Workbook Presentation

Manvi Jain
Ro. No.1011000615
Module 2
Study Center !M"#$%a&iabad
Sub'e(t )r*ani&ation
Stru(ture + be%avior ,!M"#
1-.
"o/i( Motivation
!nstitute o0 Mana*e1ent "e(%nolo*y
$%a&iabad
Motivational 0a(tors2(on(e/ts
Re3ard and rein0or(e1ent
A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the
occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to
cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by
associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies
show that if the person receives the reward immediately,
the efect would be greater, and decreases as duration
lengthens. Repetitive actionreward combination can
cause the action to become habit.
Rewards can also be organi!ed as e"trinsic or intrinsic.
#"trinsic rewards are e"ternal to the person$ for e"ample,
praise or money. %ntrinsic rewards are internal to the
person$ for e"ample, satisfaction or a feeling of
accomplishment.
Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic
motivation& one based on en'oyment, the other on
obligation. %n this conte"t, obligation refers to motivation
based on what an individual thin(s ought to be done. )or
instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead
to helping others beyond what is easily observable,
rewarded, or fun.
A reinforcer is diferent from reward, in that reinforcement
is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a
desirable behavior following the addition of something to
the environment.
!ntrinsi( and e4trinsi( 1otivation
!ntrinsi( 1otivation is when people engage in an
activity, such as a hobby, without obvious e"ternal
incentives.
%ntrinsic motivation has been studied by educational
psychologists since the *+,-s, and numerous studies have
found it to be associated with high educational
achievement and en'oyment by students. There is
currently no universal theory to e"plain the origin or
elements of intrinsic motivation, and most e"planations
combine elements of )rit! .eider/s attribution theory,
0andura/s wor( on selfe1cacy and other studies relating
to locus of control and goal orientation. Though it is
thought that students are more li(ely to be intrinsically
motivated if they&
Attribute their educational results to internal factors
that they can control (e.g. the amount of efort they
put in),
0elieve they can be efective agents in reaching
desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by
luc(),
Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than 'ust
rotelearning to achieve good grades.
2ote that the idea of reward for achievement is absent
from this model of intrinsic motivation, since rewards are
an e"trinsic factor.
%n (nowledgesharing communities and organi!ations,
people often cite altruistic reasons for their participation,
including contributing to a common good, a moral
obligation to the group, mentorship or /giving bac(/. %n
wor( environments, money may provide a more powerful
e"trinsic factor than the intrinsic motivation provided by
an en'oyable wor(place.
The most obvious form of motivation is coercion, where
the avoidance of pain or other negative conse3uences has
an immediate efect. #"treme use of coercion is
considered slavery. 4hile coercion is considered morally
reprehensible in many philosophies, it is widely practiced
on prisoners, students in mandatory schooling, within the
nuclear family unit (on children), and in the form of
conscription. 5ritics of modern capitalism charge that
without social safety networ(s, wage slavery is
inevitable
6citation needed7
. .owever, many capitalists such as
Ayn Rand have been very vocal against coercion
6citation needed7
.
Successful coercion sometimes can ta(e priority over
other types of motivation. Selfcoercion is rarely
substantially negative (typically only negative in the sense
that it avoids a positive, such as forgoing an e"pensive
dinner or a period of rela"ation), however it is interesting
in that it illustrates how lower levels of motivation may be
sometimes twea(ed to satisfy higher ones.
%n terms of 85S# 9#, intrinsic motivation is the motivation
that comes from inside the performer. #.g. they compete
for the love of the sport. #"trinsic motivation comes from
outside of the performer. #.g. The crowd cheer the
performer on, this motivates them to do well, or to beat a
90 (9ersonal 0est). Another e"ample is trophies or a
reward. %t ma(es the performer want to win and beat the
other competitors, thereby motivating the performer.
Sel0#(ontrol
The selfcontrol of motivation is increasingly understood as
a subset of emotional intelligence$ a person may be highly
intelligent according to a more conservative de:nition (as
measured by many intelligence tests), yet unmotivated to
dedicate this intelligence to certain tas(s. ;ale School of
<anagement professor =ictor =room/s >e"pectancy
theory> provides an account of when people will decide
whether to e"ert self control to pursue a particular goal.
?rives and desires can be described as a defciency or
need that activates behaviour that is aimed at a goal or
an incentive. These are thought to originate within the
individual and may not re3uire e"ternal stimuli to
encourage the behaviour. 0asic drives could be spar(ed by
de:ciencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to
see( food$ whereas more subtle drives might be the desire
for praise and approval, which motivates a person to
behave in a manner pleasing to others.
0y contrast, the role of e"trinsic rewards and stimuli can
be seen in the e"ample of training animals by giving them
treats when they perform a tric( correctly. The treat
motivates the animals to perform the tric( consistently,
even later when the treat is removed from the process.
Motivational "%eories
5rive Redu(tion "%eories
There are a number of drive theories. The 5rive
Redu(tion "%eory grows out of the concept that we have
certain biological needs, such as hunger. As time passes
the strength of the drive increases as it is not satis:ed.
Then as we satisfy that drive by ful:lling its desire, such as
eating, the drive/s strength is reduced. %t is based on the
theories of )reud and the idea of feedbac( control
systems, such as a thermostat.
There are several problems, however, that leave the
validity of the ?rive Reduction Theory open for debate.
The :rst problem is that it does not e"plain how Secondary
Reinforcers reduce drive. )or e"ample, money does not
satisfy any biological or psychological need but reduces
drive on a regular basis through a pay chec( secondorder
conditioning. Secondly, if the drive reduction theory held
true we would not be able to e"plain how a hungry human
being can prepare a meal without eating the food before
they :nished coo(ing it.
.owever, when comparing this to a real life situation such
as preparing food, one does get hungrier as the food is
being made (drive increases), and after the food has been
consumed the drive decreases. The only reason the food
does not get eaten before is the human element of
restraint and has nothing to do with drive theory. Also, the
food will either be nicer after it is coo(ed, or it won/t be
edible at all before it is coo(ed.
Co*nitive dissonan(e t%eory
Suggested by @eon )estinger, this occurs when an
individual e"periences some degree of discomfort
resulting from an incompatibility between two cognitions.
)or e"ample, a consumer may see( to reassure himself
regarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that another
decision may have been preferable.
Another e"ample of cognitive dissonance is when a belief
and a behavior are in conAict. A person may wish to be
healthy, believes smo(ing is bad for one/s health, and yet
continues to smo(e.
67e(tive#6rousal "%eories
Need 6(%ieve1ent "%eory
?avid <c5lellandBs a(%ieve1ent 1otivation t%eory
envisions that a person has a need for three things, but
difers in degrees to which the various needs inAuence
their behavior& 2eed for achievement, 2eed for power,
and 2eed for a1liation.
!nterests "%eory
.olland 5odes are used in the assessment of interests as
in =ocational 9reference %nventory (=9%$ .olland, *+CD).
Ene way to loo( at interests is that if a person has a
strong interest in one of the F .olland areas, then
obtaining outcomes in that area will be strongly reinforcing
relative to obtaining outcomes in areas of wea( interest.
Need "%eories
Need 8ierar(%y "%eory
Main article: Hierarchy of needs
Abraham <aslow/s hierarchy of human needs theory is the
most widely discussed theory of motivation.
The theory can be summari!ed as thus&
.uman beings have wants and desires which
inAuence their behavior$ only unsatis:ed needs can
inAuence behavior, satis:ed needs cannot.
Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of
importance, from the basic to the comple".
The person advances to the ne"t level of needs only
after the lower level need is at least minimally
satis:ed.
The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more
individuality, humanness and psychological health a
person will show.
The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to most
comple" (highest, latest) are as follows&
9hysiological
Safety and security
Social
#steem
Self actuali!ation
8er&ber*9s t3o#0a(tor t%eory
)rederic( .er!berg/s twofactor theory, a(a
intrinsicGe"trinsic motivation, concludes that certain
factors in the wor(place result in 'ob satisfaction, but if
absent, lead to dissatisfaction.
