HORIZONTAL WELLS-7 CEMENTING HORIZONTAL HOLES BECOMING MORE

COMMON
12/17/1990

Ron Matson
BJ Services Co.
Houston

Rod Bennett
Baker Service Tools
Houston
In horizontal wells that require complete isolation of zones, a number of steps are available that
can improve cementing success.

While cementing is the most conventional completion method for vertical and directional wells,
it thus far has been used much less frequently in horizontal boreholes.

In part, this has been due to a lack of confidence in existing technology to:

Effectively control free water

Manage cuttings transport

Obtain pipe centralization

Isolate the bore hole with a cement hydraulic seal.

Most cementing accessory tools, liner hangers, and float equipment are designed only for
vertical applications, with true horizontal tools only recently becoming available.

Furthermore, horizontal wells typically have been drilled in formations that are difficult to
stimulate. They are often commercially unsuccessful with conventional vertical completion and
stimulation methods.

Either by design or default, these first wells became the models for horizontal completions and
were completed using open-hole techniques.

This seventh of an eightpart series on horizontal drilling and completion examines horizontal
cementing techniques, including a detailed discussion on cementing liners.


CEMENTING INTEREST RENEWED

Today, the cementing of horizontal wells ranges from the routine, in the Bakken field of North
Dakota, to the highly complex projects carried out in the North Sea and the North Slope of
Alaska.

More horizontal wells are now being cemented worldwide .1 2 Certainly, every well should not
be fully cemented. Reasons vary from economic limitations to valid concerns over possible
damage to macro formations that can reduce production from unstimulated, naturally fractured
reservoirs.

If, as early research indicates, a horizontal well is effectively an infinitely conductive fracture of
a fixed height, then for many specific applications a horizontal well could substitute for a
fractured vertical well.3

The true test of this theory will come only with longer performance-evaluation periods, but
many operators have learned horizontal well performance has not yet achieved theoretical
predictions.

This could be blamed partially on poor choices of horizontal candidates, incomplete
understanding of major reservoirs, or extensive drilling damage that may have prevented a
complete evaluation of the total potential of a prospect.

The optimum horizontal completion should not require fracture stimulation, so that zonal
isolation is of less concern. However, because horizontal wells are being drilled in a wide range
of formations, concern for effective stimulation coverage, control of potential water or gas
coning, and ultimate improvements in total reservoir management have renewed interest in
conventional cementing completion methods.


PREWELL PLANNING


Because no single phase of cementing will ensure success, all aspects of a cement job should be
considered weeks, or even months before the spud date. All the aspects must be given proper
attention, and they require a concerted effort by the drilling foreman, drilling engineer, drilling
contractor, and the assorted service company specialists.'

Many operators and service companies have developed procedures based on "the best
demonstrated practices" and routinely use a prejob check-off form to assist all disciplines in
ensuring that not even the smallest detail is overlooked.,5

Most find it important to identify a single specialist from each discipline to act as coordinator to
shoulder the responsibility for a respective area of expertise. This has been shown to improve
coordination and reduce communication problems and the number of people interfacing in daily
operations.

A variety of software is available to simulate basic job conditions expected under actual
cementing. Using these packages, possible limitations can be identified before the job is
performed. Additionally, these same programs can be used for final evaluation by comparing
actual real-time job results. Although there is a limited number of options available while the
actual cement job is in progress, information gathered can help refine procedures to improve
subsequent operations .6


BOREHOLE CONDITIONING

Planning for the borehole and mud conditioning program should begin well ahead of the actual
cement job. While both affect job results significantly, they typically are not considered part of
the actual cementing procedures. For instance, it has been found that the probability of obtaining
an adequate hydraulic seal will be improved with a smooth and uniform well bore through the
build and horizontal sections.

A uniform well bore will improve mud displacement by reducing troughs and washed-out
sections where mud pockets are bypassed. Also, a near-gauge hole will allow better casing
centralization while helping maintain the high annular flow rates necessary for efficient mud
removal. If mud is permitted to become immobile and channel within while no action is taken to
get static mud moving, cement will tend to follow the same flow path.'

