over!ome and .ill need .ell thought out,
integrated 4rogrammes involving adults from all different se!tors( 9he ?uality of
4hysi!al edu!ation 4rovision in 4re:s!hool and 4rimary s!hool settings is still of some
!on!ern but efforts are being made to address many of these issues, 4arti!ularly the
amount of !urri!ular time and staff develo4ment(
On the basis of this revie., the follo.ing key re!ommendations are 4resented(
28
(o ensure all youn# children develop positive physical activity ha.its and .asic
movement foundation in early childhood the followin# recommendations are
made:
@ational guidelines for early !hildhood 4hysi!al a!tivity and basi! movement
develo4ment should be !reated to hel4 all young !hildren and adults tra!k
4rogress and learning( 9hese guidelines should be !ommuni!ated to all key
stakeholders and de!ision makers(
$hysi!al a!tivity, movement and 4hysi!al edu!ation 4rogrammes for young
!hildren should beC
develo4ed to take a!!ount of .hat is !urrently kno.n about 4hysi!al
a!tivity and basi! movement skill develo4ment in early !hildhood
delivered in a develo4mentally a44ro4riate, 4rogressive and in!lusive
manner(
ll adults involved in young !hildren0s 4hysi!al a!tivity and movement
develo4ment should be a44ro4riately trained in terms of the kno.ledge and
skills needed to deliver ?uality 4hysi!al a!tivity, movement and 4hysi!al
edu!ation 4rogrammes( 9his should in!lude 4arents, students, tea!hers,
volunteers and other 4hysi!al a!tivity 4rofessionals(
51
O44ortunities for young !hildren to develo4 4ositive 4hysi!al a!tivity habits
and a basi! movement foundation should be integrated a!ross different se!tors,
in!luding the home, the 4re:s!hool and s!hool settings and the lo!al
!ommunity(
Su44ort is needed for longitudinal resear!h 4ro>e!ts that identify and tra!k the
signifi!ant fa!tors that .ill hel4 all !hildren develo4 a foundation for lifelong
involvement in 4hysi!al a!tivity(

5%
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#orbin, #( 3(, $angraHi, 7( $( and +elk, G( J( ;%882=( 9o.ard an understanding of
a44ro4riate 4hysi!al a!tivity levels for youth( 0residentDs 6ouncil on 0hysical Aitness
and 7ports 0hysical (ctivity and Aitness <esearch ;igest, "-@., %E6(
Davies, $(S(, Gregory, J( +hite, ( ;%885=( Energy e&4enditure in !hildren aged %(5 to
2(5 yearsC a !om4arison .ith !urrent re!ommendations for energy intake( )uropean
2ournal of 6linical 5utrition "??8 3ay:&?-8.9*-1E2
Bife 7egional #oun!il ;'111=( 0layEhome, Glenrothes, Bife 7egional #oun!il
Bisher, (, 7eilly, J( J(, /elly, L( (, Montgomery, #(, +illiamson, (, $aton, J( )(,
Grant, S(, ;'115=( Bundamental Movement Skills and <abitual $hysi!al !tivity in
)oung #hildren, 3edicine and 7cience in 7ports and )xercise, %FG2, -62E-66
BitH4atri!k, D( ;'111=( 9he e&4erien!e of 4hysi!al a.k.ardness, a refle!tive
retros4e!tive vie. E a hermeneuti! 4henomenologi!al study, $a4er 4resented at the
5orth (merican Aederation of (dapted 0hysical (ctivity $444 7ymposium,
@ovember, @e. Orleans, Louisiana
Bry, M(, ;'11%=( 9he Develo4ment of Motivation in #hildren, in 7oberts, G ;ed=
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Gallahue, D( ;%86'=. ;evelopmental movement experiences for children, @e. )orkC
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Gallahue, D( L(, and #leland:Donnelly, B( ;'11*=( ;evelopmental 0hysical )ducation
for (ll 6hildren. &th ed( #ham4aign, "llC <uman /ineti!s
Gallahue, D(, and OHman, J( ;'11'=( Hnderstanding motor development9 >nfants,
children, adolescents, adults. 8
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ed. @e. )ork, @)C M!Gra. <ill
Gallahue D( L( and OHmun J( #( ;%886=( Hnderstanding 3otor ;evelopment, %rd ed.