.e distinguished between&
Motivators$ (e.g. challenging wor(, recognition,
responsibility) which give positive satisfaction, and
8y*iene 0a(tors$ (e.g. status, 'ob security, salary
and fringe bene:ts) that do not motivate if present,
but, if absent, result in demotivation.
The name .ygiene factors is used because, li(e hygiene,
the presence will not ma(e you healthier, but absence can
cause health deterioration.
The theory is sometimes called the ><otivator.ygiene
Theory.>
6lder0er9s :R$ t%eory
5layton Alderfer, e"panding on <aslow/s hierarchy of
needs, created the :R$ t%eory (e"istence, relatedness
and growth). 9hysiological and safety, the lower order
needs, are placed in the e"istence category, while love
and self esteem needs are placed in the relatedness
category. The growth category contains our self
actuali!ation and selfesteem needs.
Sel0#deter1ination t%eory
Selfdetermination theory, developed by #dward ?eci and
Richard Ryan, focuses on the importance of intrinsic
motivation in driving human behavior. @i(e <aslow/s
hierarchical theory and others that built on it, S?T posits a
natural tendency toward growth and development. Hnli(e
these other theories, however, S?T does not include any
sort of >autopilot> for achievement, but instead re3uires
active encouragement from the environment. The primary
factors that encourage motivation and development are
autonomy, competence feedbac(, and relatedness.
;road "%eories
The latest approach in Achievement <otivation is an
integrative perspective as lined out in the >EnionRing
<odel of Achievement <otivation> by .ein! Schuler,
8eorge 5. Thornton %%%, Andreas )rintrup and Rose <ueller
.anson. %t is based on the premise that performance
motivation results from way broad components of
personality are directed towards performance. As a result
it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to
success at wor( but which are not conventionally regarded
as being part of performance motivation. #specially it
integrates formerly separated approaches as 2eed for
Achievement with e.g. social motives li(e ?ominance. The
Achievement <otivation %nventory A<% (Schuler, Thornton,
)rintrup I <ueller.anson, J--K) is based on this theory
and assesses three factors (*, separated scales) relevant
to vocational and professional success.for e"ample...
<n(ons(ious 1otivation
Some psychologists believe that a signi:cant portion of
human behavior is energi!ed and directed by unconscious
motives. According to <aslow& >9sychoanalysis has often
demonstrated that the relationship between a conscious
desire and the ultimate unconscious aim that underlies it
need not be at all direct
6K7
.> %n other words, stated motives
do not always match those inferred by s(illed observers.
)or e"ample, it is possible that a person can be accident
prone because he has an unconscious desire to hurt
himself and not because he is careless or ignorant of the
safety rules. Similarly, some overweight people are not
really hungry for food but for attention and love. #ating is
merely a defensive reaction to lac( of attention. Some
wor(ers damage more e3uipment than others because
they harbor unconscious feelings of aggression toward
authority :gures.
9sychotherapists point out that some behavior is so
automatic that the reasons for it are not available in the
individual/s conscious mind. 5ompulsive cigarette smo(ing
is an e"ample. Sometimes maintaining selfesteem is so
important and the motive for an activity is so threatening
that it is simply not recogni!ed and, in fact, may be
disguised or repressed. Rationali!ation, or >e"plaining
away>, is one such disguise, or defense mechanism, as it
is called. Another is pro'ecting or attributing one/s own
faults to others. >% feel % am to blame>, becomes >%t is her
fault$ she is sel:sh>. Repression of powerful but socially
unacceptable motives may result in outward behavior that
is the opposite of the repressed tendencies. An e"ample of
this would be the employee who hates his boss but
overwor(s himself on the 'ob to show that he holds him in
high regard.
Hnconscious motives add to the ha!ards of interpreting
human behavior and, to the e"tent that they are present,
complicate the life of the administrator. En the other
hand, (nowledge that unconscious motives e"ist can lead
to a more careful assessment of behavioral problems.
Although few contemporary psychologists deny the
e"istence of unconscious factors, many do believe that
these are activated only in times of an"iety and stress,
and that in the ordinary course of events, human behavior
L from the sub'ect/s point of view L is rationally
purposeful.
Controllin* 1otivation
The control of motivation is only understood to a limited
e"tent. There are many diferent approaches of motivation
training, but many of these are considered
pseudoscienti:c by critics. To understand how to control
motivation it is :rst necessary to understand why many
people lac( motivation.
)r*ani&ation
0esides the very direct approaches to motivation,
beginning in early life, there are solutions which are more
abstract but perhaps nevertheless more practical for self
motivation. =irtually every motivation guideboo( includes
at least one chapter about the proper organi!ation of one/s
tas(s and goals. %t is usually suggested that it is critical to
maintain a list of tas(s, with a distinction between those
which are completed and those which are not, thereby
moving some of the re3uired motivation for their
completion from the tas(s themselves into a >metatas(>,
namely the processing of the tas(s in the tas( list, which
can become a routine. The viewing of the list of completed
tas(s may also be considered motivating, as it can create
a satisfying sense of accomplishment.
<ost electronic todo lists have this basic functionality,
although the distinction between completed and non
completed tas(s is not always clear (completed tas(s are
sometimes simply deleted, instead of (ept in a separate
list).
Ether forms of information organi!ation may also be
motivational, such as the use of mind maps to organi!e
one/s ideas, and thereby >train> the neural networ( that is
the human brain to focus on the given tas(. Simpler forms
of idea notation such as simple bulletpoint style lists may
also be su1cient, or even more useful to less visually
oriented persons.
5ru*s
Some authors, especially in the transhumanist movement,
have suggested the use of >smart drugs>, also (nown as
nootropics, as >motivationenhancers>. The efects of
many of these drugs on the brain are emphatically not
well understood, and their legal status often ma(es open
e"perimentation di1cult.
5onverging neurobiological evidence also supports the
idea that addictive drugs such as cocaine, nicotine,
alcohol, and heroin act on brain systems underlying
motivation for natural rewards, such as the mesolimbic
dopamine system. 2ormally, these brain systems serve to
guide us toward :tnessenhancing rewards (food, water,
se", etc.), but they can be coopted by repeated use of
drugs of abuse, causing addicts to e"cessively pursue
drug rewards. Therefore, drugs can hi'ac( brain systems
underlying other motivations, causing the almost singular
pursuit of drugs characteristic of addiction.
6//li(ations
:du(ation
"%is se(tion needs additional (itations 0or veri=(ation.
9lease help improve this article by adding reliable references. Hnsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (November 2007)
<otivation is of particular interest to #ducational
psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in
student learning. .owever, the speci:c (ind of motivation
that is studied in the speciali!ed setting of education
difers 3ualitatively from the more general forms of
motivation studied by psychologists in other :elds.
<otivation in education can have several efects on how
students learn and their behavior towards sub'ect matter
(Ermrod, J--K). %t can&
*. ?irect behavior toward particular goals
J. @ead to increased efort and energy
K. %ncrease initiation of, and persistence in, activities
M. #nhance cognitive processing
D. ?etermine what conse3uences are reinforcing
F. @ead to improved performance.
0ecause students are not always internally motivated,
they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found
in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.
There are two (inds of motivation&
!ntrinsi( 1otivation occurs when people are
internally motivated to do something because it
either brings them pleasure, they thin( it is
important, or they feel that what they are learning is
signi:cant.
:4trinsi( 1otivation comes into play when a
student is compelled to do something or act a certain
way because of factors e"ternal to him or her (li(e
money or good grades).
2ote also that there is already 3uestioning and e"pansion
about this dichotomy on motivation, e.g., Self
?etermination Theory.
<otivation has been found to be a pivotal area in treating
Autism Spectrum ?isorders, as in 9ivotal Response
Therapy.
<otivation is also an important element in the concept of
Andragogy (what motivates the adult learner).
;usiness
At lower levels of <aslow/s hierarchy of needs, such as
9hysiological needs, money is a motivator, however it
tends to have a motivating efect on staf that lasts only
for a short period (in accordance with .er!berg/s two
factor model of motivation). At higher levels of the
hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and
a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators
than money, as both Abraham <aslow/s theory of
motivation and ?ouglas <c8regor/s Theory N and theory ;
(pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate.
<aslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and
shows other needs are better motivators to staf.
