Building Auditing Techniques

Energy Auditing Techniques Energy Auditing Techniques
2011 2011
Ryan Stroupe, Pacific Energy Center
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Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and MediumCommercial Facilities 2011
The Value of Taking Tests
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Analysis
Billing data
Building documentation and drawings
Facility walk through
During typical operation
After hours
Final Report
Recommended Energy Conservation Measures
Energy/$ savings analysis
Other facility improvements
Components of an Energy Audit Components of an Energy Audit
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Catalog Existing Equipment Catalog Existing Equipment
System configuration
Equipment
Type
Quantity
Efficiency
Controls
Identify schedules (Building Automation System)
Locate other sensors and controls
Locate zone controls
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Nameplate Example Nameplate Example
Model #
Age
Voltage/Amperage/kW
Other information:
Rated efficiency
Other fuels
Heating/cooling capacity
Air flow rate
Liquid flow rate
Pressure rise
Refrigerant type
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Preliminary Energy Auditor Preliminary Energy Auditor s Toolkit s Toolkit
Five Senses
Matrix (spreadsheet) for data entry, site plan, notepad & clipboard
Light meter
Flicker checker
Temperature/humidity probe
Calculator
Digital Camera
Simple tool kit
Measuring tape
Screw drivers
Allen wrenches
Pliers
Crescent wrench and/or 5/16
th
socket
Knife
Flashlight
Small Mirror
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Equipment Matrix Equipment Matrix
Lighting
Circuit Area served No. fixtures Lamp type Lamp/fixture Lamp watts Total watts Control type Schedule Notes
LP-2A,1a Copy room2x2 2 U' tube(fluor) 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,1a Emily's office2x2 1 U' tube(fluor) 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,1a J im's office2x2 2 U' tube(fluor) 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,1b Copy roomcovelightingat wall 1 4' fluor tube 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,1b Emily's officecovelightingat wall 1 4' fluor tube 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,1b J im's officecovelightingat wall 1 4' fluor tube 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,3c Front officeuplighting 4' fluor tube 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,5d Front officeuplighting 4' fluor tube 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,7a Hallway recessedcans 4 comp. fluor. 0 24-hr opp
LP-2A,7f Maria's office2x2 2 U' tube(fluor) 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,7g Maria's officecovelightingat wall 1 4' fluor tube 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,8p Recessedcans at restroom 3 comp. fluor. 0 24-hr opp
LP-2A,10mModel shop 7 4' fluor tube 2 32 448 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,12a Techofficecircuit #1 4' fluor tube 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,12b Techofficecircuit #2 4' fluor tube 0 Switch/sweepoff
LP-2A,29 Men's 2ndfloor restrooms 1 4' fluor tube 1 32 32 Occupancy sensor
LP-2A,29 Women's 2ndfloor restrooms 1 4' fluor tube 1 32 32 Occupancy sensor
LP-2A,29 Electrical closet 2 4' fluor tube 0 Switch
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Site plan should include Site plan should include
Outline of buildings
Name and location of each building
Year of construction
Size (#of floors and square footage)
North arrow
Location of utility meters
Location of mechanical rooms and
equipment
Location of electrical rooms
Room layout with glazing shown
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Runtime Monitoring Runtime Monitoring
kWh=kW x Runtime
Measures the hours of operation
Constant HVAC loads
Pumps
Fans
Boilers
Single-stage compressors
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Runtime Data
Records only ON and
OFF conditions
Very effective use of
memory
Not good for variable
power loads
Pre
Pre
-
-
Audit Assessments
Audit Assessments
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Electric Power Sources on a Peak Demand Day Electric Power Sources on a Peak Demand Day
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Load Profiles, Peak Demand and Rates Load Profiles, Peak Demand and Rates
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Consider that utility rates vary by time of day and year
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Electrical Energy & Power Concepts Electrical Energy & Power Concepts
Term Definition
Energy Ability to do work
Power (Demand) Rate at which work is done
Voltage Electrical potential or charge
Current Electrical flow
Power factor Measure of real vs. reactive power
Real Power Energy is used; work is done
Reactive Power Energy is stored; work is not done
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Energy & Power Concepts (with units) Energy & Power Concepts (with units)
Energy Ability to do work
Power (Demand) Rate at which work is done
Term Units Conversion
Heat Energy BTU =1lb H
2
O 1F
Electrical Energy kWh =3413 BTUs
Natural Gas Energy Therm =100,000 BTUs
Power (Demand) watts, kW, Hp 1kw =1000 w
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The Energy Savings Equation The Energy Savings Equation
Notes:
All values above typically represent annual energy use
kWh
saved
does not exist and cannot be quantified independently
kWh
baseline
is what you are comparing to your post retrofit condition
kWh
baseline
can be measured energy use before retrofit
kWh
baseline
can be energy use of code compliant equipment
kWh
post retrofit
is energy use after change is made
kWh
saved
=kWh
baseline
- kWh
post retrofit
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Energy Calculation Energy Calculation
Energy =Power * Runtime Energy =Power * Runtime
kWh =kW * hrs kWh =kW * hrs
Annual Energy (kWh/yr) =Input Power (kW) * Runtime(hrs/yr) Annual Energy (kWh/yr) =Input Power (kW) * Runtime(hrs/yr)
Notes: Notes:
kW can be taken from tables, calculated or measured with meters kW can be taken from tables, calculated or measured with meters
Runtime can be estimated or measured with meters Runtime can be estimated or measured with meters
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The Energy Savings Equation Revised The Energy Savings Equation Revised
Notes:
Depending on project type some of the variables in the equation above are fixed.