Dubu?ueC 3ro.n and 3en!hmark
Good.ay, J( D(, 7udisill, M( E( and Valentin, @( #( ;'11'=( 9he influen!e of
instru!tion on the develo4ment of !at!hing in young !hildren, "n #lark J( E( and
<um4hrey J( ;eds=, 3otor ;evelopment9 <esearch and <eviews, Vol ', 44( 8-E%%8,
7eston, VC <$E7D
Goran M("(, 7eynolds /(D(, Lind?uist #(<( ;%888=( 7ole of 4hysi!al a!tivity in the
4revention of obesity in !hildren( >nternational 2ournal of +besity and <elated
3etabolic ;isorder $%9 S%6E**
Gortmaker, S(, $eterson, /(, +ie!ha, J(, Sobol, (, Di&it, S(, Bo&, M( and Laird, @(
;%888=( 7edu!ing obesity via a s!hool:based interdis!i4linary intervention among
youth( (rchives of 0ediatric (dolescent 3edicine, %5*, 218E2%6(
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Graham, G(, <oltF<ale, S( and $arker, M( ;'11%=( 6hildren 3oving, 8th )d, Mountain
Vie.C Mayfield $ress
Greenhalgh, L and +or4ole / ;%885=( $ark lifeC Urban 4arks and so!ial rene.al E a
re4ort for #omedia in asso!iation .ith Demos( LondonC #omedia
<ay.ood, / and Gret!hell, @( ;'11%=( Iife 7pan 3otor ;evelopment, %rd )d,
#ham4aign, "llC <uman /ineti!s
<E ;<ealth Edu!ation uthority= ;%866=( Young and active# 0olicy framewor! for
young people and health-enhancing physical activity( LondonC <ealth Edu!ation
uthority
<E3S ;<ealth Edu!ation 3oard for S!otland= ;'11'=( he 6lass 3oves, EdinburghC
<E3S
<E3S ;<ealth Edu!ation 3oard for S!otland=, ;'115=( 9he 4revalen!e of obesity in
!hildren and young 4eo4le
http9GGwww.hebs.scot.nhs.u!GlearningcentreGobesityGtheproblemGprevalencechildrensco
tland.cfm
<enderson, S( E( and Sugden D( ( ;%88'=( 3ovement (ssessment 1attery for
6hildren, Sidd!u4, /entC 9hera4y Skill 3uilders
<M"E ;'11%=. >mproving 0hysical )ducation in 0rimary 7chools, EdinburghC <MSO
5G
Jess, M( #( ;%88'=( $hysi!al Edu!ation in the $rimary S!hool ;$art *=, "ssues in
S!ottish $rimary S!hools( 7cottish 2ournal of 0hysical )ducation, '1F'
Jess, M(, ;'115=( 9he 3asi! Moves $rogrammeC n gent Bor Long 9erm, Sustainable
#hange "n #hildren0s $hysi!al Edu!ation, $oster 4resented at the $
nd
World summit on
0hysical )ducation, $
nd
/ %
rd
;ecember $448, 3agglingen, 7witJerland
Jess, M ;'11*=( 9he 3asi! Moves $rogrammeC re4ort on the first year of a
longitudinal 4rogramme to 4re4are !hildren for lifelong 4hysi!al a!tivity, 1ritish
)ducational <esearch (ssociation 6onference, "&/"K 7eptember, $44%, Heriot-Watt
Hniversity, )dinburgh, HB
Jess, M(, De.ar, /(, and Braser, G( ;'112=( 3asi! MovesC Develo4ing a Boundation
for Lifelong $hysi!al !tivity, 1ritish 2ournal of eaching in 0hysical )ducation,
Vol( *5;'=, 44( '*E'G
Jess, M(, and #ollins( D( ;'11*=( $rimary $hysi!al Edu!ation in S!otlandC the future in
the making( )uropean 2ournal of 0hysical )ducation, @, %1*E%%6
/avale, /( and Mattson, $(D( ;%86*=( DOne >um4ed of the balan!e beam0C meta:
analysis of 4er!e4tual:motor training, 2ournal of Iearning ;isabilities, %-F*, %-GE%G*
/elly, L(E( ;%868=( "nstru!tional timeC 9he overlooked fa!tor in $E !urri!ulum