<c8regor places money in his Theory N category and feels
it is a poor motivator. 9raise and recognition are placed in
the Theory ; category and are considered stronger
motivators than money.
<otivated employees always loo( for better ways to
do a 'ob.
<otivated employees are more 3uality oriented.
<otivated wor(ers are more productive.
The average wor(place is about midway between the
e"tremes of high threat and high opportunity. <otivation
by threat is a deadend strategy, and naturally staf are
more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation
curve than the threat side.
The assumptions of <aslow and .er!berg were challenged
by a classic study
6M7
at =au"hall <otors/ HO manufacturing
plant. This introduced the concept of orientation to wor(
and distinguished three main orientations& instrumental
(where wor( is a means to an end), bureaucratic (where
wor( is a source of status, security and immediate reward)
and solidaristic (which prioritises group loyalty).
Ether theories which e"panded and e"tended those of
<aslow and .er!berg included Ourt @ewin/s )orce )ield
Theory, #dwin @oc(e/s 8oal Theory and =ictor =room/s
#"pectancy theory. These tend to stress cultural
diferences and the fact that individuals tend to be
motivated by diferent factors at diferent times.
6D7
%n contrast, ?avid <c5lelland believed that wor(ers could
not be motivated by the mere need for money in fact,
e"trinsic motivation (e.g., money) could e"tinguish
intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation,
though money could be used as an indicator of success for
various motives, e.g., (eeping score. %n (eeping with this
view, his consulting :rm, <c0er I 5ompany, had as its
:rst motto >To ma(e everyone productive, happy, and
free.> )or <c5lelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person/s
life with their fundamental motivations.
#lton <ayo found out that the social contacts a wor(er has
at the wor(place are very important and that boredom and
repetitiveness of tas(s lead to reduced motivation. <ayo
believed that wor(ers could be motivated by
ac(nowledging their social needs and ma(ing them feel
important. As a result, employees were given freedom to
ma(e decisions on the 'ob and greater attention was paid
to informal wor( groups. <ayo named the model the
.awthorne efect. .is model has been 'udged as placing
undue reliance on social contacts at wor( situations for
motivating employees.
Positive a7e(t in ne*otiation
#ven before the negotiation process starts, people in a
positive mood have more con:dence,
6M7
and higher
tendencies to plan to use a cooperative strategy.
6*7
?uring
the negotiation, negotiators who are in a positive mood
tend to en'oy the interaction more, show less contentious
behavior, use less aggressive tactics
6D7
and more
cooperative strategies.
6*7
This in turn increases the
li(elihood that parties will reach their instrumental goals,
and enhance the ability to :nd integrative gains.
6F7
%ndeed,
compared with negotiators with negative or natural
afectivity, negotiators with positive afectivity reached
more agreements and tended to honor those agreements
more. Those favorable outcomes are due to better
decision ma(ing processes, such as Ae"ible thin(ing,
creative problem solving, respect for others/ perspectives,
willingness to ta(e ris(s and higher con:dence. 9ost
negotiation positive afect has bene:cial conse3uences as
well. %t increases satisfaction with achieved outcome and
inAuences oneBs desire for future interactions. The 9A
aroused by reaching an agreement facilitates the dyadic
relationship, which result in afective commitment that
sets the stage for subse3uent interactions.
9A also has its drawbac(s& it distorts perception of self
performance, such that performance is 'udged to be
relatively better than it actually is.Thus, studies involving
self reports on achieved outcomes might be biased.
Ne*ative a7e(t in ne*otiation
2egative afect has detrimental efects on various stages
in the negotiation process. Although various negative
emotions afect negotiation outcomes, by far the most
researched is anger. Angry negotiators plan to use more
competitive strategies and to cooperate less, even before
the negotiation starts. These competitive strategies are
related to reduced 'oint outcomes. ?uring negotiations,
anger disrupts the process by reducing the level of trust,
clouding parties/ 'udgment, narrowing parties/ focus of
attention and changing their central goal from reaching
agreement to retaliating against the other side. Angry
negotiators pay less attention to opponentBs interests and
are less accurate in 'udging their interests, thus achieve
lower 'oint gains. <oreover, because anger ma(es
negotiators more selfcentered in their preferences, it
increases the li(elihood that they will re'ect pro:table
ofers. Anger doesnBt help in achieving negotiation goals
either& it reduces 'oint gains and does not help to boost
personal gains, as angry negotiators donBt succeed in
claiming more for themselves. <oreover, negative
emotions lead to acceptance of settlements that are not in
the positive utility function but rather have a negative
utility. .owever, e"pression of negative emotions during
negotiation can sometimes be bene:cial& legitimately
e"pressed anger can be an efective way to show one/s
commitment, sincerity, and needs. <oreover, although 2A
reduces gains in integrative tas(s, it is a better strategy
than 9A in distributive tas(s (such as !erosum).
Conditions 0or e1otion e7e(t in
ne*otiation
Research indicates that negotiatorBs emotions do not
necessarily afect the negotiation process. AlbarracPn et al.
(J--K) suggested that there are two conditions for
emotional efect, both related to the ability (presence of
environmental or cognitive disturbances) and the
motivation&
*. %denti:cation of the afect& re3uires high motivation,
high ability or both.
J. ?etermination that the afect is relevant and
important for the 'udgment& re3uires that either the
motivation, the ability or both are low.
According to this model, emotions are e"pected to afect
negotiations only when one is high and the other is low.
4hen both ability and motivation are low the afect will
not be identi:ed, and when both are high the afect will be
identify but discounted as irrelevant for 'udgment. A
possible implication of this model is, for e"ample, that the
positive efects 9A has on negotiations (as described
above) will be seen only when either motivation or ability
are low.
Proble1s 3it% lab ne*otiation studies
2egotiation is a rather comple" interaction. 5apturing all
its comple"ity is a very di1cult tas(, let alone isolating
and controlling only certain aspects of it. )or this reason
most negotiation studies are done under laboratory
conditions, and focus only on some aspects. Although lab
studies have their advantages, they do have ma'or
drawbac(s when studying emotions&
#motions in lab studies are usually manipulated and
are therefore relatively QcoldB (not intense). Although
those QcoldB emotions might be enough to show
efects, they are 3ualitatively diferent from the QhotB
emotions often e"perienced during negotiations.
%n real life there is selfselection to which negotiation
one gets into, which efects the emotional
commitment, motivation and interests. .owever this
is not the case in lab studies.
@ab studies tend to focus on relatively few well
de:ned emotions. Real life scenarios provo(e a much
wider scale of emotions.
5oding the emotions has a double catch& if done by a third
side, some emotions might not be detected as the negotiator
sublimates them for strategic reasons. Self report measures
might overcome this, but they are usually :lled only before or
after the process, and if :lled during the process might
interfere with it.
Ne*otiation t%eory
The foundations of ne*otiation t%eory are decision
analysis, behavioral decision ma(ing, game theory, and
negotiation analysis. Another classi:cation of theories
distinguishes between Structural Analysis, Strategic
Analysis, 9rocess Analysis, %ntegrative Analysis and
behavioral analysis of negotiations.
%ndividuals should ma(e separate, interactive decisions$
and negotiation analysis considers how groups of
reasonably bright individuals should and could ma(e 'oint,
collaborative decisions. These theories are interleaved and
should be approached from the synthetic perspective.
Co11on 6ssu1/tions )0 Most "%eories
2egotiation is a speciali!ed and formal version of conAict
resolution most fre3uently employed when important
issues must be agreed upon. 2egotiation is necessary
when one party re3uires the other party/s agreement to
achieve its aim. The aim of negotiating is to build a shared
environment leading to longterm trust and often involves
a third, neutral party to e"tract the issues from the
emotions and (eep the individuals concerned focused. %t is
a powerful method for resolving conAict and re3uires s(ill
and e"perience. Rartman de:nes negotiation as >a
process of combining conAicting positions into a common
position under a decision rule of unanimity, a phenomenon
in which the outcome is determined by the process.>
.owever, most theories of negotiations share the notion of
negotiations as a process. ;et, they difer in their
description of the process. Structural Analysis considers
this process to be a power game. Strategic analysis thin(s
of it as a repetition of games (8ame Theory). %ntegrative
Analysis prefers the more intuitive notion of process, in
which negotiations undergo successive stages, e.g. pre
negotiation, stalemate, settlement. #specially structural,
strategic and procedural analysis build on rational actors,
who are able to prioriti!e clear goals, are able to ma(e
tradeofs between conAicting values, are consistent in
their behavioral pattern, and are able to ta(e uncertainty
into account.