For projects where only the power is reduced hr
baseline
= hr
post retrofit
= hr
For projects where only the run-hours are reduced kW
baseline
= kW
post retrofit
= kW
For some projects both power and run-hours vary over time
kWh
saved
=kWh
baseline
- kWh
post retrofit
kWh
saved
=kW
baseline
x hr
baseline
-
kW
post retrofit
x hr
post retrofit
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Energy & Demand Cost Calculations Energy & Demand Cost Calculations
Energy Cost Energy Cost
$ =Energy use/billing period(kWh) * Energy cost($/kWh) $ =Energy use/billing period(kWh) * Energy cost($/kWh)
Energy cost ($/kWh) may vary Energy cost ($/kWh) may vary
as usage amounts are exceeded as usage amounts are exceeded
by time of day by time of day
by time of year by time of year
Demand Cost Demand Cost
$ =Peak demand/billing period (kW) * Demand cost($/kW) $ =Peak demand/billing period (kW) * Demand cost($/kW)
Demand cost ($/kW) is based on sustained power for 15 min. Demand cost ($/kW) is based on sustained power for 15 min.
This cost may vary This cost may vary
by time of day by time of day
by time of year by time of year
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Sample Utility Bill Sample Utility Bill
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Normalizing Billing Data Normalizing Billing Data
Paci fi c Energy Center
kWh/Bi l l i ng Peri od
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Billing Analysis: Electric Service Billing Analysis: Electric Service
2000-2002 Average Daily Energy Use
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Billing Analysis: Gas Service Billing Analysis: Gas Service
2001-2002 Aver age Daily Gas Use
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Electric Billing Data Graph for Beta Building
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Gas Billing Data Graph for Alpha Building
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Campus Campus
Cooling
11.7%
Ventilation
24.2%
Water Heating
1.3%
Cooking
2.8%
Refrigeration
4.2%
Interior Lighting
31.8%
Office Equipment
4.1%
Exterior Lighting
6.5%
Motors
3.4%
Heating
4.0%
Air Compressors
0.8%
Miscellaneous
5.2%
Cooling
0%
Cooking
3%
Miscellaneous
0%
Heating
73%
Water Heating
24%
Electric Natural Gas
Lighting Systems
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Efficacy
A measure of lamp (and ballast) performance
Describes system conversion efficiency of power to light
Is light output over input power
Units are lumens/watt
Varies by lamp (and ballast) type
Light out
Power in
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Lighting Power Density
A measure of the power intensity of lighting systems
Is lighting power over the area of a room or building
Units are watts/square foot
Energy code provides limits by space use or building type
Light power
Area
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Incandescent Lamps
Efficacy 6-24 l/w
Kelvin temperature 2700K
Color Rendering Index 100
Lamp life 750-2000 hours
Lumen depreciation <20%
Start to full brightness immediate
Re-strike time immediate
Dimming ability Yes
Strengths
First cost
Color rendering
Instant on
Very good lumen maintenance
Easeof dimming
Not ambient temperaturedependent
Weaknesses
Low efficacy
Short lamp life
High lamp surfacetemperature
Limited color
This lamp type is This lamp type is
a good candidate a good candidate
for replacement! for replacement!
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Halogen Lamps
Efficacy 8-35 l/w
Kelvin temperature 2900K
Lamp life 2000-6000 hours
Dimming ability Yes
Strengths
Directional source
First cost
Color rendering
Instant on
Excellent lumen maintenance
Easeof dimming
Not ambient temperaturedependent
Weaknesses
Low efficacy
Relatively short lamp life
High lamp surfacetemperature
Limited color
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Fluorescent Lamps
Efficacy 60-100 l/w
Kelvin temperature 2700-7500K
Color Rendering Index 50-98
Lamp life 7500-30,000 hours
Lumen depreciation 10-30%
Start to full brightness 0-5 seconds
Dimming ability Yes, with proper ballast
Strengths
High efficacy
Long lamp life
Widerangeof colors
Very good lumen maintenance
Cool lamp surfacetemperature
Areasource
Weaknesses
Sophisticated lamp/ballast combination
Does not performwell in hot/cold environments
Has warm-up time
Older technologies humand flicker
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Ballast Issues
Component that regulates electricity to the lamp
Provides required voltage for lamp start-up
Limits current to lamp during operation
Types
Electromagnetic (magnetic)
Steel or iron core
60hz output
May hum
Older ballasts (before 1973) may have PCBs
Electronic
More energy efficient (10-25% better than magnetic)
Solid state components
20-40Khz output
Reduced flicker
Quiet operation
Easier to install
Lighter weight
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Ballast Features
Number of lamps powered (up to 4 lamps on one ballast)
Start time
Rapid start
Instant start
Programmed start
Dimming capabilities
Parallel wiring (will still work if one lamp fails in a two lamp fixture)
Ballast Factor
Relative luminous output of a lamp(s) operated on a ballast with
respect to the same lamp(s) driven on a reference ballast
Used to describe ballasts that under- or over-drive lamps
