1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATIONI
PREFACE II
DEDICA-
TION
..
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CHAPTER 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 PROMBLEM STATEMENT
1.2 PROJECT OBJECTIVES
1.3 PROJECT AIMS
1.4 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
1.5 SPECIFICATIONS
1.6 PROJECT ANALYSIS
1.7 COMPONENT LIST
1.8 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
1.9 COMPARATOR
1.10 ZENER DIODE
1.11 DIODE
1.12 RELAY
1.13 TRANSFORMER
1.14 CAPACITOR
1.15 FUSE
1.16 TRANSISTOR
CHAPTER 2
2.0 PROJECT DESIGN
2.1 COMPARATOR
2.2








3
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Power instability in domestic, commercial & domestic applications, causes massive losses in
time & equipment failure due damages such as single phasing, brownouts & under voltages.
This necessitates the need for Automation of Electrical power generation or having other
alternatives power sources to back up utility power.
Most commercial & industrial processes are dependent on electrical power supply & if
change-over systems are manual time is wasted & also can cause device/machine damage
due to human error during the change over operations.
This project aims to eliminate the need for manual human mitigation measures against sin-
gle phasing, manual switching from mains to generator, brownouts etc.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The motivation behind this project was the frequent burn outs & other equipment damages
caused by poor power quality while working as maintenance supervisor at Kenchic ltd.
The main challenges usually were single phasing faults due to lose connections from the
main utility transformer, accidental loss of one or two phases as a result of external activi-
ties e.g. trees falling on the mains, single phasing due to fuse burnouts in one or two phases
etc.
I intend to eliminate the above mentioned problems by installing this circuit at the main in-
coming point which feeds power to equipments rather than having phase failure relays on
each individual machine/component which is not cost effective.
1.3 PROBLEM OBJECTIVE
1. To design & test a circuit that will offer stabilized power supply in case of low voltag-
es in one or two supply phases
2. To design & test a circuit that will protect equipments from failure & other faults due
to single phasing, brownouts & low voltages in one or two phases.
1.4 PROJECT AIMS
1. The circuit should be able to provide stabilized power supply on all phases even
when voltage on one or two phases is low or unavailable.
2. The circuit should protect equipment from undesired effects & failures due to unsta-
ble power supply
3. The circuit should act as a stable ac power supply unit.




4
1.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM

1. UTILITY MAINS POWER SUPPLY
This stage shall consist of the power supply being monitored. The 415 volts available from
the mains shall be stepped down by means of a transformer to safe working voltages of 12
volts ac.
2. THE INTERLOCKING MECHANISM
The purpose of this stage is to offer protection against simultaneous operation of the two
contactors supplying power to the load. This stage shall consist of a simple mechanical link
between the two contactors supplying power to the load. Further electrical interlock shall be
added in the control circuit for added protection.
3. THE VOLTAGE SENSING CIRCUIT
This circuit shall compare two voltage values and then give an error based on margin of fluc-
tuation. It is built around a comparator & a zener diode. The comparator is connected in the
inverting mode since output is not equal to input. The error occurring from the above opera-
tion shall then be amplified then used to switch on the switching transistor as appropriate.
4. LOGIC CONTROL STAGE
When the error signal is produced it shall be analyzed at this stage & an output relayed to
the switching transistors. This signal will be analyzed internally by the IC74 & will therefore
Utility mains
power supply
Load
Interlocking
mechanism
Voltage sens-
ing circuit
Logic control
stage
Switching
transis-
tors
Change over &
Electrical isola-
tion
Generator or other auxil-
iary power supply


5
provide an output if the error falls out of the preconditioned voltage levels set by the zener
diode.
5. SWITCHING TRANSISTORS
This stage comprises of transistors that will conduct only when the output from the compar-
ator is high. This will cause the transistor to energize a relay & thus disconnect faulty power
to the load & automatically connect it to another phase where power is okay.
6. CHANGEOVER & ELECTRICAL ISOLATION
This stage comprises of a relays. The first set of relays shall connect one phase to another
incase of loss of one or two phases, or if voltage in one or two phases fall below some prede-
termined voltage levels. The second relay shall be used to switch on the generator incase of
total power failure. This changeover system shall reconnect power back to the mains supply
once normalcy returns.
7. LOAD
This consists of a variety of equipments utilizing power e.g. three phase motors, lighting
systems etc
1.6.0 COMPONENT LISTS
COMPONENT NAME SPECIFICATIONS QUANTITY
Step-down transformer 220v-240v, 300m.A 3
Fuse F1, F2, F3. 5 A 3
Comparator IC1, IC2, IC3. IC741 3
Transistor T1, T2, T3. BC557 3
Relay RL1, RL2, RL3. 1C/O 3
Zener Diode ZD1, ZD3, ZD3. 5.1V 3
Variable Resistors VR1, VR2, VR3 10K 3
Resistor R1, R2, R4, R5, R7, R8. 3.3K 6
Resistor R3, R6, R9. 10K 3
Diode 9
Capacitors 1000f 25v 5
Capacitors 470f 35 v 7
Wires

1.6.1 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
A.)VOLTAGE COMPARATOR
DEFINATION:
A voltage comparator is a device that compares two voltage inputs & determines which of
the two is greater. Inputs to the comparator can be analog but the output is digital. The out-
put is high when the voltage on the positive input is greater than the voltage on the negative
input & low when the positive input voltage is less than the negative input voltage. This is
the case regardless whether the comparator is set for non-inverting or inverting operation.