Cuttings transport, particularly as it relates to the preparation of a cementing operation, is of
paramount importance in both the build and horizontal section S.8 9

Cuttings transport performance depends on many variables, including: annularflow velocity;
fluid density and rheology vs. cutting size, density, and shape; and, most importantly, the bore
hole inclination.

A good annular velocity starting point for optimum cuttings transport is from 180 to 300 fpm
(55-91 m/min) for the build and horizontal sections. While these annular velocities may appear
high, they can be attained in realistic pipe and hole conditions as shown in Table 1.

Depending upon the time needed to run logs and casing, a hole can have remained static for
relatively long durations. Long static times can adversely affect the hole and mud.

Once casing is in place, the hole should be circulated two to three times with a target of 95% of
the calipered annular volume being circulated .6 This can be verified with markers or fluid
calipers.

A good correlation exists between longer hole conditioning periods and a higher percentage of
the hole being circulated. Further improvement can result from much higher annular velocities
with little trade off using longer conditioning periods to compensate for lower annular velocities.

If open hole mechanical calipers are used to gauge the hole, four-arm tools are preferable over
the two or three-arm versions, as hole geometry will be read more accurately with the four-arm
tools. Although not precise, information from a four-arm tool run with an integrator provides a
general trend of hole gauge while offering a starting point from which to apply field experience
for slurry-volume calculations. Fluid calipers can be used to complement mechanical calipers.10

Such materials as oats, carbide pills, nut shells, and dyes have been used successfully for years.
Coarse Luli-Beads at 50 lb/20 bbl have also provided good results.

Regardless of the marker material chosen, it should be used while drilling the horizontal hole
section (at about every 100 ft), on clean-up trips, and when the casing is in place. Fluid markers
provide a comparison of how much the calculated (calipered) hole is circulating.

Additionally, hole enlargement, mud channeling, and cuttings build-up can also be calculated.
To simplify and subsequently speed-up computations, computerized spreadsheets are available to
graph the cuttings lag results.

Good mud displacement depends on uniform mud density, viscosity, and casing standoff.
Without proper standoff, even very high annular flow rate may not develop enough wall shear
stress to overcome mud gel strength on the low side of poorly centralized casing."

To reduce low-side bypass and top-side channeling, standoff should be 67% or greater. Most
service companies have software to simplify designing for optimum centralizers.


CENTRALIZERS

Planning for the total cement job fluid-density sequence will reduce gravity effects by
displacing the top wiper plug with the lightest fluids possible without causing undue safety
problems. Lighter displacement fluid inside the casing will improve pipe buoyancy and allow
centralizer restoring force to be more effective.

Some operators have reduced the threat of stuck pipe by drilling a slightly larger borehole and
encouraging field personnel to run the proper number of centralizers. Alternating centralizer
types on a single joint of casing using a rigid and a bow type on each joint throughout the
horizontal section can reduce centralizer cost, while providing adequate centralization in most
cases.



PIPE MOVEMENT

Some form of pipe movement is extremely beneficial in improving mud removal. Both rotation
and reciprocation have been used with each having distinct advantages and disadvantages. The
final choice should be based on rig and tool considerations.

Reciprocation offers an immediate advantage of not requiring special tools on the surface.
Stroke lengths of 1530 ft and about 10 fpm stroke speed normally work well. Calculations with
mud rheology should be made on location to determine resulting pressure surges and swab
potential of this technique.

While reciprocating, mud pits should be monitored for possible lost circulation problems.
Furthermore, another difficult-to-detect possibility is the swabbing in of hydrocarbons, which if
left untreated can result in a borehole and casing that are oil wet and poorly bonded.

With rotation, specialized surface equipment is required for effective performance. If given the
choice, casing power tongs or a power swivel should not be used because they lack durability for
long hours of rotating. The best choice is using a rotary table and cement kelly bushing along
with a heavy-duty swivel below the cement head. Normally, rotation speeds of from 10 to 22
rpm will be adequate.12

Although either reciprocation or rotation will improve mud displacement and removal,
additional wall scratchers are required to remove the dehydrated wall cake. Rotation has some
advantages over reciprocation with certain types of cable scratchers and formations."