develo4ment( 2ournal of 0hysical )ducation, <ecreation and ;ance K4, '8E*'(
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/elly, L( (, 7eilly, J(J(, Grant( S( and $aton, J()( ;'115=( Lo. 4hysi!al a!tivity levels
and high levels of sedentary behaviour are !hara!teristi! of rural "rish 4rimary s!hool
!hildren( >rish 3edical 2ournal ( 86F5C%*6E2%(
/em4er, <(#(G( ;'111=( $hysi!al a!tivity and bone health( "n rmstrong, @( and Van
Me!helen, +( ;eds=, 0aediatric )xercise 7cience and 3edicine. 44 '-5E'G', O&fordC
O&ford University $ress

/e4hart, @(# ;%8-1=( he 7low learner in the 6lassroom, #olombus, O<, Merrill
/imie!iek, J(#( and <orn, 9(S( ;%886=( $arental beliefs and #hildrenJs moderate:to:
vigorous 4hysi!al a!tivity ;MV$=( <esearch Cuarterly for )xercise and 7port -8,
%-*E%G5(
Langerdorfer( S(J( and 7oberton M((;'11'=( Develo4mental $rofiles in Overarm
9hro.ingC Sear!hing for Dattra!tors0, Dstages0 and D!onstraints0, in #lark J E and
<um4hrey J ;eds= 3otor ;evelopment9 <esearch and <eviews =ol $ pp"/$8, 7eston(
V, <$E7D
Learning and 9ea!hing S!otland ;'115=( $hysi!al a!tivity,
http9GGwww.healthpromotingschools.co.u!GpractitionersGphysicalactivityGindex.asp
Losse, , <enderson, S(E(, Elliman, D(, <all(, /night, E( and Jongmans, M( ;%88%=(
#lumsiness in !hildrenC Do they gro. out of it, %1:year follo.:u4 study(
;evelopmental 3edicine and 6hild 5eurology, **, 55E-6
58
Malina, 7( ;'11%=( 9ra!king of $hysi!al !tivity !ross the Lifes4an( 0residents
6ouncil on 0hysical Aitness and 7ports <esearch ;igest *, 'E6(
M!/elvie, /( J(, /ahn, /(M( and M!/ay, <( ( ;'111=( "s there a !riti!al 4eriod for
bone res4onse to .eight:bearing e&er!ise in !hildren and adoles!ents, systemati!
revie., 1ritish 2ournal of 7ports 3edicine, *-, '51E'5G(
M!/enHie 9(L, Sallis J(B, 3royles S(L, Mive M( , @ader $(7, 3erry #(#, 3rennan JJ(
;'11'=( #hildhood movement skillsC 4redi!tors of 4hysi!al a!tivity in nglo meri!an
and Me&i!an meri!an adoles!ents, <esearch Cuarterly of )xercise and 7port ,(G*F*,
'*6E22(
Montgomery, #(, 7eilly, J(J(, Ja!kson, D(M(, /elly, L((, Slater, #(, $aton, J()( and
Grant, S(; '112=( 7elation bet.een 4hysi!al a!tivity and energy e&4enditure in a
re4resentative sam4le of young !hildren( (merican 2ournal of 6linical 5utrition
61F*C58%E-(
Moore, L(L( , @guyen, U(S(, 7othman, /(J(, #u44les, L(( and Ellison, 7(#( ; %885=(
$re:s!hool 4hysi!al a!tivity level and !hange in body fatness in young !hildren( 9he
Bramingham #hildrenJs Study, (merican 2ournal of )pidemiology, %2'F8 86'E866,
@S$E ;@ational sso!iation for $hysi!al Edu!ation= ;%885=( 3oving into the
Auture9 5ational 0hysical education standards9 ( Luide to 6ontent and (ssessment,
St LouisC Mosby
-1
@S$E ;@ational sso!iation for $hysi!al Edu!ation ;'111=( (ppropriate 0ractices
in 3ovement 0rogrammes for Young 6hildren ages %/8, 7eston, VC <$E7D
@S$E ;@ational sso!iation for $hysi!al Edu!ation ;'11'=( (ctive 7tart, (
7tatement of 0hysical (ctivity Luidelines for 6hildren 1irth to Aive Years, 7eston,
VC <$E7D