6
The comparator used for this project is LM741. Its a general purpose Operational amplifier
which can be used as a comparator, differentiator, integrator etc. the device data sheets are
attached in appendix A as shown.
The schematic representations of the internal components of LM741 are as shown below.
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION

PIN CONNECTION DIAGRAM

+
C1
30pF
Q20
PNP
Q19
NPN
Q18
NPN
Q17
NPN
Q16
NPN
Q15
NPN
Q14
NPN
Q13
PNP
Q12
PNP
Q11
NPN
Q10
NPN
Q9
PNP
Q8
PNP
Q7
NPN
Q6
NPN
Q5
NPN
Q2
NPN
Q1
NPN
Q3
PNP
Q4
PNP
R12
50
R11
50
R10
50
R9
25
R8
7.5k
R7
4.5k
R5
39k
R4
5k
R3
50k
R2
1k
R1
1k

7

THE NON- INVERTING OPERATION

The negative input terminal is assigned Vref. When Vin exceeds Vref the output Vout goes from
LOW to HIGH.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

1 8
2 7
3 6
4 5

Off sett
Null




8







THE INVERTING OPERATION


The reference voltage is assigned to the positive input. When input voltage, Vin exceeds
reference Voltage Vref the output Vout goes from HIGH to LOW.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION











9
B.) ZENER DIODE
The zener diode is a special type of diode that can operate in the reverse direction if voltage
is larger than
i
breakdown voltage.
Basically a zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped silicon or germanium P-N junction
diode which operates in the breakdown region where current is limited by both external re-
sistance &
When a zener diode breaks down both zener & avalanche effects are present but one or the
other predominates depending on voltage levels. At reverse voltage about 6 volts zener ef-
fects predominate while at reverse voltage above 6 volts

avalanche effects predominate.

Zener breakdown occurs due to breaking of covalent bonds by the strong electric field set
up in the depletion region by the reverse voltage. It produces an extremely large no of elec-
trons & holes which make up the saturation current now the zener current Iz whose value is
limited by current resistance. It is independent of applied voltage.
1


V/I CHARACTERISTICS
V/I characteristics area as shown.

1


10


The forward characteristics are those for normal forward biased junction diode
Vz = zener breakdown voltage
Iz min = minimum current to sustain breakdown
Iz max= maximum zener current limited by maximum power dissipation

The various diode representations are as shown below




VF
I
Z

M
I
N











I
Z






















I
Z
M
A
X












I
F

VZ
V/I CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE

11






Zener Voltages
Zener voltages are available from about 2.4volts to- 200volts. These voltages are tempera-
ture dependent.
The power dissipation of the zener diode is given by VzIz and can vary from 150mW to 50W.
ZENER BIASING
For proper working of a zener diode in any circuit, it must be
1. Reverse biased
2. Have voltages across it greater than Vz.
3. Be in a circuit where current is less than Iz max..
ZENER DIODE APPLICATIONS
1. Voltage regulation
2. Fixed reference in biasing networks
3. Comparison & meter calibration
4. Peak clippers &voltage limiters
5. Meter protection against accidental application of excessive voltages
6. Wave form reshaping
For this particular project we shall use the zener diode for voltage regulation & comparison
applications.
VOLTAGE REGULATION
Voltage regulation is the circuits ability to maintain constant output voltage when either in-
put voltage or load current varies. A zener diode working in the breakdown region can be
used as a voltage regulator.
DIODE CIRCUIT SYMBOL

DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

DIODE APPROXIMATE CIRCUIT

12

In fig I above Vin is the input voltage whose variations are to be regulated. The zener diode is
reverse connected across Vin when P.D across diode is greater than Vz it conducts & draws
relatively larger current through series resistance R.
The load resistance RL across which a constant voltage Vout is required is connected in paral-
lel with the diode. Total current I passing through R equals sum of diode current & load cur-
rent.
=Iz + IL
Under all conditions
Vout= Vz
Hence Vin= IR + Vout=IR + Vz
CASE 1:
RL is kept fixed but supply voltage Vin is increased slightly. I will increase.
This increase will be absorbed by zener diode without affecting IL.the in-
crease in Vin will be dropped across R thereby keeping Vout constant
If Vin falls the diode takes a smaller current & voltage drop across R is
reduced thus keeping Vout constant hence when Vin changes I & IR drop
change in such a way to keep Vout= Vz constant