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T-12 Fluorescents
About 60 l/w with magnetic ballasts
Changing to T-8s with electronic ballasts is a 20-40%
improvement in efficacy
Larger T-12 lamp prevents light from exiting fixture
Still accounts for nearly 50% of all fluorescents in US
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High Efficiency, 3rd Gen. or Super T-8s
Excellent efficacy up to 95 l/w at mean life
Good lumen maintenance 93% at 12,000 hrs
Long lamp life in excess of 18,000 hours
CRI 80 or better
This new fluorescent lamp
type is the only T-8 linear
fluorescent that qualifies
for PG&Es Deemed
Incentive Program
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Identifying Magnetic Ballasts
Use the flicker checker
Much easier than opening fixture
Under electronic ballasts
Looks like shades of gray
rotating in one direction
Under magnetic ballasts
Has color
Rotating in both directions
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T-5 Fluorescents
Excellent efficacy up to 90 l/w at mean life
Good lumen maintenance 95%
Long lamp life in excess of 20,000 hours
CRI 80 or better
Notes:
Thinner lamp allows light fixture to be more efficient
With reflector provides high light output
(encroaches on HID market)
Metric length and lamp holder size makes retrofits difficult
Variety of colors available (3000-4000K)
This fluorescent lamp type qualifies for PG&E Incentive
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Compact Fluorescent Lamps
Efficacy 28-84 l/w
Lamp life 10,000-20,000 hours
Start to full brightness 0-5 minutes
Dimming ability Yes, with proper ballast
Notes:
May come with integrated ballast
Ballast must be ventilated; Do not enclose lamp
This lamp type qualifies for the PG&E incentives
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Mercury Vapor
Efficacy 30-65 l/w
Re-strike time 5 minutes
Dimming ability yes, with special ballast
Strengths
Long lamp life
Weaknesses
Only incandescents are more inefficient
Poor color rendering
Poor lumen maintenance
Long strike time and re-strike time
New outdoor installations are illegal under some state laws.
Mercury lamp ballasts are noisy
Lamps are quite voltage sensitive
A special dimming ballast is required to dimmercury lamps.
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Metal Halide Lamps
Efficacy 50-110 l/w
Lamp life 6000-20,000 hours
Re-strike time 3-20 minutes
Dimming ability with difficulty
Strengths
High efficacy
Long lamp life
Good lumen maintenance
Good color rendering for HID source
Weaknesses
Has warm-up time
Long re-strike time
Color shifts with age
Lamp position sensitivity
Expensive to dim
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High Pressure Sodium Lamps
Efficacy 50-120 l/w
Kelvin temperature 2100-2200
Re-strike time 1 minute
Dimming ability with difficulty
Strengths
High efficacy
Long lamp life
Good lumen maintenance
Universal burning position
Weaknesses
Has warm-up time
Re-striketime
Poor CRI
Expensiveto dim
Color shifts with age
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Induction Lamps
Efficacy 60-80 l/w
Kelvin temperature 3000K-4100K
Lamp life 100,000 hours
Start to full brightness Some warm up
Dimming ability No
Strengths
Extremely long lamp life
Tolerates varied temperatures
On/off cycling does not affect lamp life
No color shift over lamp life
Weaknesses
Not as efficient as high-efficiency fluorescents
Haveyet to collect enough long-termperformancedata
Lumen depreciation is significant
Unableto dim
Immediatestrikeand re-strike
High first cost
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Light Emitting Diodes
Efficacy 20-60 l/w*
Kelvin temperature 3000K-4500K
Lumen depreciation 10-30%?
Dimming ability Yes
This lamp type qualifies for PG&E incentives
Applications
Exit signs
Traffic lights
Signage
Safety lights (theaters)
Replace Neon
* test data in labs is much higher (130 l/w)
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Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Strengths
Adequate light at low wattage for some applications
LED exit signs require 2-25% of the wattage of
incandescent exit signs
LED exit signs require 25-50% of the wattage of
CFL exit signs
Rugged
Extremely long lamp life; some claims of up to 25 year life
1/3 the life cycle cost of incandescents over a ten year life
Weaknesses
Low efficacy ( 20-60 L/W)
White LEDs have lower efficacy than colored LEDSNot
appropriate for all applications
Have yet to collect enough long-termperformance data
Currently-manufactured LEDs are rated for operating
temperatures of 25 degrees C; at lower temperatures they
produce more light and at higher temperatures, less.
Signs should be changed when light levels drop below
accepted standards
Require DC power
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Lamp Comparison Matrix
Y N Y 75 MC 70% 50,000 40 Projection WhiteLEDs
N N N 80 WM 75% 100,000 80 Area
Induction
Lamps
N N N 21 W 90% 24,000 110 Point
HighPressure
Sodium
N N S 92 WM 85% 20,000 90 Point
Ceramic
Metal Halide
N N S 70 WM 85% 20,000 100 Point
PulseStart
Metal Halide
Y N S 86 WMC 86% 12,000 70 Area
Compact
Fluorescent
Y N Y 86 WMC 95% 25,000 95 Linear Fluorescent
N Y Y 100 W 100% 3,000 20 Point
Halogen
Incandescent
N Y Y 100 W 95% 1,000 15 Point Incandescent
Temperature
Sensitive
2
Voltage
Sensitive
2 Dimmable
2
CRI
Color
Temp.