@S$E ;@ational sso!iation for $hysi!al Edu!ation ;'112=( 0hysical (ctivity for
6hildren9 ( 7tatement of Luidelines for 6hildren 8 / "$, $nd )dition, 7eston, VC
<$E7D
OBS9ED ;'115=( he (nnual <eport of Her 3a,estys 6hief >nspector of 7chools
$44&G48, 0hysical )ducation in 0rimary 7chools at
...(ofsted(gov(ukF4ubli!ationsFannualre4ort1215F2(%(%1(html ;a!!essed '5
@ovember '115=
Okley, (D( N 3ooth M(L( ;'112=( Mastery of fundamental movement skills among
!hildren in @e. South +alesC 4revalen!e and so!io:demogra4hi! distribution(
2ournal of 7cience and 3edicine in 7port, GF*, *56EG'
Okley, (D(, 3ooth M N $aterson J ;'11%=( 7elationshi4 of 4hysi!al a!tivity to
fundamental movement skills among adoles!ents, 3edicine M 7cience in 7ports and
)xercise **F%%, %688E%812
$arker, < N Larkin, D ;'11*=( #hildren0s !o:ordination and develo4mental movement
diffi!ulty( "n Savelsbergh, G(, Davids, /(, van der /am4, J and 3ennett S ;eds=,
-%
;evelopment of 3ovement 6o-ordination in 6hildren, pp "4F/"%$, LondonC
7outledge
$ate, 7(7(, 3arano.ski, 9(, Do.da, M( N 9rost, S(G( ;%88-=( 9ra!king of 4hysi!al
a!tivity in young !hildren( 3edicine 7cience in 7ports and )xercise ( '6F%C8'E8-(
$hili4s N #lark, %88G=( 9em4oral !oordination and !ontrol in the develo4ment of
standing long >um4( "n #lark J E N <um4hrey J ;eds= 3otor ;evelopment9 <esearch
and <eviews =ol " pp??/"$", 7eston, VC <$E7D
$olata>ko, <(, /a4lan, 3( N +ilson, @( ;%88'=( Sensory integration treatment in
!hildren .ith learning diffi!ultiesC its status '1 years later( +ccupational herapy
2ournal of <esearch, %', *'*E*2%
$ollats!hek, J(L( N O0<agan, B(J( ;%868=( n investigation of the 4sy!ho:4hysi!al
influen!es of a ?uality daily 4hysi!al edu!ation 4rogramme( Health )ducation
<esearch9 heory and 0ractice, 2, *2'E*51
K# ;'11*=( $hysi!al Develo4ment,
http9GGwww.qca.org.u!GdownloadsG88F?NfsNcgNphysical.pdf
7asmussen,$( N Gillberg, #(, ;'111=( @atural out!omes of D<D .ith develo4mental
!o:ordination disorder at age '' yearsC a !ontrolled longitudinal, !ommunity:based
study, 2ournal of the (merican (cademy of child and (dolescent 0sychiatry, *8,
%2'2E%2*%
-'
7eed J((, MetHker (,N $hilli4s D(, ;'112=( 7elationshi4s bet.een 4hysi!al
a!tivity and motor skills in middle s!hool !hildren( 0erceptual 3otor 7!ills ( 88F',
26*E82(
7eilly, J( J(, +ilson M L, Summerbell, # D N +ilson D # , ;'11'=( ObesityC
diagnosis, 4revention, and treatmentA eviden!e based ans.ers to !ommon ?uestions,
(rchives of ;isease in 6hildhood:6-C*8'E*82
7eilly, J(J(, Ja!kson, D(M(, Montgomery, #(, /elly, L((, Slater, #(, Grant, S(, $aton,
J()( ;'112=( 9otal Energy e&4enditure and 4hysi!al a!tivity in young S!ottish
!hildrenC a mi&ed longitudinal study( he Iancet %K%, 44 '%%E'%',
7eu!hslein $( L N Vogel $( G( ;%865=( Motor 4erforman!e and 4hysi!al fitness status
of regular and s4e!ial edu!ation students, in J(E( #lark N J(<( <um4hrey ;Eds(=,
3otor ;evelopment, 44( %2GE%-2, $rin!etonC $rin!eton 3ooks
7iddo!h, #( ;%886=( 7elationshi4s bet.een 4hysi!al a!tivity and 4hysi!al health in