CASE 2:
RESISTOR
IZ
VZ
VOUT
IZ
IZ
V IN

13
Vin is fixed but changes occur in Iz.when IL increases diode current Iz de-
creases thereby keeping I & hence IR drop constant.Vout remains unaf-
fected.
If IL decreases diode current Iz increases to keep I hence IR drop con-
stant. Vout remains unaffected
V
out
= V
in
IR= V
in
-(I
z
+ I
L
)
NOTE R = V
in
-V
out

(I
Z
+I
L
)
When diode current reaches maximum value IL becomes zero. In such a
case
R = V
in
-V
out

I
Z

max
ZENER DIODE AS A REFERENCE ELEMENT
In some electronic circuits it is desirerable to maintain a constant volt-
age between two points and use it as a reference for comparing other
voltages against it. The difference between the two is amplified & used to
perform some form of control function.
This application is mainly used in power supply voltage regulators,
measurement circuits, servo mechanisms etc. the constant voltage char-
acteristics in its breakdown region makes zener diode desirerable for
this application
Fig below shows a circuit in which zener diode has been used as a refer-
ence element.

14

The reference voltage equals zener breakdown voltage. Value of R is also
chosen so that diode operates well within its breakdown region. The dif-
ference between Ein - Eref gives the control output.

C.)THE P-N JUNCTION DIODE
The pn junction diode is a two terminal deviceconsisting of a pn junction
formedin either Ge or Si crystals. This junction is formed by increasing
the concentration of electrons or holes population in certain regions of a
monocrystallline Ge or Si chip. The various diode representations are
shown below

Note; the arrow head indicates conventional current flowwhen the diode
is forward biased. It is the same direction as the hole flow.
P N
Anode
Cathode
Cathode Anode
Comparator &
OP-AMP circuit
Control
o/p

EIN
E
R
EREF
IZ

15
WORKING OF A PN JUNCTION
This is a one way device which offers resistance when forward biased &
behaves almost like an insulator when reverse biased. Mostly diodes are
used for rectification of ac voltage into dc voltage.
V/I CHARACTERISTICS.


FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS
When the diode is forward biased and applied voltage is applied from zero hardly any cur-
rent flows through the device initially. This is due to opposition of external voltage by inter-
nal barrier voltage VB whose value is 0.75V for Si & 0.3V for Ge.
When VB is overcome, current through the diode increases rapidly with increase in battery
voltage. Diode have limitations of forward voltage since a burn out will occur if a certain safe
limit is exceeded.
REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS
Forward char-
acteristics
Reverse Char-
acteristics
Breakdown
i
+V

16
When reverse biased majority carriers are blocked only by a small minority current which
flows through the diode. As reverse voltage is increased from zero, current reaches its max-
imum or saturation value Io also known as leakage current. For Si its in order of nano
amps(nA) & micro amps (A) for Ge.
Value of Io is independent of applied reverse voltage but dependent on temperature , degree
of doping & physical size of the junction.
When reverse voltage exceeds a certain value known as breakdown voltage VBR or zener
voltage Vz, leakage current suddenly & sharply increases, The curve indicating zero re-
sistance . any further increase in voltage would cause a burn out.

EQUATIONS OF STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
The V/I characteristics described above are called static characteristics because they de-
scribe the dc behavior of a diode. The forward & the reverse characteristics have been com-
bined into a single diagram shown above. These characteristics can be analyzed using the
Boltzmann diode equation given below.
I=IO (e
ev/KT
-1) amperes
Where Io = reverse diode saturation current
V = voltage across junction- positive for forward bias &
negative for reverse bias.
K= Boltzmann constant = 1.38*10
23
J/k
Crystal temperature in
= 1 for Ge & 2 for Si
Hence: I= Io (e
ev/kT
-1)Ge
I=Io (e
ev/2kT
-1).Si
DIODE PARAMETERS
BULK RESISTANCE (rb)
This is the sum of the resistance values of P & N type semi conductor ma-
terials which the diode is made up of. Ie
Rb= rp+rn1

17
Usually it is very small. It is given by
Rb=(Vf -Vb)/If2
JUNCTION RESISTANCE (rj)
Its the value the forward junction depends on magnitude of forward dc
current.
rj = 25 mV/If mA..Ge
= 50mV/If mA.Si
DYNAMIC/ AC RESISTANCE
rac/rd = rb +rj
for large forward currents rj is negligible , hence rac=rB
for small If, rb is negligible as compared to rj , hence rac = rj.

FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP
This is a relationship given by,








Other parameters have already been described earlier i.e. reverse satu-
ration current & reverse breakdown voltage.
DIODE APPLICATIONS
1. Rectification; conversion of ac current into dc current.
2. As a signal diode in communication circuitsfor modulating and
demodulating of small signals.
3. As zener diode in stabilizing circuits.
4. As varactor diode in voltage controlled tuning circuits eg radio & tv
receivers. Etc.