SPACERS

For vertical and deviated wells, the importance of cementing spacers has been well documented
and understood. Experience dictates that a spacer must be compatible with both mud and cement.
Density should be 0.5 ppg greater than the mud density, but less than the cement density.

Spacer volume should be designed to allow 10 min or more uncontaminated contact time under
turbulent conditions, or the equivalent of 1,000 ft of annular fill.

Some operators feel so strongly about achieving uncontaminated contact time that the use of
rubber wiper plugs to separate the mud, spacer, and cement has become common practice.

The general feeling is that the wiper plugs better isolate the spacer and allow it to turn the
corner. The spacer moves as a mass of uncontaminated fluid that allows better displacement and
dilution of the mud. This is accomplished by stacking two double-plug cementing heads and
dropping three bottom plugs on the fly by remote-control air actuators.


LABORATORY EVALUATIONS

Several laboratory procedures have been used to evaluate the effects of mud contamination on
cement, visual viscosity changes, compressive strength reduction vs. percent of contamination,
and consistometer thickening time vs. percent contamination.

The inverted cylinder, porous tile plate, and shearbond apparatus tests have been developed and
applied with success to determine desired spacer performance, dispersibility, and wetting
action.14

Each test procedure exposes the drilling mud, spacer, and cement to the same contact time,
annular velocity, and fluid sequence as can be expected downhole.

The rotating inverted steel cup represents casing, the porous tile plate represents the borehole
and mud cake, and the inverted cup is a visual subjective test where the porous plate is weighed
and reweighed to evaluate mud-dispersing performance.

The shear-bond test is a pipe-in-a-pipe which is cemented and cured at downhole temperature
for a specified time. Afterwards, the bond is broken with a measured force. Dividing this force
by the surface area provides shear-bond strength for uncontaminated and contaminated slurries.
Although not API approved, the tests offer another form of evaluation and provide significant
insights into spacer performance.


SLURRY DESIGN


Slurry design for a horizontal well is similar to that for a highly deviated well with the major
objectives being to control free water, fluid loss, gel-strength development, and gas invasion.

If not controlled, free water has been shown repeatedly to have the potential of forming a highly
permeable channel along the top side of a horizontal borehole.15 1 6

The primary challenge is determining the effectiveness of a particular additive at bottom hole
conditions with elevated temperature and pressure. While many additives perform reasonably
well at room conditions under which the current API free-water procedure is conducted, some
researchers feel the method results in a potential error range of 5-10%.

Therefore, the slurry is sometimes conditioned in a consistometer under bottom hole
temperature and pressure before conducting the test at room temperature, as per the API test.
Occasionally, the test is conducted at 45 F. to even more closely simulate realistic conditions.

British Petroleum developed another procedure that utilizes a brass cylinder approximately 9 in.
long with a diameter of less than 1 in. The cylinder has two halves held together with external
clamps with caps over each end. 17

The advantage of this method is that the test cylinder with conditioned slurry can be placed into
a hightemperature, high-pressure curing chamber and allowed to hydrate at near bottom hole
conditions.

After the cement has set, any free water remaining is decanted off and measured. Then the
cylinder is split and the set column cut into six to eight separate sections with specific gravity
calculated for each section by using the Archimedes principal of mass over volume.

The result is a deeper insight of not only free water but the degree of particle segregation within
a cement column at near bottom hole conditions.

The second topic of concern is fluid-loss control with an optimum range of 30-50 ml/30 min.
These tests can be conducted as per the API guidelines. Several additives may normally be
required to control slurry performance with the underlying idea that none contribute to early
slurry gelation.

The best case would be one where the slurry remains fluid with little gelation up to the limit of
its pumpability. Therefore, the complete hydrostatic column remains in the borehole to further
resist gas invasion."

Testing is performed with two dc voltage consistometer strip charts displayed in units of from 0
to 15 (Fig. 1). The left-hand test chart indicates some gel strength development beginning about
70 min from test end.

During this gelation period, adherence to the borehole and casing may allow the slurry to
become load-bearing and therefore reduce the column pressure transmitted to the borehole.
Conversely, the right-hand test chart shows gel slurry or cement remaining fluid up to the time
the slurry cannot be pumped and th ' e resulting "right-angle set" terminates the test.