young 4eo4le( "n 3iddle, S(, Sallis, J( N #avill, @( ;eds= Young and (ctive# Young
people and health-enhancing physical activity / evidence and implications, LondonC
<E, %GE26
7oberton, M((, <alverson, L(E( N <ar4er, #(J ;%88G=( VisualFverbal modelling as a
fun!tion of !hildren0s develo4mental level in ho44ing( "n #lark, J(E( N <um4hrey
-*
;eds= 3otor ;evelopment9 <esearch and reviews, Volume %, 44 %''E%26, 7eston, VC
<$E7D
7oberton, M(( and <alverson, L( ;%862=( ;eveloping children / their changing
movement9 ( guide for teachers , $hiladel4hiaC Lea N Bebiger(
7oss, J(G(, Dotson, #(O(, Gilbert, G(G( and /atH, S(J( ;%865=( fter 4hysi!al
edu!ationC 4hysi!al a!tivity outside of s!hool 4hysi!al edu!ation 4rograms( 2ournal of
0hysical )ducation, <ecreation and ;ance 5-, GGE6%(
Sallis, J(B( N M!/enHie, 9( L(, Elder, J( $(, 3royles, S( L N @ader, $( 7(, ;%88G=(
Ba!tors 4arents use in sele!ting 4lay s4a!es for young !hildren, (rchives of 0ediatrics
and (dolescent Medi!ine, "8"F2, 2%2E2%G
Sallis, J(B( ;'111=( Over!oming ina!tivity in young 4eo4le( he 0hysician and
7portsmedicine, '6, *%E*'(
S### ;S!ottish #onsultative #oun!il on the #urri!ulum= ;%888=( ( 6urriculum
Aramewor! for 6hildren %/8, DundeeC #onsultative #oun!il on the #urri!ulum
S!ottish E&e!utive ;'11'=( (n exploration of issues and attitudes surrounding the low
levels of participation in physical activity amongst parents of pre-fives children,
EdinburghC S!ott $orter 7esear!h N Marketing
S!ottish E&e!utive ;'11*=( Iets ma!e 7cotland more active9 ( strategy for physical
activity, EdinburghC <MSO
-2
S!ottish E&e!utive ;'112=( he <eport of the <eview Lroup on 0hysical )ducation,
EdinburghC <MSO
S!ottish <ealth Survey ;%886=( =olume ", EdinburghC S!ottish E&e!utive <ealth
De4artment
S!ottish S4orts #oun!il ;%888=( Youth 7port in 7cotland9 0rimary 7chools, EdinburghC
S!ottish S4orts #oun!il
Seefeldt, V( ;%8G8=( Develo4mental Motor $atternsC "m4li!ations for Elementary
S!hool $hysi!al Edu!ation( "nC @e.ell, /(, 7oberts, G(, <allarell, +( and @adean, G(,
;Eds(=, 0sychology of 3otor 1ehaviour and 7port, #ham4aign, "llinoisC <uman
/ineti!s
Seefeldt, V( N <aubenstri!ker, J( ;%86G=( $atterns, 4hases or stages, an analyti!al
model for the study of develo4mental movement( "n /elso, J( ( S( N #lark, J( E
;eds=, he ;evelopment of 3ovement 6ontrol and 6oordination, 44 *18E*%8,
@e. )orkC +iley
She4hard, 7( J( ;%88G=( #urri!ular 4hysi!al a!tivity and a!ademi! 4erforman!e,
0ediatric )xercise 7cience, 8, %%*E%'-
She4hard, 7( J( N Lavalee, <( ;%882=( !ademi! skills and re?uired 4hysi!al
edu!ationC 9he 9rois 7ivieres e&4erien!e( 6(H0)< 2ournal <esearch 7upplement,
%F%, %E%'
-5
SOED ;%88'=( 6urriculum and (ssessment in 7cotland, 5ational Luidelines,
)xpressive (rts 8/"&, EdinburghC <MSO
Southard D ;'11'=( #ontrol 4arameters for the develo4ment of thro.ing, in #lark J E
N <um4hrey J ;eds=, 3otor ;evelopment9 <esearch and <eviews =ol ', 44( '-E'6,
7eston, VC <$E7D
s4orts!otland ;'11*=( !tive S!hools, at