18
THE TRANSFORMER
This is a static electrical device that can change magnitude of an al-
ternating voltage or current from one value to another. A transformer
can used be used as a means of circuit separation & can also be used
to change the apparent value of a capacitor, resistor, or an inductor.
A transformer usually consists of two windings, primary & secondary
wound on a common laminated magnetic core as shown below.

The primary winding is connected to power supply while secondary

winding is connected to the load.
In a practical transformer there may be more than two windings as
well as magnetic cores. In simple terms with no load flowing a trans-
former can be represented by two windings on a common core as
shown above.
Basically a transformer is a device that can;
1. Transfer electric power from one circuit to another.
2. Does so without change in frequency.
3. Accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction.
Mains transformers are the most common type of transformers. They
are designed to reduce ac supply voltage 230-240 to a safe low voltage eg
48v, 24, 12v. etc.
E1
E2
V2 load
I1
V1
N1
N2
Secondary
Primary

19
A mains transformer can have two separate secondary coils which can
be used separately to give independent supplies or connected in series
to create a center tp coil or one coil with double voltages. Some mains
transformers are center tapped half way through secondary coil so they
can produce full wave rectified dc with just two diodes unlike a standard
transformer which requires four diodes to produce full wave rectified
voltage. Specifications of main transformer are usually,
Secondary output voltage Vs.
Maximum power Pmax which the transformer can pass in VA (volt-
ampere). This also determines maximum output secondary cur-
rent Imax. ie.

Where Vs = secondary voltage.(if there are two secondary coils maxi-
mum power should be halved for each coil.)
Construction either p.c.b mounting, chassis mounting or torroidal
mounting.

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO
A Transformer with equal number of turns will have secondary voltage
slightly less than primary voltage & voltage ratio is 1:1. But if secondary
voltage is half as many turns as primary , secondary voltage will be only
one half primary voltage. Voltage ratio will be 2:1 Primary & secondary
turns respectively.

CURRENT TRANSFORMATION RATIO
In a transformer of 1:1 ratio 1 load ampere flows for every load ampere
in secondary because of cancellation ampere turns added in primary
must be equal to demagnetizing ampere turns N2I2. If number of second-

20
ary turns is one tenth as great as primary turns, the current carrying ca-
pacity of secondary coil should be 10 times as great as that of primary
turns. The current transformation of a transformer is inversely propor-
tional to turns ratio. i.e.

Note: in a step down transformer current is amplified in magnitude.
For an ideal transformer.
E
1
=V
1 ,
E
2
=V
2
there is no voltage drop in the wind-
ings, therefore

There are no losses therefore volt-ampere input to
primary equals volts ampere output to secondary.

However a practical transformer suffers from several
losses such as
Iron losses.
Winding losses.
Magnetic leakage or magnetic reactance.

TRANSFORMER LOSSES
1.) IRON LOSSES
The iron core is subjected to attenuating flux & therefore eddy currents
& hysteresis losses occur in it. These two losses depend upon the supply

21
frequency , maximum flux density in the core, etc . in a transformer
magnitude of iron losses is very small.
2.) WINDING RESISTANCE.
This is the resistance offered by the copper conductor windings in both
primary & secondary windings. The primary resistance R1 & secondary
resistance R2 act in series with the respective windings as shown below.


A power loss & IR voltage drop will occur when current flows thru wind-
ings. This will affect the power factor & e1 will be less than V1while v2
will be less than E2.

3.) LEAKAGE REACTANCE
Primary & secondary currents produce flux. The flux is the useful flux
linking both windings & is also known as mutual flux. However flux pro-
duced by primary & secondary winding doesnt link the two windings (as
shown in fig 2 below).this flux which links only one winding is known as
leakage flux. Leakage flux paths are mainly through air.
VI E1
N1
N2
E2
V2
R1
X1 R2
X2


22

The effects of this leakage flux would be the same as though individual
reactance were connected in series to each winding of the transformer
that had no leakage flux as shown above. There is no power loss due to
leakage reactance however presence of leakage reactance affects power
factor as well as voltage loss due to IX drop.

THE CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device consisting of two conducting surfaces separated
by a layer of insulating medium called the dielectric. Its purpose is to
store electrical energy by electrostatic stress in the dielectric. The die-
lectric material must be a poor conductor of electricity.

Capacitance this is the property to store electricity. This is defined as
the amount of charge required to create a unit Pd between the plates.
Suppose we give Q coulombs of charge to one unit of the two plate capac-
Conductor electrode
Dielectric
Conductor electrode
Connecting wire
Connecting Wire
I2
I1

1
2
V
1

Leakage flux

23
itor & if a Pd of V volts is established between the two plates its capacitor
is,

Hence capacitance is the charge required per unit potential difference by
definition unit of capacitance is coulomb/volt also the farad i.e 1 farad =
1 coulomb volt.
1 farad is defined as the capacitanceof capacitor which requires a charge
of one coulomb to establish a P.D of one volt between its plates.