Another apparatus used to test slurries under bottom hole conditions evaluates several
parameters simultaneously. In this apparatus, key properties, such as fluid loss, gas resistance,
and the ability to transmit column pressure, are evaluated.

The apparatus consists of a stainless steel test cylinder about 18 in. long and 3 in. wide. It is
equipped with an external heating jacket, a movable stainless steel piston, and a 325-mesh screen
for fluid-loss evaluation.

Pore pressure can be simulated by injecting nitrogen gas into the slurry at 500 psi just below the
piston. Column pressure is simulated by applying nitrogen pressure to the top side of the piston
via an oil reservoir. The slurry is conditioned and placed into the preheated cylinder, which is
then assembled for testing. Key measurements are collected by a data-acquisition unit and
transmitted to a personal computer for real-time display.

Several parameters are measured with pressure transducers, and several are keyed in
mechanically. Piston movement and fluid loss are measured with a top-loading balance. With
this instrument a 200 psi differential pressure is set across the 325-mesh screen. A 300 psi back-
pressure regulator simulates a low-pressure zone.


MIXING EQUIPMENT

In relatively short order, some of the industry's most noticeable advances have been in mixing
and monitoring equipment. The recirculating averaging cement mixer (RAM) has been available
for several years, but recently most service companies have improved the design to maintain
closer slurry density where critical slurries are required. Fig. 2 shows a flow diagram of a
modern RAM unit.

Bulk preblended cement is blown into the surge tank under pressure and gravity fed into the
primary mixing module via a knife-gate control valve. In the latest models, the volume of the
primary mixing module has nearly doubled with continuous readout of slurry density from a "U"
tube stainless steel densimeter that is calibrated with a pressurized mud cup.

Readout is compared to a high-pressure nuclear densimeter on the discharge of the downhole
triplex pumps.

Once the 4-bbl volume has been reached, the slurry flows over a weir system to remove
entrained air and then into a 20-bbl averaging tank. An hydraulic screw maintains uniformity
before the slurry is force-fed to the downhole pumps.

Formerly, the variety of recording methods used ranged from a simple circular chart, with only
rate and pressure, to advanced units where many inputs were recorded and displayed on a strip
chart. Today, surface monitors are akin to computers possessing the ability to display many real-
time parameters and record all inputs, whether displayed or not, on a solid-state memory chip.
This allows data to be downloaded to a PC or stored on a floppy diskette for future review.

This new technique allows for real-time job monitoring and an easy-to-read format. A variety of
screen choices is available as shown in Fig. 3.

In Fig. 3a, equivalent Reynolds numbers are displayed at critical predetermined hole depths. The
fluid flow regime can be seen at a glance.

The equivalent circulating density of the fluid is calculated and displayed in a quick-reference
diagram (Fig. 3b). For convenience, as shown in Fig. 3c, total quantities of all types of fluid in
the borehole are totaled.

Inputs are totaled for realtime job performance evaluation (Fig. 4). Earlier work has shown the
true benefit of an in-depth evaluation of the cementing process. With experience, key problems,
such as channeling, free fall, and lost circulation can be identified and corrected on the next job.


LINER COMPLETIONS

For several decades, liner hangers have been routinely cemented in both vertical well bores and
deviated holes of as much as 70 and, over the years, comprehensive liner completion guidelines
have emerged.

The ability to obtain an adequate bond when cementing liners in a vertical well can be attributed
to several factors including:

Borehole and mud conditioning

Centralization of linergauge hole

Turbulent flow-both mud and cement

Pipe movement-rotate or reciprocate.

In a true horizontal completion, many of these factors come into play, but with some deviation
in methods and equipment. For instance, conditioning the hole requires turbulent flow to
adequately transport cuttings. Rigid-type centralizers must be properly spaced over the length of
the liner to ensure proper standoff. Furthermore, pipe movement, whether by rotation or
reciprocation, requires running tools specifically designed for this application due to higher
torque rates and increased frictional drag.