1 LLD
LampLife
(ratedhours)
Efficacy
(lm/W)
Source
Type
LampFamily
1 - W (Warm), M (Mid-range), C (Cool)
2 - Y (Yes), S (Special Cases), N (No)
Note: Values are representative of lamp family performance
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Mean Lamp/Ballast System Efficacy
0 20 40 60 80 100
Super T8 - EE, ins
T5 - EE, ins
Super T8 - EE, prog
Basic T8 - GEB, ins
T5HO - GEB, prog
Biaxial - GEB, prog
T12 - Mag
CMH 400W - Elec, pulse
MH 400W - Elec, pulse
CMH 400W - Mag, pulse
MH 400W - Mag, pulse
MH 100W - Elec, pulse
MH 400W - Mag
CFL 42W Triple - GEB
CFL 26W Double - GEB
CFL 15W Screw-in
CFL PL13 2-pin - Mag
White LED
Halogen IR PAR38
Incandescent A19
Halogen PAR38
L
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(
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B
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Efficacy [mean lm/W]
*GEB: Generic Electronic Ballast, EE: Extra Efficient Ballast, ins: instant start, prog: programmed start, pulse: pulse start
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Time Clocks
Allows lights to run in a
space for a limited time
Essentially a timed switch
Simple controller
Inexpensive
Types:
Mechanical
Electronic
Applications:
Stock/Storage rooms
Laundry rooms
Service areas
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Occupancy Sensors
Ideal for spaces with irregular use
and unoccupied at least operating
hours
Sensors located in spaces
May be tied to BAS
Two main sensor types
Infrared
Ultrasonic
Applications
Rest rooms
Stock rooms
Conference rooms
Garages
This control equipment qualifies for
PG&E Incentive
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Passive InfraRed Sensor Attributes
http://www.wattstopper.com/pdf/Sensor_Broch_Final.pdf
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Ultrasonic Sensor Attributes
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Interior Daylight Controls
Ideal for interior spaces
with a daylight factor >2%
Sensors located in spaces
May be tied to BAS
Two main strategies
Photocells
Photosensors
Applications
Single-story buildings
Perimeter office spaces
Schools
Big-box retail
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Exterior Lighting Controls
Sensor typically located
above fixture
Photocellsswitch lights
off when there is adequate
daylight
This control equipment
qualifies for the PG&E
Incentive
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Summary of Lighting Opportunities
Change out inefficient lighting
Replace incandescent lamps
Replace halogens used as ambient sources
Replace T-12 fluorescents
Replace magnetically ballasted fluorescents
Replace mercury vapor lamps
Used LED for exit signs and signage
De-lamp in over-illuminated spaces or service areas
Add lighting controls
Sweeps
Timers
Occupancy sensors
Daylighting/photosensor controls
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Flicker checker
Illuminance meter
Lighting loggers
Occupancy loggers
Measuring tape/Disto
Lighting fixture wattage tables
Recommended illuminance level table
Lighting Tools and Resources
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Heating Ventilating and
Heating Ventilating and
Air Conditioning
Air Conditioning
(HVAC)
(HVAC)
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Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and MediumCommercial Facilities 2011 Energy Audits
Why is HVAC Important? Why is HVAC Important?
California Commercial End Use Survey, Itron, CEC-400-2006-005, 2006.
CA Commercial Sector Electricity Use
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Much of the EE Potential is in HVAC Much of the EE Potential is in HVAC
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Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and MediumCommercial Facilities
2006 Net Economic
Commercial Potential
19%
51%
3%
27%
HVAC
Lighting
Misc
Refrigeration
2006 Potential Study and a Comparison of 2002/2003 and 2006 CA EE Potential Studies, J ean Shelton, Ph.D., Itron,
Energy Efficiency Kickoff Workshops, ProgramPortfolio Planning for 2009-2011 and Beyond, May 3, 2007
Packaged units
represent
cooling for 49%
of commercial
buildings space
- ESOURCE
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Primary Cooling Technologies Primary Cooling Technologies
Unitary equipment uses a Direct
Expansion (DX) cooling coil
Heat removed from a space is
rejected to the environment using a
condenser, which can be
Air Cooled
Water Cooled
Rejected to the earth via a ground loop
EvaporativelyCooled
Mechanical cooling energy use can be reduced
through the use of Economizers and Evaporative
Cooling
en.wikipedia.org
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Primary Heating Technologies Primary Heating Technologies
Gas Furnaces are the most common source for heat in small
commercial applications
Range of efficiencies available
Forced & Induced draft
Electric Heat Pumps provide both heating and cooling
Air source
Water Source
Ground Coupled
Electric Resistance Heat Strips can be convenient if natural gasis
limited or combustion exhaust is an issue, but Heat pumps are
more energy efficient
Hot water or Steam coils can also be used, but are generally found
in larger systems or systems with many zones
highperformancehvac.com
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Unitary HVAC Equipment Unitary HVAC Equipment
Unitary refers to equipment where components are
matched and rated together. These components include
a compressor, condenser, evaporator and fan.