BASIC OPERATION OF A CAPACITOR

When a capacitor is connected to a battery one electrode of the capacitor
will be positively charged & the other will be negatively charged. Pres-
ence of electrical charges on the electrode indicates charges on the die-
lectric. These charges determine the permittivity of the dielectric.
K is a measurement tool also known as dielectric constant & is the ratio
of permittivity in use to permittivity of free space i.e. a vacuum. The val-
ue of permittivity is given as 8.85*10
-12

-
-
+
+

24

THE FUSE
his is a current interrupting device. Basically its a low resistance resis-
tor that acts as a sacrificial device to provide over current protection of
either load or source circuit. Its essential component is a wire or strip
that melts when too much current flows & causes the device to overheat
& thus melts to interrupt the circuit in which it is connected. Short cir-
cuiting, overloading, mismatched loads, or device failure are prime rea-
sons for excessive current.
Wiring regulations define maximum current rating for particular cir-
cuits. Over current protection devices are essential in electrical systems
to limit threats to human life & damage to property.


CONSTRUCTION
A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element of small cross sec-
tional area as compared to circuit conductors. It is usually mounted be-
tween a pair of electrical terminals & usually enclosed by a non-
combustible housing. It is usually arranged in series to carry all current
passing through the protected circuit. The resistance of the element gen-
erates heat due to current flow.
The size & construction of the element is empirically determined so that
the heat produced for normal current does not cause the element to at-
tain high temp & melt.
Fuse elements are usually made of zinc, copper, silver, aluminum or al-
loys to provide stable & predictable characteristics. An ideal fuse would
carry its rated current indefinitely & melt quickly on small excess cur-
rent but should not be damaged by minor surge or in-rush currents. It
should also not oxidize or change its behavior after years of service.
CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETERS
RATED CURRENT IN

25
This is the maximum current a fuse can carry without interrupting the
circuit.
I
2
t VALUE
This is the amount of energy spent by a fuse element to clear an electri-
cal fault. It is normally used for short circuit calculations. This value is
normally provided by fuse manufacturers. For co-ordination of fuse op-
erations with upstream & downstream devices, both melting I
2
t & clear-
ing I
2
t are specified.
Melting I
2
t Is the proportional energy required to begin melting the
fuse element.
Clearing I
2
t is the proportional total energy let through by the fuse
when clearing a fault.
In other words I
2
t can be defined as a measure of thermal damage &
magnetic forces that will be produced by a fault since it is mainly de-
pendent on current & time for fuses as well as available fault level & sys-
tem voltage. Therefore I
2
t is proportional to energy it lets through.
BRAKING CAPACITY
This is the maximum current that can be safely interrupted by a fuse. It
should be higher than prospective short circuit current Pscc. Pscc is also
defined as available fault current & is the highest current which can exist
in a particular electrical system under a short circuit. It is usually de-
termined by voltage & inductance of the supply system.
RATED VOLTAGE
Voltage rating for a fuse must be greater or equal to what would be the
open circuit voltage.
TEMPERATURE DERATING
Ambient temperature will change a fuse operational characteristics e.g.
a fuse rated at 1 ampere at 25 may conduct up to 10 20 % more cur-
rent at -40 may open at aout 0 of its rated value at 100c
RELAY.

26
This is basically an electrically operated switch. Many relays use the
principle of electromagnetism although other principles may be used.
Mainly relays are used to control circuits by a low power signal (with
complete isolation between control & controlled circuits) or when sev-
eral circuits are controlled by one signal. A relay that can handle high
power directly required by loads such as electric motors is called a con-
tactor. Solid state relays have no moving parts but use semi-conductor
devices to perform switching.
BASIC DESIGN & OPERATION
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wound around a
soft iron core. An iron choke provides a low reluctance path for magnetic
flux, a movable iron armature & core or more sets of contacts. Armature
is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of
moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is
de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition
one of the two sets of contacts in the relay is closed.
When an electric circuit is passed through a coil, it generates a magnetic
field that activates the armature & the consequent movement of the
movable contact either makes or breaks a connection with a fixed con-
tact. When current is switched off armature is returned by a force ap-
proximately half as strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed position
by a spring.
When the coil is energized with a direct dc current a diode is placed
across the coil to dissipate energy from the collapsing magnetic field at
deactivation which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous
to semiconductors circuit components.
Solid state relays use thyristors & other solid state switching devices ac-
tivated by control signal to switch controlled load instead of a solenoid.
An opto-coupler (an LED coupled with a photo transistor) can also be
used to isolate control & controlled circuits.
POLE & THROW
Relays are basically switches & therefore the terminology that applies to
switches can apply also to relays. A relay switches one or more poles

27
each of which contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in one of
three ways.
NORMALY OPEN (NO) CONTACT.
This contact connects the circuit when the relay is activated & discon-
nects the circuit when the relay is de-energized. It is also known as form
A contact or make contact. It should be differentiated from the early
make contactor the NOEM, which means that the contact close before
the switch is fully engaged .
NORMALY CLOSED (NC) CONTACT
This contact disconnects the circuit when the relay is energized & con-
nects the circuit when the relay is inactive. It is also known as form B or
break Contact. This differs from the late break NCLB contact, which
means that contact stays closed until the button / switch is fully dis- en-
gaged.
CHANGE OVER CONTACT/ DOUBLE THROW (DOUBLE THROW)
Controls two normally open contacts &one normally closed contact with
a common terminal. This form of a relay is also known as a form c con-
tact or a transfer contact (break before make). If it utilizes make before
break principle, then it is a form d contact.
OTHER DESIGNATIONS USED
SPST- single pole single throw. They have two terminals which are to be
connected or be disconnected.