2egotiations difer from mere coercion, in that negotiating
parties have the theoretic possibility to withdraw from
negotiations. %t is easier to study bilateral negotiations, as
opposed to multilateral negotiations.
Stru(tural 6nalysis
Structural Analysis is based on a distribution of
empowering elements among two negotiating parties.
Structural theory moves away from traditional Realist
notions of power in that it does not only consider power to
be a possession, manifested for e"ample in economic or
military resources, but also thin(s of power as a relation.
0ased on the distribution of elements, in structural
analysis we :nd either powersymmetry between e3ually
strong parties or powerasymmetry between a stronger
and a wea(er party. All elements from which the
respective parties can draw power constitute structure.
They may be of material nature, i.e. hard power, (such as
weapons) or of social nature, i.e. soft power, (such as
norms, contracts or precedents).
These instrumental elements of power, are either de:ned
as partiesB relative position (resources position) or as their
relative ability to ma(e their options prevail.
Structural analysis is easy to criticise, because it predicts
that the strongest will always win. This, however, does not
always hold true.
Strate*i( 6nalysis
According to structural analysis, negotiations can
therefore be described with matrices, such as the
9risoner/s ?ilemma, a concept ta(en from 8ame Theory.
Another common game is the 5hic(en ?ilemma.
Strategic analysis starts with the assumption that both
parties have a veto. Thus, in essence, negotiating parties
can cooperate (5) or defect (?). Structural analysis then
evaluates possible outcomes of negotiations (5, 5$ 5, ?$ ?,
?$ ?, 5), by assigning values to each of the possible
outcomes. Eften, cooperation of both sides yields the
best outcome. The basic problem however is, that the
parties can never be sure that the other is going to
cooperate, mainly because of two reasons& :rst, decisions
are made at the same time or, second, concessions of one
side might not be returned. Therefore the parties have
contradicting incentives to cooperate or defect. %f one
party cooperates or ma(es a concession and the other
does not, the defecting party might relatively gain more.
Pro(ess 6nalysis
9rocess analysis is the theory closest to haggling. 9arties
start from two points and converge through a series of
concessions. As in strategic analysis, both sides have a
veto (e.g. sell, not sell$ pay, not pay). 9rocess analysis also
features structural assumptions, because one side may be
wea(er or stronger (e.g. more eager to sell, not willing to
pay a certain price). 9rocess Analysis focuses on the study
of the dynamics of processes. #.g. both Reuthen and 5ross
tried to :nd a formula in order to predict the behaviour of
the other party in :nding a rate of concession, in order to
predict the li(ely outcome.
!nte*rative 6nalysis
%ntegrative analysis divides the process into successive
stages, rather than tal(ing about :"ed points. %t e"tends
analysis to prenegotiations stages, in which parties ma(e
:rst contacts. The outcome is e"plained as the
performance of the actors at diferent stages. Stages may
include prenegotiations, :nding a formula of distribution,
crest behaviour, settlement.
>roo19s :4/e(tan(y t%eory
#"pectancy theory is about choice. %t e"plains the
processes that an individual undergoes to ma(e choices.
%n organi!ational behavior study, e4/e(tan(y t%eory is a
motivation theory :rst proposed by =ictor =room of the
;ale School of <anagement.
#"pectancy theory predicts that employees in an
organi!ation will be motivated when they believe that&
putting in more efort will yield better 'ob
performance
better 'ob performance will lead to organi!ational
rewards, such as an increase in salary or bene:ts
these predicted organi!ational rewards are valued by
the employee in 3uestion.
=room/s theory assumes that behavior results from
conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is
to ma"imi!e pleasure and to minimi!e pain. Together with
#dward @awler and @yman 9orter, =room suggested that
the relationship between people/s behavior at wor( and
their goals was not as simple as was :rst imagined by
other scientists. =room reali!ed that an employee/s
performance is based on individual factors such as
personality, s(ills, (nowledge, e"perience and abilities.
=ictor .. =room introduces three variables within the
e"pectancy theory which are valence (=), e"pectancy (#)
and instrumentality (%). The three elements are important
behind choosing one element over another because they
are clearly de:ned & efortperformance e"pectancy(#S9
e"pectancy), performanceoutcome e"pectancy (9SE
e"pectancy).
#S9 e"pectancy& Eur assessment of the probability our
eforts will lead to the re3uired performance level.
9SE e"pectancy& Eur assessment of the probability our
successful performance will lead to certain outcomes.
=roomBs model is based on three concepts&
6*7
*. =alence Strength of an individualBs preference for a
particular outcome. )or the valence to be positive, the
person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining
it.
J. %nstrumentality T <eans of the :rst level outcome in
obtaining the desired second level outcome$ the degree to
which a :rst level outcome will lead to the second level
outcome.
K. #"pectancy 9robability or strength of belief that a
particular action will lead to a particular :rst level
outcome.
=room says the product of these variables is the
motivation.
%n order to enhance the performanceoutcome tie
managers should use systems that tie rewards very
closely to performance. %n order to improve the efort
performance tie, managers should engage in training to
improve their capabilities and improve their belief that
added efort will in fact lead to better performance.
>i(tor >roo1
>i(tor >roo1 is a business school professor at the ;ale
School of <anagement, who was born on + August *+KJ in
<ontreal, 5anada. .e holds a 9h? from Hniversity of
<ichigan.
=room/s primary research was on the e"pectancy theory
of motivation, which attempts to e"plain why individuals
choose to follow certain courses of action in organi!ations,
particularly in decisionma(ing and leadership. .is most
well(nown boo(s are Work and Motivation,
Leadership and Decision Making and The New
Leadership. =room has also been a consultant to a
number of corporations such as 8# and American #"press.
:4/e(tan(y
:4/e(tan(y refers to the strength of a person/s belief
about whether or not a particular 'ob performance is
attainable. Assuming all other things are e3ual, an
employee will be motivated to try a tas(, if he or she
believes that it can be done. This e"pectancy of
performance may be thought of in terms of probabilities
ranging from !ero (a case of >% can/t do itU>) to *.- (>% have
no doubt whatsoever that % can do this 'obU>)
A number of factors can contribute to an employee/s
e"pectancy perceptions&
the level of con:dence in the s(ills re3uired for
the tas(
the amount of support that may be e"pected
from superiors and subordinates
the 3uality of the materials and e3uipment
the availability of pertinent information
9revious success at the tas( has also been shown to
strengthen e"pectancy beliefs.
>alen(e
>%s the outcome % get of any value to meV>
The term =alence refers to the emotional orientations
people hold with respect to outcomes (rewards). An
outcome is positively valent if an employee would prefer
having it to not having it. An outcome that the employee
would rather avoid ( fatigue, stress, noise, layofs) is
negatively valent. Eutcomes towards which the employee
appears indiferent are said to have !ero valence. =alences
refer to the level of satisfaction people e"pect to get from
the outcome (as opposed to the actual satisfaction they
get once they have attained the reward).
=room suggests that an employee/s beliefs about
#"pectancy, %nstrumentality, and =alence interact
psychologically to create a motivational force such that
the employee acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoid
pain.
9eople elect to pursue levels of 'ob performance that they
believe will ma"imi!e their overall best interests (their
sub'ective e"pected utility).
There will be no motivational forces acting on an
employee if any of these three conditions hold&
the person does not believe that heGshe can
successfully perform the re3uired tas(
the person believes that successful tas(
performance will not be associated with
positively valent outcomes
the person believes that outcomes associated
with successful tas( completion will be
negatively valent (have no value for that
person)
(Source& 4%@) .. RATR0HR8 0ritish 5olumbia %nstitute of
Technology)

=ictor =room
:4/e(tan(y "%eory (also (nown as the
=alence%nstrumentality #"pectancy Theory)
(*+FM)
=room/s theory assumes that behavior
results from conscious choices among
alternatives whose purpose it is to ma"imi!e
pleasure and minimi!e pain. The (ey
elements to this theory are referred to as
#"pectancy (#), %nstrumentality (%), and
=alence (=). 5ritical to the understanding of
the theory is the understanding that each of
these factors represents a belief.