Unitary equipment has two main classes: Packaged and
Split-System
Packaged equipment houses all components in the same
enclosure
Split-Systems have the compressor & condenser in one
enclosure and the evaporator and fan in another, connected by
refrigeration tubing
Units can be cooling only or cooling with heating
All units circulate air, most provide ventilation
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Rooftop Equipment Identification Rooftop Equipment Identification
Packaged Unit
All components contained in on
location
Ventilation is introduced through
the unit
Heating is supplied by a gas
furnace, heat pump, electric
resistance or a hot water coil
Split-System
Compressor Component Only
No Ventilation provided by unit
Only heating is heat pump
http://www.carrier.com
63
Packaged With Horizontal Discharge Packaged With Horizontal Discharge
64
Packaged With Vertical Discharge Packaged With Vertical Discharge
65
Split Split- -System System
www.carrier.com
66
Split Split- -System Examples System Examples
www.geo4va.vt.edu/A3/A3.htm
67
Retrofits
High Efficiency Units
Evaporative Cooling
VFDs
Controls
Scheduling / reduce operating hours
Programmable thermostats
Economizer operation
Demand control ventilation
Demand Response
Operations
Reduce cooling loads
Keep units maintained
Energy Audits
Energy Efficiency Opportunities Energy Efficiency Opportunities
www.carrier.com
68
High Efficiency Replacements High Efficiency Replacements
Package unit replacement isnt generally cost
effective on energy savings alone
So where are the opportunities?
Older units
Early retirement
New additions
How do we promote it?
Comfort
Reliability
Reduced O&M Costs
www.trane.com
69
Unitary HVAC Nameplate Unitary HVAC Nameplate
Brand/Model #
Age
Voltage/Amperage/kW
Other information:
Rated efficiency?
Heating/cooling capacity
Air flow rate
Liquid flow rate
Pressure rise
Refrigerant
70
It It s not always easy to get the size s not always easy to get the size
71
72
73
CA Title 20 CA Title 20
Standards for
Air-Cooled Air
Conditioners
and Air-Source
Heat Pumps
Subject to
EPAct
74
Standards for
Single Phase
Air-Cooled Air
Conditioners
with Cooling
Capacity Less
than 65,000 Btu
per Hour and
Single Phase
Air-Source
Heat Pumps
with Cooling
Capacity Less
than 65,000 Btu
per Hour, Not
Subject to
EPAct
75
76
VFD VFD s s for Fans for Fans
Many systems use variable flow
air distribution
Fan power laws dictate that
power is roughly proportional to
the flow rate cubed
VFD quality/reliability have
improved greatly over time
VFD costs have dropped
significantly with wider adoption
Now required by code for many
applications in new construction
www.abb.com
77
Why Fans with Why Fans with VFD VFD s s Save Energy Save Energy
This relationships between fan energy and fan flow are taken from the California Energy Commission Guide to
Preparing Feasibility Studies and the 1998 Nonresidential ACM Approval Manual. Note that a typical system curve,
DOE2 default, is assumed and these relationships are not applicable to all systems.
78
The Opportunity: Controls The Opportunity: Controls
General Concepts
Controls are generally the most cost
effective of EEMs
Whatever doesnt have controls
probably needs it
Controls reduce opportunity for
human enhancements
Limit hours of operation
Use to maximize system
efficiencies
79
Air Air- -Side Economizer Side Economizer
Damper Control
100% Free Cooling (ex: OA<55F)
Partial Free Cooling (ex: 55F <OA<76F)
Integrated Economizers Only
MA
EA OA
SA
RA
Minimum Ventilation Minimum Ventilation
(all occupied hours) (all occupied hours)
Types Types
Temperature Temperature
Enthalpy Enthalpy
80
Economizer Offsetting All Cooling Economizer Offsetting All Cooling
Return Air
10,000 CFM, 75 deg F
Exhaust Air
8,000 CFM
2,000 CFM
Outside Air
8,000 CFM,
50 deg F
Mixed Air
10,000 CFM,
55 deg F
Discharge Air
10,000 CFM,
55 deg F
Cooling
Coil
Heating
Coil
81
Reduced Mechanical Cooling Reduced Mechanical Cooling
Return Air
10,000 CFM, 75 deg F
Exhaust Air
10,000 CFM
0 CFM
Outside Air
10,000 CFM,
60 deg F
Mixed Air
10,000 CFM,
60 deg F
Discharge Air
10,000 CFM,
55 deg F
Cooling
Coil
Heating
Coil
82
Non Non- -Integrated Economizer Integrated Economizer
Return Air
10,000 CFM, 75 deg F
Exhaust Air
2,000 CFM
8,000 CFM
Outside Air
2,000 CFM,
60 deg F
Mixed Air
10,000 CFM,
72 deg F
Discharge Air
10,000 CFM,
55 deg F
Cooling
Coil
Heating
Coil
83
Demand Control Ventilation (DCV) Demand Control Ventilation (DCV)
Primary purpose of HVAC is to provide
adequate ventilation
Basic method has been to provide
sufficient ventilation for design
conditions at all times
DCV provides sufficient ventilation
based on actual occupancy, rather than
worst case