Coil
A
B
SPST switch

28
SPDT single pole double throw. A common terminal connects either of
two others including two for the coils. It has a total of five terminals.

DPST Double pole single throw. Have two pairs of terminals equivalent
to two spst switches activated by one coil. It has six terminals in total.
Poles may have either form A or form B or one of each.

DPDT Double pole double throw. Have two rows of change over termi-
nals equivalent to two spdt switches activated by a single coil. Have a to-
tal of eight terminals.
B1 B2
A2 A1
Coil
A B
C
Coil

29

APPLICATIONS
1. Amplifying a digital signal i.e. switching a large amount of power
with small amount of power. E.g. controlling a high voltage circuit
with a low voltage signal.
2. Detecting & isolating faults on transmission & distribution lines by
operating & closing protection relays.
3. Isolating controlling circuits from controlled circuit when the two
are at different potentials.
APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
1. Number & type of contacts
2. Ratings of contacts e.g. small relays carry a few milliamps to
large relays rated up to 3000 amps either ac or dc.
3. Voltage ratings of contacts i.e. for commonly used relays
415vac, or 600 vac, automotive relays 50 vdc or special type
high voltage type of about 150000v etc
4. Operating life time number of times a relay is expected to
operate reliably. This is both mechanical & electrical life. It is
usually dependent on type of load being switched on.
5. Coil voltage. Machine tools relays 240 vac, 120vac or 240 vac.
relays for switchgear may have 125v or 250vdc coils.
6. Packaging enclosure- consider whether to use open type, safe
to touch, double voltage for isolation between circuits.
7. Operating environment. Minimum & maximum operating
temperatures & other environmental considerations are tak-
en into account. Such factors include humidity, corrosion etc.
C2 C1
B2
A2 B1 A1
Coil

30
8. Other accessories to be used. E.g. timers, auxiliary contacts
pilot lamps test buttons etc.

RESISTOR
This is a passive two terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as its element.
Ohms law is a relationship between current through a resistor & voltage.
It is stated as V =IR.
Where I = Amperes
V= Volts
R= Ohms
Resistors are common elements in electrical & electronic circuits. Resis-
tors can be made of various compounds & films as well as resistance
wires e.g. nickel chromium or can be implemented within integrated cir-
cuits especially analog devices or be implemented in hybrid & printed
circuits.
Electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance. The re-
quired precision of a resistor may require attention to the manufactur-
ing tolerance of the chosen resistor according to its specific application.
The temperature coefficient of the resistor may also be of concern in
some precision applications. Maximum power rating must not exceedthe
anticipated power dissipation of the resistor in a particular circuit. in
high voltage circuits attention must be paid to maximum working volt-
age of a resistor.
SYMBOL
THEORY OF OPERATION
Resistor Rheostat
Variable resistor (potentiometer)

31
Behavior of an ideal resistor is directed by ohms law V=IR.
Ohms law states; Voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional
to current (I) where constant of proportionality is the re-
sistance(R). An equivalent ohms law can be stated as I=V/R.
this formulation states that current (I) is proportional to
voltage (V) to resistance R.
SERIES & PARALLEL RESISTANCES
SERIES CONFIGURATION.

In this configuration current through all resistors is the same
but voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its
resistance. The Pd (voltage) seen across the network is the
sum of all these voltages& this total resistance is the sum of
these resistances.




PARALLEL CONFIGURATION

R1 R2
Rn

R1
R2 Rn
R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2
..+R
n

32
POWER DISSIPATION
At any instant, the power P consumed by a resistor R (ohms)
is calculated as,

Total amount of heat released over a period of time can be
determined from the integral of the power over that period of
time.

Therefore Average power dissipated over that particular
time period is.

For a periodic waveform power is given by.

Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissi-
pation. Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of
power e.g. in power supplies, power conversion, power am-
plifiers etc are known as power resistors.
MEASUREMENTS
Value of a resistor can be measured by an ohmmeter which
may be one function of a digital multimeter.
COLOUR CODE
Axial lead resistors can have resistsnces determined by the
colour code marked on them. The colour code gives infor-
mation like resistances tolerance temperature coefficient
wattage e.t.c.
Colour bands can be 4, 5, or 6.the first two bands represent
the first tw digits to measure their value.the third band of a 4-
banded resistorrepresents the multiplier & the fourth the
tolerance.whereas in five & six banded resistors the third
band represents the third digit but the fouth & the fifth bands
represents the multiplier & tolerance respectively.only the
sixth band represent temperature coefficient in a six band

33
resistor. Measuring digits against their colour code is given
below.