=room/s theory suggests that the individual will consider
the outcomes associated with various levels of
performance (from an entire spectrum of performance
possibilities), and elect to pursue the level that generates
the greatest reward for him or her.
#"pectancy refers to the strength of a person/s belief
about whether or not a particular 'ob performance is
attainable. Assuming all other things are e3ual, an
employee will be motivated to try a tas(, if he or she
believes that it can be done. This e"pectancy of
performance may be thought of in terms of probabilities
ranging from !ero (a case of >% can/t do itU>) to *.- (>% have
no doubt whatsoever that % can do this 'obU>)
A number of factors can contribute to an employee/s
e"pectancy perceptions&
the level of con:dence in the s(ills re3uired for the
tas(
the amount of support that may be e"pected from
superiors and subordinates
the 3uality of the materials and e3uipment
the availability of pertinent information
9revious success at the tas( has also been shown to
strengthen e"pectancy beliefs.
%nstrumentality& >4hat/s the probability that, if % do a good
'ob, that there will be some (ind of outcome in it for meV>
%f an employee believes that a high level of performance
will be instrumental for the ac3uisition of outcomes which
may be gratifying, then the employee will place a high
value on performing well. =room de:nes %nstrumentality
as a probability belief lin(ing one outcome (a high level of
performance, for e"ample) to another outcome (a reward).
%nstrumentality may range from a probability of *.-
(meaning that the attainment of the second outcome
the reward is certain if the :rst outcome e"cellent 'ob
performance is attained) through !ero (meaning there is
no li(ely relationship between the :rst outcome and the
second). An e"ample of !ero instrumentality would be
e"am grades that were distributed randomly (as opposed
to be awarded on the basis of e"cellent e"am
performance). 5ommission pay schemes are designed to
ma(e employees perceive that performance is positively
instrumental for the ac3uisition of money.
)or management to ensure high levels of performance, it
must tie desired outcomes (positive valence) to high
performance, and ensure that the connection is
communicated to employees.
The =%# theory holds that people have preferences among
various outcomes. These preferences tend to reAect a
person/s underlying need state.
=alence& >%s the outcome % get of any value to meV>
The term =alence refers to the emotional orientations
people hold with respect to outcomes (rewards). An
outcome is positively valent if an employee would prefer
having it to not having it. An outcome that the employee
would rather avoid ( fatigue, stress, noise, layofs) is
negatively valent. Eutcomes towards which the employee
appears indiferent are said to have !ero valence.
=alences refer to the level of satisfaction people e"pect to
get from the outcome (as opposed to the actual
satisfaction they get once they have attained the reward).
=room suggests that an employee/s beliefs about
#"pectancy, %nstrumentality, and =alence interact
psychologically to create a motivational force such that
the employee acts in ways that bring pleasure and avoid
pain.
9eople elect to pursue levels of 'ob performance that they
believe will ma"imi!e their overall best interests (their
sub'ective e"pected utility).
There will be no motivational forces acting on an
employee if any of these three conditions hold&
*. the person does not believe that heGshe can
successfully perform the re3uired tas(
J. the person believes that successful tas( performance
will not be associated with positively valent outcomes
K. the person believes that outcomes associated with
successful tas( completion will be negatively valent
(have no value for that person)
(Source& 4%@) .. RATR0HR8 0ritish 5olumbia %nstitute of
Technology
?eaders%i/
The word leaders%i/ can refer to&
*. Those entities that perform one or more acts of
leading.
J. The ability to afect human behavior so as to
accomplish a mission.
K. %nAuencing a group of people to move towards its
goal setting or goal achievement. (Stogdill *+D-& K)
A leader is simply someone who has followers.
Cate*ories and ty/es o0 leaders%i/
@eadership has a formal aspect (as in most political or
business leadership) or an informal one (as in most
friendships). Spea(ing of >leadership> (the abstract term)
rather than of >leading> (the action) usually it implies that
the entities doing the leading have some >leadership
s(ills> or competencies.
"y/es o0 leaders%i/ styles
The bureau(rati( leader (4eber, *+-D) is very
structured and follows the procedures as they have been
established. This type of leadership has no space to
e"plore new ways to solve problems and is usually slow
paced to ensure adherence to the ladders stated by the
company. @eaders ensure that all the steps have been
followed prior to sending it to the ne"t level of authority.
Hniversities, hospitals, ban(s and government usually
re3uire this type of leader in their organi!ations to ensure
3uality, increase security and decrease corruption.
@eaders that try to speed up the process will e"perience
frustration and an"iety.
The (%aris1ati( leader (4eber, *+-D) leads by infusing
energy and eagerness into their team members. This type
of leader has to be committed to the organi!ation for the
long run. %f the success of the division or pro'ect is
attributed to the leader and not the team, charismatic
leaders may become a ris( for the company by deciding to
resign for advanced opportunities. %t ta(es the company
time and hard wor( to gain the employees/ con:dence
bac( with other type of leadership after they have
committed themselves to the magnetism of a charismatic
leader.
The auto(rati( leader (@ewin, @ippitt, I 4hite, *+K+) is
given the power to ma(e decisions alone, having total
authority. This leadership style is good for employees that
need close supervision to perform certain tas(s. 5reative
employees and team players resent this type of
leadership, since they are unable to enhance processes or
decision ma(ing, resulting in 'ob dissatisfaction.
The de1o(rati( leader (@ewin, @ippitt, I 4hite, *+K+)

listens to the team/s ideas and studies them, but will ma(e
the :nal decision. Team players contribute to the :nal
decision thus increasing employee satisfaction and
ownership, feeling their input was considered when the
:nal decision was ta(en. 4hen changes arises, this type of
leadership helps the team assimilate the changes better
and more rapidly than other styles, (nowing they were
consulted and contributed to the decision ma(ing process,
minimi!ing resistance and intolerance. A shortcoming of
this leadership style is that it has di1culty when decisions
are needed in a short period of time or at the moment.
The laisse&#0aire (>let do>) leader (@ewin, @ippitt, I
4hite, *+K+) gives no continuous feedbac( or supervision
because the employees are highly e"perienced and need
little supervision to obtain the e"pected outcome. En the
other hand, this type of style is also associated with
leaders that donBt lead at all, failing in supervising team
members, resulting in lac( of control and higher costs, bad
service or failure to meet deadlines.
The /eo/le#oriented leader ()iedler, *+F,) is the one
that, in order to comply with efectiveness and e1ciency,
supports, trains and develops his personnel, increasing 'ob
satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good 'ob.
The task#oriented leader ()iedler, *+F,) focuses on the
'ob, and concentrates on the speci:c tas(s assigned to
each employee to reach goal accomplishment. This
leadership style sufers the same motivation issues as
autocratic leadership, showing no involvement in the
teams needs. %t re3uires close supervision and control to
achieve e"pected results. Another name for this is deal
1aker (Rowley I Roevens, *+++)
6M7
and is lin(ed to a :rst
phase in managing 5hange, enhance, according to the
Ergani!e with 5haos approach.
The servant leader (8reenleaf, *+,,) facilitates goal
accomplishment by giving its team members what they
need in order to be productive. This leader is an
instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than
an commanding voice that moves to change. This
leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic
leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time
frame than other styles, although employee engagement
is higher.
The transa(tion leader (0urns, *+,C) is given power to
perform certain tas(s and reward or punish for the teamBs
performance. %t gives the opportunity to the manager to
lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to
accomplish a predetermined goal in e"change for
something else. 9ower is given to the leader to evaluate,
correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up
to the desired level and reward efectiveness when
e"pected outcome is reached.
The trans0or1ation leader (0urns, *+,C) motivates its
team to be efective and e1cient. 5ommunication is the
base for goal achievement focusing the group in the :nal
desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly
visible and uses chain of command to get the 'ob done.
Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needing
to be surrounded by people who ta(e care of the details.
The leader is always loo(ing for ideas that move the
organi!ation to reach the companyBs vision.
The environ1ent leader ( 5arma!!i, J--D)
6,7
is the one
who nurtures group or organisational environment to
afect the emotional and psychological perception of an
individualBs place in that group or organisation. An
understanding and application of group psychology and
dynamics is essential for this style to be efective. The
leader uses organisational culture to inspire individuals
and develop leaders at all levels. This leadership style
relies on creating an education matri" where groups
interactively learn the fundamental psychology of group
dynamics and culture from each other. The leader uses
this psychology, and complementary language, to
inAuence direction through the members of the inspired
group to do what is re3uired for the bene:t of all.
S(o/e o0 leaders%i/
Ene can govern oneself, or one can govern the whole
earth. %n between, we may :nd leaders who operate
primarily within&
youth
families
bands
tribes
organi!ations
states and nations
empires
%ntertwined with such categories, and overlapping them,
we :nd for e"ample religious leaders potentially with their
own internal hierarchies,wor(place leadersWcorporate
o1cerXe"ecutives,senior managementseniorGupper
managers$ middle managementXmiddle managers, staf
managers, linemanagers,team leader, supervisors and
leaders of voluntary associations.
Some anthropological ideas envisage a widespread but by
no means universal pattern of progression in the
organi!ation of society in everlarger groups,with the
needs and practices of leadership changing accordingly.
Thus simple dispute resolution may become legalistic
dispensation of 'ustice before developing into proactive
legislatureGlegislative activity.
?eaders%i/ in or*ani&ations
?eaders%i/ in 0or1al or*ani&ations
An organi!ation that is established as an instrument or
means for achieving de:ned ob'ectives has been referred
to as a 0or1al or*ani&ation. %ts design speci:es how
goals are subdivided and reAected in subdivisions of the
organi!ation. ?ivisions, departments, sections, positions,
'obs, and tas(s ma(e up this wor( structure. Thus, the
formal organi!ation is e"pected to behave impersonally in
regard to relationships with clients or with its members.
According to 4eber/s de:nition, entry and subse3uent
advancement is by merit or seniority. #ach employee
receives a salary and en'oys a degree of tenure that
safeguards him from the arbitrary inAuence of superiors or
of powerful clients. The higher his position in the
hierarchy, the greater his presumed e"pertise in
ad'udicating problems that may arise in the course of the
wor( carried out at lower levels of the organi!ation. %t is
this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the
appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative
subdivisions in the organi!ation and endows them with the
authority attached to their position.
6+7
?eaders%i/ in in0or1al or*ani&ations
%n contrast to the appointed head or chief of an
administrative unit, a leader emerges within the conte"t of
the in0or1al or*ani&ation that underlies the formal
structure. The informal organi!ation e"presses the
personal ob'ectives and goals of the individual
membership. Their ob'ectives and goals may or may not
coincide with those of the formal organi!ation. The
informal organi!ation represents an e"tension of the social
structures that generally characteri!e human life L the
spontaneous emergence of groups and organi!ations as
ends in themselves.
%n prehistoric times, man was preoccupied with his
personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival.
2ow man spends a ma'or portion of his wa(ing hours
wor(ing for organi!ations. .is need to identify with a
community that provides security, protection,
maintenance, and a feeling of belonging continues
unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the
informal organi!ation and its emergent, or uno1cial,
leaders.
6*-7
@eaders emerge from within the structure of the informal
organi!ation. Their personal 3ualities, the demands of the
situation, or a combination of these and other factors
attract followers who accept their leadership within one or
several overlay structures. %nstead of the authority of
position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent
leader wields inAuence or power. %nAuence is the ability of
a person to gain cooperation from others by means of
persuasion or control over rewards. 9ower is a stronger
form of inAuence because it reAects a person/s ability to
enforce action through the control of a means of
punishment.
?eader in or*ani&ations
A leader is anyone who inAuences a group toward
obtaining a particular result. %t is not dependant on title or
formal authority. (elevos, paraphrased from @eaders,
0ennis, and @eadership 9resence, .alpern I @ubar). An
individual who is appointed to a managerial position has
the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of
the authority of his position. .owever, he must possess
ade3uate personal attributes to match his authority,
because authority is only potentially available to him. %n
the absence of su1cient personal competence, a manager
may be confronted by an emergent leader who can
challenge his role in the organi!ation and reduce it to that
of a :gurehead. .owever, only authority of position has
the bac(ing of formal sanctions. %t follows that whoever
wields personal inAuence and power can legitimi!e this
only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with
commensurate authority. @eadership can be de:ned as
one/s ability to get others to willingly follow. #very
organi!ation needs leaders at every level.
)rt%o*onality and leaders%i/
Those who praise leadership may encounter problems in
implementing consistent leadership structures. )or
e"ample, a pyramidal structure in which authority
consistently emanates from the summit can stiAe initiative
and leave no path for grooming future leaders in the ran(s
of subordinate levels. Similarly, a belief in universal direct
democracy may become unwieldy, and a system
consisting of nothing but representative leaders may well
become stymied in committees.
Thus many leadership systems promote diferent rules for
diferent levels of leadership. .ereditary autocrats meet in
the Hnited 2ations on e3ual representative terms with
elected governments in a collegial leadership. Er
individual local democracies may assign some of their
powers to temporary dictators in emergencies, as in
ancient Rome. .ierarchies intermingle with e3uality of
opportunity at diferent levels.
Su//ort#stru(tures 0or leaders%i/
5harisma and personality alone can wor( miracles, yet
most leaders operate within a structure of supporters and
e"ecutive agents who carry out and monitor the e"pressed
or :ltereddown will of the leader. This undercutting of the
importance of leadership may serve as a reminder of the
e"istence of the follower& compare followership. A more or
less formal bureaucracy (in the 4eberian sense) can throw
up a colorless nonentity as an entirely efective leader&
this phenomenon may occur (for e"ample) in a politburo
environment. 0ureaucratic organi!ations can also raise
incompetent people to levels of leadership (see 9eter
9rinciple).
%n modern dynamic environments formal bureaucratic
organi!ations have started to become less common
because of their inability to deal with fastchanging
circumstances. <ost modern business organi!ations (and
some government departments) encourage what they see
as >leadership s(ills> and reward identi:ed potential
leaders with promotions.
%n a potential downside to this sort of development, a big
picture grandvision leader may foster another sort of
hierarchy& a fetish of leadership amongst subordinate sub
leaders, encouraged to sei!e resources for their own sub
empires and to apply to the supreme leader only for
ultimate arbitration.
Some leaders build coalitions and alliances& political
parties abound with this type of leader. Still others depend
on rapport with the masses& they labor on the shopAoor
or stand in the frontline of battle, leading by e"ample.
The approach of listing leadership 3ualities, often termed
?avid <c5lelland saw leadership s(ills, not so much as a
set of traits, but as a pattern of motives. .e claimed that
successful leaders will tend to have a high need for power,
a low need for a1liation, and a high level of what he
called activity inhibition (one might call it selfcontrol).
Situational leadership theory ofers an alternative
approach. %t proceeds from the assumption that diferent
situations call for diferent characteristics. According to
this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic
pro:le of a leader e"ists. The situational leadership model
of .ersey and 0lanchard, for e"ample, suggest four
leadershipstyles and four levels of followerdevelopment.
)or efectiveness, the model posits that the leadership
style must match the appropriate level of followership
development. %n this model, leadership behavior becomes
a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but
of the characteristics of followers as well. Ether situational
leadership models introduce a variety of situational
variables. These determinants include&
the nature of the tas( (structured or routine)
organi!ational policies, climate, and culture
the preferences of the leader/s superiors
the e"pectations of peers
the reciprocal responses of followers
The contingency model of =room and ;etton uses other
situational variables, including&
the nature of the problem
the re3uirements for accuracy
the acceptance of an initiative
timeconstraints
cost constraints
.owever one determines leadership behavior, one can
categori!e it into various leadershi styles. <any ways of
doing this e"ist. )or e"ample, the <anagerial 8rid <odel, a
behavioral leadershipmodel, suggests :ve diferent
leadership styles, based on leaders/ strength of concern
for people and their concern for goal achievement.