Requires continuous monitoring of CO
2
as proxy for occupancy
84
DCV: CO DCV: CO
2 2
and Ventilation Rates and Ventilation Rates
85
Demand Control Ventilation (DCV) Demand Control Ventilation (DCV)
Carbon Dioxide sensors can
modulate outside air dampers and/or
supply fan speed to control
ventilation
Can also be used with unitary
systems to control fan mode:
auto vs. on
Should not be applied in areas that
generate contaminants such as dust,
fumes, mists, vapors
See Title 24 for ventilation code
compliance
Telaire / GE Sensing
www.gesensing.com
86
DCV: Implementation DCV: Implementation
All major controls companies support
Best practice is to measure outside air and indoor air CO
2
concentrations
If only indoor concentrations monitored, typical outside CO
2
concentration is 400 ppm
Controls typically set to introduce OA when indoor concentration
is about 500 ppmhigher than outside (T-24 requires 600 or better)
DCV should be overridden when system in economizer mode
Commission to ensure ventilation rates are not compromised
Select equipment that automates building purge for overnight
buildup of contaminants
Return
Air
HOT COLD
Exhaust
Air
Outside
Air
87
DCV Savings DCV Savings
www.energy.ca.gov/pier
PIER Buildings Program Design Guide: Commercial Buildings Breathe Right with Demand-Controlled Ventilation
88
DCV Savings DCV Savings
www.energy.ca.gov/pier
PIER Buildings Program Design Guide: Commercial Buildings Breathe Right with Demand-Controlled Ventilation
Case studies
show real
energy savings
with payback
periods of 2
years or less
89
DCV: Implementation DCV: Implementation
Pitfalls
Trendy, watch out for proper application in
areas where occupancy really varies
substantially and a real price is paid for
pre-conditioning outside air
Savings
Depend on climate and difference between
peak and average occupancy
Non-energy Benefits
Provides continuous monitoring of indoor
air quality (IAQ)
Potential for documentation of IAQ
90
Small HVAC: Frequent Issues Small HVAC: Frequent Issues
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m
s
91
Summary of HVAC Opportunities
Change out inefficient equipment
Chillers
Boilers
Packaged Units
Heat pumps
Motors
Consider demand ventilation controls (CO
2
, CO)
Use variable speed drives on variable load systems
Operations and Maintenance
Limit equipment run time
Limit over-cycling of equipment
Economizers
Filters
92
Title 24 minimum standards
Temp/RH meters
Motor dataloggers
Temperature dataloggers
CO
2
loggers
CO loggers
HVAC Tools and Resources
Motor Opportunities
94
How a Motor Works
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/enlarge-image.htm?terms=motor&page=0
95
Nameplate Data Terms
RPM:
Revolutions per minute, the rotational speed of the motor shaft
Full Load Speed:
The RPM of the motor when the output torque is equal to the motors rated load
Rated HP:
The torque the motor can apply when fully loaded
Service Factor:
Service factor is a multiplier that indicates how much a motor can be overloaded
under ideal ambient conditions.
Enclosure types
ODP: Open Drip Proof
TEFC: Totally enclosed fan cooled
Efficiency
ratio between the shaft output power and the electrical input power.
96
Motor Nameplate Example
Find this information:
HP
Model #
Enclosure type
#of phases
Full load speed
Volts
FLA
Efficiency
Service factor
Power Factor
97
Motor Types: Open Drip Proof (ODP)
www.sea.siemens.com/step/images/motors/acm4/acm4_3_1.gif
98
Motor Types: TEFC
www.sea.siemens.com/step/images/motors/acm4/acm4_3_3.gif
Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled
99
Motor Power Equations
Using information from the nameplate, motor
usage can be estimated as:
kWh =(hp)(0.746kW/hp)(%Loaded)(hours)/Efficiency
kWh =(FLA)(Volts)(PF)(%Loaded)(hours)(Phase^
)
This estimate can be improved on by:
Measuring Amps
Measuring kW with a true power meter
Run-time logging operation
100
Percent Load Operation
Maximum efficiency is
usually near 75% of rated
load.
A motors efficiency
tends to decrease
dramatically below about
50% load.
Overloaded motors can
overheat and lose
efficiency.
60-80% load is optimal
101
Calculating Percent Load: Slip Method
Measure RPM
Find nameplate RPM
Identify synchronous speed
from table
Apply equation
The accuracy of the slip method, however, is limited. The largest uncertainty relates to the
20% tolerance that NEMA allows manufacturers in their reporting of nameplate full-load speed.
102
Tachometers and Rotational Speed
Used to determine operation of pumps or fans
Types
Contacting
Reflection
Strobe
Output
RPM
Hz
1/3 times
1000 RPM
1/2 times
1500 RPM
1 times
3000 RPM
2 times
6000 RPM
3 times
9000 RPM
3 times
12000 RPM
Be careful about readings that may be too low!