First two
digits
Multiplier Tolerance Temperature
coefficient
Black 0 Black 1 Not used Not used
Brown 1 Brown 10 Brown +1% Brown 100
Red 2 Red 100 Red +2% Red 50
Orange 3 Orange 1K Not used Orange 15
Yellow 4 Yellow 10K Not used Yellow 25
Green 5 Green 100K Not used Green 0.5
Blue 6 Blue 1 M Not used Blue 0.25
Violet 7 Violet 10M Not used Violet 0.10
Grey 8 Not used Not used Not used
White 9 - Not used Not used
Silver 0.01 Silver +10 % Not used
Gold 0.1 Gold +5% Not used

Eg The value of a four band carbon resistor having colour
bands red red red & silver will be.
22*100+10%=2200+10%

TYPES OF RESISTORS
Resistors are categorized into three categories,
1. Fixed resistors
2. Variable resistors
3. Special resistors
FIXED RESISTORS.
1. CARBON PILE
These resistors are made of stacks of carbon disks compressed between
two metal contact plates. They are usually used where adjustable load is
required e.g. testing of vehicle batteries, radio transmitters, speed con-
trol in small motors. They can also be incorporated in automatic voltage
regulators for generators to control field current & maintain relatively
constant voltage.

34
2. CARBON FILM.
A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate & a helix cut in it to
create a narrow resistive path. Varying shapes coupled with resistivity of
amorphous carbon ranging from 500 - 00m can be produced.
3.PRINTED CARBON RESISTOR
Carbon composition resistors can be printed directly onto pcb substrate
as part of p.c.b. manufacturing.
4. WIRE WOUND RESISTORS
These resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire usually ni-
chrome around a ceramic, plastic, or fiber glass core. The wire ends are
soldered or welded to two caps or rings attached to the ends of the core.
This assembly is protected by a layer of paint, molded plastic, or an
enamel coating baked at high temperature.


2. VARIABLE RESISTORS
1 . ADJUSTABLE RESISTORS
A resistor can have one or more fixed tapping points so that resistance
can be changed by moving connecting wires to different terminals.
Where continuous adjustment of the resistance values measurement is
required a rheostat is used.
2 POTENTIOMETER
This is a three terminal resistor . it is essentially a voltage divider used
for measuring electric potential(voltage). Common applications include
volume control, position control, & in transducers.
3. DECADE RESISTANCE BOX
This is a box containing resistors of many values with one or many me-
chanical switches which allow any one of various discrete resistance to
be switched on.

35
3.SPECIAL RESISTORS
1.RESISTANCE NTC THERMISTORS.
They exhibit strong negative temperature coefficient making them use-
ful for measuring temperature.
2. HUMISTOR
Their resistance varies with humidity.
3.METAL OXIDE VARISTOR
Its resistance falls to very low values when high voltages are aap-
plied.this is used for protection of electronic devices.
4.PHOTORESISTORU
Its resistance varies with levels of light illumination
5.STRAIN GAUGE
Its resistance varies with changes in applied strain.
POTENTIOMETER
As mentioned earlier its a three terminal device with a sliding contact
that forms an adjustable voltage divider.
CONSTRUCION
It comprises of a resistive element, a sliding contact that moves along the
element making good electrical contact with one part of its electrical
terminal at each end of the element, a mechanism that moves from one
end to the other & a housing containing the element & wiper. Some are
formed with the resistive element formed into an arc of a circle a little
less than full turn & a wiper rotating around the arc & contacting it.the
resistive element with terminals at each end is flat or angled. The wiper
is conneted to the third terminal between the other two. Another one is
the linear sliding potentiometer which has a wiper sliding along linear
element instead of rotating.

36
The resistive element of commonly used potentiometers is made of
graphite. Other materials used include resistance wire, carbon particles
in plastic & ceramic/metal mixture known as cement. The condictive
part of the potentiometer use conductive polymer resistor paste that
contains hard wearing resins & polymers, solvents & lubricants in addi-
tion to carbon that provides conductive properties.
THEORY OF OPERATION
The potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to obtain manually
adjustable voltage at the slider from a fixed input voltage applied across
the two ends of the potentiometer.




Voltage across RL can be calculated by

If RL is large compared to other resistances then output voltage can be
approximated by a simpler equation shown below.

Dividing throughout by RL & cancelling terms with RL as the denomina-
tor.

R2
R1
RL
+
-
Vs
RL R2
R1
-
+
Vs

37
CHAPTER TWO
CIRCUIT DESIGN AND ANNALYSIS
In this chapter the most important components of this circuit shall be
analyzed. Five stages which are of utmost importance to the circuit shall
be considered. They include voltage rectification, voltage sensing circuit,
logic control circuit, switching circuit & the change over circuit. The or-
der of analysis is shown below.

VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION.
THE STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER & DIODE CIRCUIT.
The circuit in consideration is as shown below.

This section converts the 240 Vac into 12 Vdc necessary to provide oper-
ating voltage for the OP-Amp. Lets us consider one phase (red phase) of
the total circuit. The red phase supplies the step-down transformer
which shall reduce the 240Vac to 12Vac at 300 mA. This voltage is fur-
D2
240 V 50 Hz
D1
C1
Tx 1
12 V dc
Voltage
rectification
Voltage
sensing
Logic Control
Circuit
Switching
Circuit
Change
Over Circuit
S
t
e
p
p
e
d

d
o
w
n

a
c

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

1
2

V
a
c


38
ther passed through the diode D1 for rectification to dc Voltage. Capaci-
tor C1 is the filtering element to reduce the effect of ripples in the circuit.
Diode D2 shall provide operating voltage to the relay when transistor
one conducts to allow the voltage to pass as a result of the phase voltage
going below the pre-determined level.
VLOTAGE SENSING & CIRCUIT
The main component in this stage is the IC741 which acts the brain of the
circuit. The zener diode is used to provide a fixed reference voltage to
the non-inverting terminal of the IC741.

OPERATION OF IC741 AS A VOLTAGE COMPARATOR
The inverting mode shall be used.

Vout
IC 741
R1
Vi
n

R
2
7
4
3
2
V+
V
-
6
IC 741
R
1
VR
1

R2
7
4
3
2

39
A voltage operator is a circuit which compares two voltages & switches
the output to either high or low state depending upon which voltage is
higher.
The reference voltage is applied to the non-inverting input & voltage to
be compared is applied to the inverting input. Whenever input voltage
goes above Vref the output of the OP-AMP swings to negative saturation.
Here the difference between the two voltages (Vin-Vref) is inverted & am-
plified to infinity mode is Av = -Rf/R1. Since there is no feedback resistor,
the gain will be close to infinity & the output voltage as negative as pos-
sible . I this case it will be zero.
The voltage divider configuration is used to create a reference voltage.
The inverting terminal of the OP-AMP is set at reference voltage which is

)
In our case R1 =3.3k, R2 = VR1 = ?????, Vsupply = 12 Volts & Vref = 5.1 v .
We shall solve the above equation to get value of VR1= R2 .

Let VR1=R2 be equal to x. therefore the above equation becomes.

40
Therefore value of VR1 shall be set at 2.4 k. however due to unavailability
of the 5.1 zener diode the next available one was taken which was a 5.6v.
the setting of the potentiometer therefore changes to;

VR1 shall be set at 2.9K.
When the input signal Vs at the non-inverting terminal is greater than
Vreference at the inverting input, then Vout will equal the positive supply.
Similarly when Vsupply is less than Vreference Vout will be equal to a negative
supply which could be grounded & in this case it will be zero volts when-
ever Vs is less than the reference voltage.
Output transition occurs when

Our Vref is set at 5.6v by the zener diode. Therefore for the output at pin
6 to remain high voltage at non-inverting terminal 2 should be anything
more than 5.6V.we shall therefore set our Vi to be minimum of 5.8. Calcu-
lating the threshold voltage (this is a voltage at which the comparator
will cut the existing power circuit due to a condition of low voltage below
an already predetermined level of 5.6 volts.)
Here R2 is the VR1. Therefore

41

If the output at pin 6 is to remain high threshold voltage shall not fall be-
low 12 volts. If it does the output at pin 6 will be low causing transistor
conducts therefore operating the relay & so transferring the load to an-
other line.
The gain on an inverting amplifier is given by

In our case we shall have,




Also gain can also be given by the equation below

Considering our input voltage 5.8v output voltage can be calculated us-
ing the above formulae for gain.

Therefore output voltage at pin 6 is 6.612 volts.
The output on pin number 6 is to provide a voltage which will provide
current when passed through the resistor which shall be used to switch
the common base configuration of the transistor to operate the relay. If
output at pin 6 remains above 5.6 volts the transistor will not conduct so
the relay will remain de-energised.As soon as supply voltage at inverting
terminal 2 falls below 5.6 volts the output at terminal 6 will go low re-

42
sulting in the transistor conducting to operate the relay to perform the
changeover operation.
THE SWITCHING CIRCUIT
The switching circuit comprises of the comparator output & the switch-
ing transistors connected in common base mode. The operation is as de-
scribed above.
THE COMMON BASE OPERATION OF A TRANSISTOR
Operation of a switching transistor depends on the basic operation of
PNP transistor biasing. This is briefly explained below;
For proper working of a transistor it is essential to apply voltages of cor-
rect polarity across its two junctions. For normal operation;
Emitter base junction is always forward biased
Collector base junction is always reverse biased












VE
E
IB
IC IE
VCC
VCC
IE
IB
IC
P N P
VEE