htt4CFF...(s4orts!otland(org(ukF#hannel@avigationFOurOa!tivitiesF9o4i!@avigationF
!tiveOS!hoolsF
s4orts!otland ;'112=( 0layer >mprovement, ( consultation paper on the introduction
of a long-term player development pathway, and its implications for strengthening the
infrastructure of 7cottish sport, EdinburghC s4orts!otland
State of Vi!toria, De4artment of Edu!ation ;%88-=( Aundamental motor s!ills9 (
manual for classroom teachers. MelbourneC #ommunity "nformation Servi!e
/( S( Steinbe!k 9he im4ortan!e of 4hysi!al a!tivity in the 4revention of over.eight
and obesity in !hildhoodC a revie. and an o4inion, +besity <eviews, 'F', %%G
Sugden, D(( N #hambers, M( ;%886=( "ntervention a44roa!hes and !hildren .ith
develo4mental !oordination disorder( 0ediatric <ehabilitation, ', %*8E%2G
9homas, J( 7( N Bren!h, /( E( ;%865=( Gender differen!e a!ross age in motor
4erforman!eC a meta:analysis( 0sychological 1ulletin, 86, '-1E'6'
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9.isk, J( +(7( ;'111=( $hysi!al a!tivity, 4hysi!al fitness and !ardiovas!ular health( "n
rmstrong, @( N Van Me!helen, +( ;eds=, 0aediatric )xercise 7cience and 3edicine.
44 '5*E'-*, O&fordC O&ford University $ress
US De4artment of <ealth and <uman Servi!es ;%88-=( 0hysical (ctivity and Health9
( <eport of the 7urgeon Leneral, tlantaC US De4artment of <ealth and <uman
Servi!es
Ulri!h, D( ( ;'111=( L3;-$ests of Lross motor ;evelopment, '
nd
Edition, ustin,
9PC $ro:ed
Valentine N M!/endri!k ;%88G=( #hildrenJs Outdoor $layC E&4loring $arental
#on!erns bout #hildrenJs Safety and the #hanging @ature of #hildhood( Leoforum,
Volume '6, @umber ', May %88G, 44( '%8E'*5;%G=
+alkley, J(, <olland, 3(, 9reloar, 7( N $robyn:Smith, <( ;%88*=( Bundamental Motor
Skill $rofi!ien!y of #hildren( (60H)< 5ational 2ournal, S4ring, %%E%2(
+elk, GJ(, #orbin, #(3( N Dale, D ;'111=( Measurement issues in the assessment of
4hysi!al a!tivity in !hildren, <esearch Cuarterly of )xercise and 7port, G%F'
;su44lement=, S58EG*(
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+hitall, J( ;'11*=, Develo4ment of lo!omotor !o:ordination and !ontrol in !hildren(
"n Savelsbergh, G(, Davids, /(, van der /am4, J( and 3ennett S( ;eds=, ;evelopment
of 3ovement 6o-ordination in 6hildren, 44( %1GE%*', LondonC 7outledge

+hitehead, J( 7(, #orbin, #( 3( ;%88G=( Self:Esteem in #hildren and )outhC 9he 7ole
of S4ort and $hysi!al Edu!ation( "nC Bo&, /( 7(, ;ed(=, he 0hysical 7elf9 Arom
3otivation to Well-1eing, 44( %G5E'1*( #ham4aign, "lC <uman /ineti!s
+i!kstrom, 7( ;%8GG=, Aundamental motor patterns( $hiladel4hiaC Lea N Berbiger
+illiams, ( ;%868=, 'hysical Education in the 0rimary 7chool Years, LondonC
7outledge
+illiams, L( 7( 9(, <ughes, J( 7( N Martin, #( ;%86'=, Effe!ts of daily 4hysi!al
edu!ation on !hildren0s attitudes to.ards 4hysi!al edu!ation( 5ew Oealand 2ournal of
Health, 0hysical )ducation and <ecreation, %5, *%E*5
)outh S4ort 9rust ;%88-=, 3ission 7tatement at htt4CFF...(youths4orttrust(org
-6