Ourt @ewin, Ronald @ipitt, and R. O. 4hite identi:ed three
leadership styles& authoritarian, democratic, and laisse!
faire, based on the amount of inAuence and power
e"ercised by the leader.
The )iedler contingency model bases the leaderBs
efectiveness on what )red )iedler called situational
contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership
style and situational favorableness (later called
>situational control>).
?eaders%i/ @styles@ ,/er 8ouse and
Podsako7.
%n *++M .ouse and 9odsa(of attempted to summari!e the
behaviors and approaches of >outstanding leaders> that
they obtained from some more modern theories and
research :ndings. These leadership behaviors and
approaches do not constitute s/e(i=( styles, but
cumulatively they probably
6citation needed7
characteri!e the
most efective style of today/s leadersGmanagers. The
listed leadership >styles> cover&
*. =ision. Eutstanding leaders articulate an ideological
vision congruent with the deeplyheld values of
followers, a vision that describes a better future to
which the followers have an alleged moral right.
J. 9assion and selfsacri:ce. @eaders display a passion
for, and have a strong conviction of, what they regard
as the moral correctness of their vision. They engage
in outstanding or e"traordinary behavior and ma(e
e"traordinary selfsacri:ces in the interest of their
vision and mission.
K. 5on:dence, determination, and persistence.
Eutstanding leaders display a high degree of faith in
themselves and in the attainment of the vision they
articulate. Theoretically, such leaders need to have a
very high degree of selfcon:dence and moral
conviction because their mission usually challenges
the status !uo and, therefore, may ofend those who
have a sta(e in preserving the established order.
M. %magebuilding. .ouse and 9odsa(of regard
outstanding leaders as selfconscious about their own
image. They recogni!e the desirability of followers
perceiving them as competent, credible, and
trustworthy.
D. Rolemodeling. @eaderimagebuilding sets the stage
for efective rolemodeling because followers identify
with the values of role models whom they perceived
in positive terms.
F. #"ternal representation. Eutstanding leaders act as
spo(espersons for their respective organi!ations and
symbolically represent those organi!ations to
e"ternal constituencies.
,. #"pectations of and con:dence in followers.
Eutstanding leaders communicate e"pectations of
high performance from their followers and strong
con:dence in their followersB ability to meet such
e"pectations.
C. Selective motivearousal. Eutstanding leaders
selectively arouse those motives of followers that the
outstanding leaders see as of special relevance to
the successful accomplishment of the vision and
mission.
+. )rame alignment. To persuade followers to accept
and implement change, outstanding leaders engage
in >frame alignment>. This refers to the lin(age of
individual and leader interpretive orientations such
that some set of followersB interests, values, and
beliefs, as well as the leaderBs activities, goals, and
ideology, becomes congruent and complementary.
*-. %nspirational communication. Eutstanding
leaders often, but not always, communicate their
message in an inspirational manner using vivid
stories, slogans, symbols, and ceremonies.
#ven though these ten leadership behaviors and
approaches do not really e3uate to speci:c styles,
evidence has started to accumulate
6citation needed7
that a
leaderBs style can ma(e a diference. Style becomes the
(ey to the formulation and implementation of
strategy
6citation needed7
and plays an important role in wor(
group membersB activity and in team citi!enship. @ittle
doubt e"ists that the "ay (style) in which leaders inAuence
wor(group members can ma(e a diference in their own
and their peopleBs performance
6citation needed7
.
(Adopted from& Robert .ouse and 9hilip <. 9odsa(of,
>@eadership #fectiveness& 9ast 9erspectives and )uture
?irections for Research> in 8reenberg, Yerald ed.),pp. MD
CJ #rgani$ational %ehavior: &he 'tate of the 'cience,
.illsdale, 2Y, #ngland& #rlbaum Associates, %nc, *++M. ",
K*J pp. .)
?eaders%i/ and vision
<any de:nitions of leadership involve an element of 8oal
managementXvision L e"cept in cases of involuntary
leadership and often in cases of traditional leadership. A
vision provides direction to the inAuence process. A leader
or group of leaders can have one or more visions of the
future to aid them to move a group successfully towards
this goal. A vision, for efectiveness, should allegedly&
appear as a simple, yet vibrant, image in the mind of
the leader
describe a future state, credible and preferable to the
present state
act as a bridge between the current state and a
future optimum state
appear desirable enough to energi!e followers
succeed in spea(ing to followers at an emotional or
spiritual level (logical appeals by themselves seldom
muster a following)
)or leadership to occur, according to this theory, some
people >leaders> must communicate the vision to others
>followers> in such a way that the followers adopt the
vision as their own. @eaders must not 'ust see the vision
themselves, they must have the ability to get others to
see it also. 2umerous techni3ues aid in this process,
including& narratives, metaphors, symbolic actions, leading
by e"ample,incentives, and penaltyXpenalties.
Stacey (*++J) has suggested that the emphasis on vision
puts an unrealistic burden on the leader. Such emphasis
appears to perpetuate the myth that an organi!ation must
depend on a single, uncommonly talented individual to
decide what to do. Stacey claims that this fosters a culture
of dependency and conformity in which followers ta(e no
proactive incentives and do not thin( independently.
Oanungo/s charismatic leadership model describes the role
of the vision in three stages that are continuously ongoing,
overlapping one another. Assessing the status 3uo,
formulation and articulation of the vision, and
implementation of the vision.
?eaders%i/As relation 3it% 1ana*e1ent
Some commentators lin( leadership closely with the idea
of management. Some regard the two as synonymous,
and others consider management a subset of leadership. %f
one accepts this premise, one can view leadership as&
centrali!ed or decentrali!ed
broad or focused
decisionoriented or moralecentred
intrinsic or derived from some authority
Any of the bipolar labels traditionally ascribed to
management style could also apply to leadership style.
.ersey and 0lanchard use this approach& they claim that
management merely consists of leadership applied to
business situations$ or in other words& management forms
a subset of the broader process of leadership. They put it
this way& >@eadership occurs any time one attempts to
inAuence the behavior of an individual or group,
regardless of the reason.<anagement is a (ind of
leadership in which the achievement of organi!ational
goals is paramount.>
.owever, a clear distinction between management and
leadership may nevertheless prove useful. This would
allow for a reciprocal relationship between leadership and
management, implying that an efective manager should
possess leadership s(ills, and an efective leader should
demonstrate management s(ills. Ene clear distinction
could provide the following de:nition&
<anagement involves power by position.
@eadership involves power by inAuence.
Abraham Rale!ni( (*+,,),for e"ample, delineated
diferences between leadership and management. .e saw
leaders as inspiring visionaries, concerned about
substance$ while managers he views as planners who
have concerns with process.4arren 0ennis (*+C+) further
e"plicated a dichotomy between managers and leaders.
.e drew twelve distinctions between the two groups&
<anagers administer, leaders innovate
<anagers as( how and when, leaders as( what and
why
<anagers focus on systems, leaders focus on people
<anagers do things right, leaders do the right things
<anagers maintain, leaders develop
<anagers rely on control, leaders inspire trust
<anagers have a shortterm perspective, leaders
have a longerterm perspective
<anagers accept the status3uo, leaders challenge
the status3uo
<anagers have an eye on the bottom line, leaders
have an eye on the hori!on
<anagers imitate, leaders originate
<anagers emulate the classic good soldier, leaders
are their own person
<anagers copy, leaders show originality
9aul 0irch (*+++) also sees a distinction between
leadership and management. .e observed that, as a broad
generali!ation, managers concerned themselves with
tas(s while leaders concerned themselves with people.
0irch does not suggest that leaders do not focus on >the
tas(.> %ndeed, the things that characterise a great leader
include the fact that they achieve. #fective leaders create
and sustain competitive advantage through the
attainment of cost leadership, revenue leadership, time
leadership, and mar(et value leadership. <anagers
typically follow and reali!e a leader/s vision. The diference
lies in the leader realising that the achievement of the
tas( comes about through the goodwill and support of
others (inAuence), while the manager may not.