103
CEE Premium-Efficiency Initiative
http://www.cee1.org/ind/motrs/Cee-nema.pdf
104
Relative Motor Efficiencies By Size
Motor Efficiencies tend to increase
with motor size
EPACT is the Energy Policy Act
of 1992 which established what we
now consider Standard
efficiency motors
National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) premium
efficiency motors tend to be 1 to 2
percent higher than EPACT motor
efficiencies
ODP Motor Ef fi ci encies
75.0%
80.0%
85.0%
90.0%
95.0%
100.0%
0 50 100 150 200 250
HP
E
ffic
ie
n
c
y
Existing EPACT NEMAPremiumEfficiency
TEFC Mot or Eff icienci es
75.0%
80.0%
85.0%
90.0%
95.0%
100.0%
0 50 100 150 200 250
HP
E
ff
ic
ie
n
c
y
Existing EPACT NEMAPremiumEfficiency
105
Benefits of Efficient Motors
Save energy, save $
Benefit improves with higher utility rates
Save demand, save $
Benefit improves with higher demand costs
Higher power factors, save $
Benefit improves with PF charge at facilities with PF <0.85
Runs cooler, save energy, save $
Benefit improves at facilities that are cooled
Withstand voltage fluctuations and harmonics
Benefit important at facilities with old infrastructure
Benefit important at facilities with non-sinusoidal load types
Operate quietly
Benefit important at most facilities
Efficient Motors: Selection and Application Considerations, Consortium for Energy Efficiency, 1999
106
Summary of Motor Opportunities
Change out inefficient motors (less than 100 HP)
Re-wind inefficient motors (greater than 100 HP)
Right-size motors
Use variable speed drives on variable load systems
Operations and Maintenance
Limit equipment run time
Limit over-cycling of equipment
Tighten belts
Align motors and grout base
107
CEE premium efficiency motor standards
Strobe tachometer
Motor dataloggers
Motor Tools and Resources
Envelope Efficiencies
Envelope Efficiencies
109
Envelope Contributions to Electric and Gas Use Envelope Contributions to Electric and Gas Use
45% of electric use
38% of gas use
CA Commercial Electric use
CA Commercial Gas Use
110
Envelope Performance Terms Envelope Performance Terms
Thermal Resistance (R-value)
Measure of a materials ability to resist conductive heat flow
U-value
Measure of thermal resistance for a window, door or skylight
Emissivity
The ability of an object to radiate heat; a surface property
Low-E glazing
Glass with a coating that slows the transfer of radiated, long-wave (LW) heat
This property improves the glazings thermal resistance
Infiltration
Heat transfer from air moving through the cracks and defects of a building envelope
Visible transmittance (VT)
The amount of visible light transmitted through glass
VT is expressed as a number between 0 and 1
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)
The SHGC is the fraction of heat from the sun that enters through a window
SHGC is expressed as a number between 0 and 1
Spectrally selective glazing
Glass that transmits more light than solar, short wave (SW) heat
111
Improving Envelope Thermal Resistance Improving Envelope Thermal Resistance
Add insulation
Roof is best location
Add to walls if opened during construction
Add radiant barriers
Reflective film
Must be next to an airspace
Best if facing down
Reduce infiltration
Weather-strip/caulk all exterior openings
Air barriers can reduce heating and cooling cost by up to 36%
Change out windows
Double glazing
Low-E coating
Add low-E film to existing window surface
Greenhouse insulation
112
Glass Transmission Glass Transmission
Norbert Lechner. Heating, Cooling, Lighting; DesignMethodsfor Architects.
J ohnWiley& Sons, 1991. Pg. 361,362.
Clear glass Reflective glass Low-e glass Selective glass
Transmits
UV Visiblelight Short waveIR
(solar)
LongwaveIR
(earth)
Clear glass X X X X*
Reflectiveglass
Low-eglass X X X
Selectiveglass X
*Absorbs and re *Absorbs and re- -radiates long radiates long- -wave wave
113
Adding Solar Film to Windows Adding Solar Film to Windows
Solar film reduces solar heat gain
Film allows light transmission
Film is applied to inside surface
Typically applied to single pane, clear
glass
Careful installation is critical as
bubbles create heat pockets and can
cause glass to fracture
114
Add Shading Systems Add Shading Systems
Add exterior shading on building
Overhangs on south faade
Overhangs +fins on east & west
Add trees for shading
Best on east & west faade
Deciduous if on south side
Add interior blinds
Louvered blinds are ideal
Light colored is best
115
Adding Skylights Adding Skylights
Ideal configuration:
Skylight area is 3-8% of floor area
Many small skylights are better that a few large ones
Deep wells prevent direct sun in space
Diffusers at bottom of skylight help distribute light
Need daylight controls on lighting to save energy
monitor sawtooth skylight
clerestory
116
Summary of Envelope Opportunities
Add insulation
Add radiant barriers
Replace windows
Reduce infiltration
Add Low-E coating
Add skylights
Add shading
Replace standard glass with selective glass
Cool roofing in AC-dominated buildings
117
Operations and Maintenance Operations and Maintenance
Add insulation in roof and where is may be sagging.
Paint surfaces white around windows.
Clean glass, interior blinds, light shelves and cool roofs.
Caulk and weather-strip around doors and windows.
Plant trees along east and west elevations.
Make sure interior blinds are working.
Verify that OSA dampers seal at night.