While there indeed is a difference between the underlying factors contributing to the success of
a vertical liner completion vs. a horizontal liner completion, it has been determined that much of
the downhole equipment used in vertical wells is applicable in the completion of horizontal
sections. This is particularly true of liner equipment that is actuated, or set, with surface pump
pressure. Experience has shown surface manipulation of the run-in string to set liner hangers in
deviated sections which exceed 70 is not desirable.

With this in mind, the selection of liner equipment specific to horizontal applications should be
limited to products which require minimal pipe manipulation and those that are compact in
design with little or no excess "jewelry," such as bow springs on the outer body that could
malfunction downhole. Hydraulic-set liner hangers are preferred in horizontal wells since they
are actuated by applied hydraulic pressure and require no surface pipe manipulation.


LINER PLACEMENT

One of the major problems inherent with running liners in horizontal wells is moving the pipe
through the lateral section. In some cases, this could be from 3,000 to 4,000 ft of liner in the
horizontal section. Depending on hole conditions, the liner may require pushing, rotating, or
even circulating or washing into place.

Preperforated or slotted liners used in most noncemented applications are difficult to wash down
due to fluid loss in the slotted pipe. This can be accomplished, however, by running a tail pipe
extension of wash pipe inside the slotted liner with the end sealed in the bottom joint-a method
which allows the operator to wash around the end of the liner as it is run in the hole. Once the
liner is in place, the wash pipe springer is retrieved with the liner running tool.

A second method employed frequently in the completion of many Bakken and Austin chalk
wells uses break plugs threaded into drilled and tapped holes in the liner. After the liner is in
position, the plugs can be sheared off with a bit or mill to allow fluid entry to the pipe.


PRODUCT MODIFICATION

As stated earlier, most liner equipment utilized in a vertical completion will satisfy the
requirements of a horizontal well. However, some products require slight modification, while
others must be completely redesigned. For discussion purposes, the hook-up shown in Fig. 5 will
be used to describe liner equipment that is applicable in a cemented horizontal completion.

To help place liners through the horizontal section, a special running tool is used which allows
the liner to be reciprocated or rotated while running the liner to bottom. The running tool can
then be released by applied surface pump pressure. In the event tubing pressure cannot be
applied due to ball seat washout or plugs not holding pressure, the running tool has an
emergency mechanical release system. Such tools have been used with marked success in the
North Sea, The Netherlands, on the North Slope, and in Canada.

The hydraulic-release liner running tool is attached to a liner setting sleeve, which is the
uppermost part of the liner. The tieback sleeve is designed with long entry angles at top, which
make re-entry into the liner top easier even if the top of the liner is in the horizontal section.

If the liner is to be cemented, any of the several types of cement packoff assemblies can be used
without modification for a horizontal application. The cement packoff assembly is used to
maintain a seal between the drill pipe and liner ID during cementing operations.

The hydraulic-set liner, which is set by applied surface pressure, is run below the cement
packoff assembly. An hydraulic hanger, usually a three-slip/cone version, is the ideal selection
since it is compact and requires no surface pipe manipulation to actuate the slips.

In most horizontal wells, the top of the liner will be located some 200-300 ft in the overlap of
the intermediate or drilling liner. In most cases, this portion of the liner is located above the
kickoff point, and the deviation is not so critical as to prevent the use of a mechanical set hanger.


HYDRAULIC-SET ROTATING HANGER

The hydraulic-set rotating hanger has been used frequently in horizontal wells and allows the
operator to rotate or reciprocate during hole conditioning, set the hanger with applied surface
pressure, release the liner running tool, and rotate the liner during the cementing operation.

Caution should be exercised when reciprocating a liner, as pressure surges could conceivably
cause formation breakdown. Furthermore, the potential exists for sticking the liner on an
upstroke. Liner rotation is the preferred method since the liner running tool is fully released from
the liner top during rotation.

Additionally, rotating the liner during the conditioning period will improve static gelled-mud
removal and, with the aid of cable scratchers, will assist in the removal of dehydrated wall cake.

Hole conditions will dictate whether pipe movement is feasible. In the horizontal section, even
with the assistance of pipe centralizers, the torque and drag of the liner can be too excessive for
adequate pipe movement.