This goodwill and support originates in the leader seeing
people as people, not as another resource for deployment
in support of >the tas(>. The manager often has the role of
organi!ing resources to get something done. 9eople form
one of these resources, and many of the worst managers
treat people as 'ust another interchangeable item. A
leader has the role of causing others to follow a path
heGshe has laid out or a vision heGshe has articulated in
order to achieve a tas(. Eften, people see the tas( as
subordinate to the vision. )or instance, an organi!ation
might have the overall tas( of generating pro:t, but a
good leader may see pro:t as a byproduct that Aows from
whatever aspect of their vision diferentiates their
company from the competition.
@eadership does not only manifest itself as purely a
business phenomenon. <any people can thin( of an
inspiring leader they have encountered who has nothing
whatever to do with business& a politician, an o1cer in the
armed forces, a Scout or 8uide leader, a teacher, etc.
Similarly, management does not occur only as a purely
business phenomenon. Again, we can thin( of e"amples of
people that we have met who :ll the management niche
in nonbusiness organisations2onbusiness organi!ations
should :nd it easier to articulate a nonmoneydriven
inspiring vision that will support true leadership. .owever,
often this does not occur.
?iferences in the mi" of leadership and management can
de:ne various management styles. Some management
styles tend to deemphasi!e leadership. %ncluded in this
group one could include participatory management,
democratic management, and collaborative management
styles. Ether management styles, such as authoritarian
management, micromanagement, and topdown
management, depend more on a leader to provide
direction. 2ote, however, that 'ust because an
organisation has no single leader giving it direction, does
not mean it necessarily has wea( leadership. %n many
cases group leadership (multiple leaders) can prove
efective. .aving a single leader (as in dictatorship) allows
for 3uic( and decisive decisionma(ing when needed as
well as when not needed. 8roup decisionma(ing
sometimes earns the derisive label >committeeitis>
because of the longer times re3uired to ma(e decisions,
but group leadership can bring more e"pertise,
e"perience, and perspectives through a democratic
process.
9atricia 9itcher (*++M) has challenged the bifurcation into
leaders and managers. She used a factor analysis (in
mar(eting)factor analysis techni3ue on data collected over
C years, and concluded that three types of leaders e"ist,
each with very diferent psychological pro:les&/Artists/
imaginative, inspiring, visionary, entrepreneurial, intuitive,
daring, and emotional 5raftsmen& wellbalanced, steady,
reasonable, sensible, predictable, and trustworthy
Technocrats& cerebral, detailoriented, fastidious,
uncompromising, and hardheaded She speculates that no
one pro:le ofers a preferred leadership style. She claims
that if we want to build, we should :nd an >artist leader> if
we want to solidify our position, we should :nd a
>craftsman leader> and if we have an ugly 'ob that needs
to get done li(e downsi!ing.we should :nd a >technocratic
leader>.9itcher also observed that a balanced leader
e"hibiting all three sets of traits occurs e"tremely rarely&
she found none in her study.
0ruce @ynn postulates a diferentiation between
/@eadership/ and Q<anagementB based on perspectives to
ris(. Speci:cally,>A @eader optimises upside opportunity$ a
<anager minimises downside ris(.> .e argues that
successful e"ecutives need to apply both disciplines in a
balance appropriate to the enterprise and its conte"t.
@eadership without <anagement yields steps forward, but
as many if not more steps bac(wards. <anagement
without @eadership avoids any step bac(wards, but
doesnBt move forward.
?eaders%i/ by a *rou/
%n contrast to individual leadership, some organi!ations
have adopted group leadership. %n this situation, more
than one person provides direction to the group as a
whole. Some organi!ations have ta(en this approach in
hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or
downsi!ing. Ethers may see the traditional leadership of a
boss as costing too much in team performance. %n some
situations, the maintenance of the boss becomes too
e"pensive either by draining the resources of the group
as a whole, or by impeding the creativity within the team,
even unintentionally.
A common e"ample of group leadership involves cross
functional teams. A team of people with diverse s(ills and
from all parts of an organi!ation assembles to lead a
pro'ect. A team structure can involve sharing power
e3ually on all issues, but more commonly uses rotating
leadershi. The team member(s) best able to handle any
given phase of the pro'ect become(s) the temporary
leader(s). According to Egbonnia (J--,), >efective
leadership is the ability to successfully integrate and
ma"imi!e available resources within the internal and
e"ternal environment for the attainment of organi!ational
or societal goals>. Egbonnia de:nes an efective leader
>as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed
in a given condition and be recogni!ed as meeting the
e"pectations of an organi!ation or society.>
8istori(al vie3s on leaders%i/
Sans(rit literature identi:es ten types of leaders. ?e:ning
characteristics of the ten types of leaders are e"plained
with e"amples from history and mythology.
6*K7
Aristocratic thin(ers have postulated that leadership
depends on one/s blue blood or genes& monarchy ta(es an
e"treme view of the same idea, and may prop up its
assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by
invo(ing divine sanction& see the divine right of (ings.
5ontrariwise, more democraticallyinclined theorists have
pointed to e"amples of meritocratic leaders, such as the
2apoleonic marshals pro:ting from careers open to talent.
%n the autocraticGpaternalistic strain of thought,
traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman
ater familias. )eminist thin(ing, on the other hand, may
damn such models as patriarchal and posit against them
emotionallyattuned, responsive, and consensual
empathetic guidance and matriarchies.
5omparable to the Roman tradition, the views of
5onfucianism on >right living> relate very much to the
ideal of the (male) scholarleader and his benevolent rule,
buttressed by a tradition of :lial piety.
%n #n Heroes( Hero)*orshi( and the Heroic in History,
Thomas 5arlyle demonstrated the concept of leadership
associated with a position of authority. %n praising Eliver
5romwell/s use of power to bring Oing 5harles % to trial and
eventual beheading, he wrote the following& >@et us
remar(, meanwhile, how indispensable everywhere a Oing
is, in all movements of men. %t is stri(ingly shown, in this
very 4ar, what becomes of men when they cannot :nd a
5hief <an, and their enemies can.>
6C7
4ithin the conte"t of %slam, views on the nature, scope
and inheritance of leadership have played a ma'or role in
shaping sects and their history. See caliphate.
%n the *+th century, the elaboration of anarchist thought
called the whole concept of leadership into 3uestion. (2ote
that the #+ford ,nglish -ictionary traces the word
>leadership> in #nglish only as far bac( as the *+th
century.) Ene response to this denial of Zlitism came with
@eninism, which demanded an Zlite group of disciplined
cadres to act as the vanguard of a socialist revolution,
bringing into e"istence the dictatorship of the proletariat.
Ether historical views of leadership have addressed the
seeming contrasts between secular and religious
leadership. The doctrines of 5aesaropapism have
recurred and had their detractors over several centuries.
5hristian thin(ing on leadership has often emphasi!ed
stewardship of divinelyprovided resources human and
material and their deployment in accordance with a
?ivine plan. 5ompare servant leadership.
The great traits that a leader must have, have been
debated over time, and most people agree that these are
the :ve (ey traits. ;ou must have a vision. 4e/ve all heard
the saying >;ou must stand for something, or you/ll fall for
everything.> 0ut what does that really meanV Standing
:rm when it comes to your company/s policies and
procedures is all well and good, but it doesn/t spea( to
having a vision. As a leader, you have to learn to
communicate your vision or the vision of your company to
the people you want to follow you. ;ou must have passion,
you have to show your team that you want to accomplish
the goal as badly as they do, your passion will drive them.
;ou must learn to be a great decision ma(er. Sometimes,
leaders must face times of pressure where they are forced
to ma(e 3uic( decisions, a great leader must have this
s(ill. ;ou must be a team builder. To become a great
leader, you must :rst ma(e your team great, you must
have the power to give your team responsibilities, and
trust them too, you must slowly ma(e them greater and
greater. ;ou must have character. 4ithout character, all
the other >(eys> are for naught. That/s because your
innate character strengths and limitations play a critical
role in your leadership style. The real 3uestion is, are you
aware of 'ust what role they playV All great leaders have
ta(en steps to learn about their individual personality and
what part it plays in their leadership style.