118
Envelope Tools and Resources Envelope Tools and Resources
Adjacency shading analysis tools
Compass
Infrared camera
Surface temperature meters
Blower door
Powder puffer gun
Low-E glass detector
Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous
Efficiencies
Efficiencies
120
Percentage of Energy for Different End Uses Percentage of Energy for Different End Uses
Space Heating
2%
Fan/Pumps
15%
Other
13%
Office
Equipment
14%
Space Cooling
14%
Indoor
Lighting
35%
Outdoor
Lighting
6%
Water Heating
1%
Large office building
Lodging
http://www.pge.com/biz/energy_tools_resources/building_survey/index.html
121
Office Plug Loads
Office Plug Loads
Computers
Monitors
Printers
Fax machines
Copiers
Multifunction devices
Scanners
Task lighting
Heaters
Refrigerators
Other
Power x Time Power x Time kWh kWh $ $
Save energy and reduce cost: Save energy and reduce cost:
by lowering wattage by lowering wattage
by reducing run by reducing run- -time time
122
Computers (CPU) Computers (CPU)
Power draw: 50-60 watts
Energy Star: 25 watts
Typical use:
active: 4 hours/day
off: 14.5 hours/day
Should not automatically control to OFF
Monitors Monitors
Sleep: 0-10 watts
Typical use:
active: 4 hours/day
off: 14.5 hours/day
Can control to OFF
Jade' s Computer
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
2-Oct 4-Oct 6-Oct 8-Oct 10-Oct 12-Oct 14-Oct 16-Oct
w
a
tts
123
Printers Printers
Sleep: 11-25 watts*
Typical use:
active: 1.5 hours/day
off: 14.5 hours/day
*Should stay in stand-by mode
UNITS: watts W-hrs
10/03/1995 19:05 179.731 16
10/03/1995 19:10 148.474 13
10/03/1995 19:15 131.868 12
10/03/1995 19:20 199.267 13
10/03/1995 19:25 45.9096 8
10/03/1995 19:30 44.9328 8
10/03/1995 19:35 44.9328 8
10/03/1995 19:40 115.262 7
10/03/1995 19:45 81.0744 8
10/03/1995 19:50 44.9328 7
10/03/1995 19:55 53.724 8
10/03/1995 20:00 117.216 8
10/03/1995 20:05 48.84 7
10/03/1995 20:10 81.0744 8
10/03/1995 20:15 105.494 8
10/03/1995 20:20 81.0744 8
10/03/1995 20:25 65.4456 7
10/03/1995 20:30 118.193 8
10/03/1995 20:35 142.613 8
10/03/1995 20:40 82.0512 7
10/03/1995 20:45 78.144 8
10/03/1995 20:50 79.1208 8
Printer and Fax machine
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
02-Oct 04-Oct 06-Oct 08-Oct 10-Oct 12-Oct 14-Oct 16-Oct
Fax machines Fax machines
Power draw: 35 watts
Sleep: 15 watts*
Typical use:
active: 1 hours/day
off: 0 hours/day
*Should stay in stand-by mode
124
Energy Star Equipment Energy Star Equipment
Clothes dryers
Clothes washers
Computer monitors
Copiers
Dehumidifiers
Dishwashers
Fax machines
Mailing machines
Printers
Room air cleaners
Scanners
Water coolers
125
Stand Stand- -by (Vampire) Loads by (Vampire) Loads
10 to 15 watts per device
22 percent of all appliance consumption
10 percent of total residential consumption
California's policy on standby power came into effect in 2007,
limiting appliance standby power to 0.5 Watts
Examples:
Power supplies, transformers and inefficient electronic devices.
VCRs, DVD players and some audio systems.
Set-top boxes
Microwave ovens
Computers, digital monitors and printers
TVs, if not switched off fromthe power switch (if they have one).
Air conditioning systems with remote control.
Devices with "Instant on" functions, with remote control receivers, or waiting for the user to
interact.
Devices with a stand-by light or clock.
Small transformers(such as wall warts) that convert AC electricity into DC electricity,
whether or not they are powering any device.
Devices that get warmor that have warmtransformers when they are off.
126
Manual Controls Manual Controls
The simplest, cheapest and most
error-free method for controlling
plug loads
Requires conscientious
employees
Difficult to apply to shared
equipment
127
Occupancy Controls Occupancy Controls
Good for equipment where occupancy
correlates to use
Assures that loads are not running
continuously
Not to be used with equipment that
must remain on alert (fax machines) or
where data can be lost (CPUs)
128
Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and MediumCommercial Facilities 2011 2007
Vending Machine Controller Vending Machine Controller
1. Turns off lights and
compressor if no one is there
2. Cycles compressor on if case
exceeds a max temperature
to insure product is cold
129
Energy Auditing Techniques for Small and MediumCommercial Facilities 2011 2007
Vending Machine Controller Results Vending Machine Controller Results
Without
VendingMiser
With VendingMiser
Weekdays
(261 days)
With VendingMiser
Weekends
(104 days)
Daily Wh 7,900 4,900 1,900
Daily Operational
Cost ($0.15 kWh)
$1.19 $0.73 $0.29
Annual kWh 2,885 1,270 200
Separated Annual
Operational Cost
($0.15 kWh)
$435 $190 $30
Combined Annual
Operational Cost
($0.15 kWh)
$435 $220
Percent Savings
with the
VendingMiser
49%
130
Timer Controls Timer Controls
Isolate timer for individual
devices
Demand savings (12-6 p.m.)
Eliminate waste from loads with
consistent usage patterns (coffee
machines, irons)
131
Summary of Misc. Opportunities
Change old equipment to Energy Star
Connect monitors to CPU
Activate sleep/shut-down on computer monitors
Use plug-load controllers on non-Energy Star equipment
Vending machines
Copiers
Use electronic (email) over paper copies
Network printers
Use ink-jet over laser printers
Unplug chargers with plug-strip
132
Miscellaneous Tools and Resources Miscellaneous Tools and Resources
Clamp-on amp meters
Split extension cords
Plug load boxes
Temperature loggers
Occupancy sensors
133
Refrigerator Data Refrigerator Data
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
7/10/02 7/17/02 7/24/02 7/31/02 8/7/02 8/14/02 8/21/02 8/28/02 9/4/02 9/11/02 9/18/02

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