The desired amount of blank liner to case the hole is run below the hanger. At this point, the
operator may opt to run cement stage equipment which adds flexibility when cementing above
an external casing packer.

One type of cementing valve is hydraulically actuated with surface pump pressure, opening
circulating ports to the annulus. Once the desired amount of cement is pumped, the cementing
valve will close due to spring force in an outer sleeve, effectively sealing the liner ID to the
annulus.

Another version presently available also opens with hydraulic pressure, but is closed using a
casing wiper plug to move an internal closing sleeve, which locks the valve shut.


EXTERNAL CASING PACKERS

External casing packers (ECPS) are used extensively in open hole vertical completions and have
proven to be the most effective means of creating a casing-to-well bore seal in horizontal wells.
Applications for ECPs in horizontal completions are abundant. Some of the most frequently used
applications are:

Provide zone isolation or fracture separation in cemented and non-cemented completions.

Allow for selective stimulation or production in the producing zone.

Interrupt any microannulus that may form after cementing and serve to stop channeling before
major cement contamination occurs.

Isolate lower zones from cement in a slotted liner completion.

The seal of an ECP can range from 3 to 40 ft and can be inflated using practically any well bore
media, such as water, mud, or cement. Once inflated, the packer provides an effective barrier to
high differential pressures and will expand to fill large out-of-gauge or elliptically shaped holes.
Also, depending on the type of element used, lateral forces will be exerted that will centralize the
casing.

Frequently overlooked when planning a horizontal completion using ECPs is determining the
maximum length of tool which can be run through the drilled radius to the horizontal section.
The drilling radius, hole diameter, and tool diameter must be evaluated to determine the
maximum overall length of the ECP. A method of calculating maximum tool length is outlined
in Fig. 5.

In a cemented liner, a landing collar is typically used to catch the liner wiper plug and
pumpdown (drill pipe) plug behind the tail cement. Also, it can be used to latch plugs to provide
a positive pressure seat needed to actuate hydraulic equipment in the liner.

The guide shoe is the last component in the bottom of the liner string. Depending on whether
blank pipe or preperforated liner is run, the shoe may or may not be equipped with back-pressure
valves. If the liner is cemented through the shoe joint, the shoe will have one or two back
pressure valves that allow circulation through the liner, but will not permit cement or drilling
fluids to U-tube into the liner.

The back-pressure valves must be a spring-loaded, poppet type that will function in a horizontal
position. Ball-type valves typically will not provide a positive seat while horizontal.


LINER CEMENTING

As previously discussed, worldwide relatively few complete horizontal sections have been
cemented to date. However, hundreds of build sections have been cemented at angles up to and
including 90.

Some of the more active areas where total horizontal sections have been cemented include
Canada, Alaska, the North Sea, and a few areas in the continental U.S.

The more interesting cementing operations have been performed on the North Slope with some
of the first jobs known as "off-bottom cementing.16 Fig. 6 shows a typical configuration. After 9
5/8-in. casing was cemented in place, an 81/2-in. horizontal hole was drilled to TD.

Afterwards, a 7-in. liner was run and cemented just below the gas cap, using a cement-filled
ECP to further isolate the gas zone. In this operation, the liner was both rotated and reciprocated
during cementing with a unique change from normal procedures-the liner was cemented off
bottom with a crosslinked 200-ft gelled plug.

The plug kept cement out of the horizontal section and reduced swab and surge pressures from
reciprocation. Wells are still being cemented this way by other North Slope operators.

As with most processes, refinements are continually being made.

In this design, some operators are now using more cement-filled ECPs to isolate more of the
horizontal section with added flexibility in the future. Port collars with resetting sleeves allow
selective treating and production control.

Cementing the complete liner has also been accomplished on nine wells, five of which appear to
be effectively cemented.19


REFERENCES

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JPT, April 1989, pp. 401-404.

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Ozkan, E., and Raghavan, R., "Horizontal Well Pressure Analysis," Paper No. 16378, SPE
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Sauer, C.W., "Mud displacement during the cementing operation: A state of the art," SPE Paper
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Boyington, W.H, Drawe, M.S., Sweatman, R.E., and Gill, S.C., "Optimized Design,Operations
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