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Communication theory
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Currently, many definitions of communication are used in order to conceptualize the
processes by which people navigate and assign meaning. Communication is also
understood as the exchanging of understanding. Additionally the biocommunication
theory investigates communicative processes within and among non-humans such as
bacteria, animals, fungi and plants.
We might say that communication consists of transmitting information from one
person to another. In fact, many scholars of communication take this as a working
definition, and use Lasswell's maxim, "who says what to whom in what channel with
what effect," as a means of circumscribing the field of communication theory.

A simple communication model with a sender transferring a message containing

information to a receiver.
Other commentators suggest that a ritual process of communication exists, one not
artificially divorcible from a particular historical and social context.
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors
like Robert A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have
highlighted. This is a progression from Lassell’s attempt to define human
communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist
model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only
messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical
context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication
theory is style for Robert Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of
CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues
that charity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore
communication. Lanham wrote, “If words matter too, if the whole range of human
motive is seen as animating prose discourse, than rhetoric analysis leads us to the
essential questions about prose style” (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and
style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to
transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to
understand communication. Goffman wrote, “What does seem to be required of the
individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ‘fill in’ and
manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given” (Goffman 73) Goffman is
highlighting the significance of expression. The truth in both cases is the articulation
of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social
and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission
model. Therefore any look into communication theory should include the possibilities
drafted by such great scholars as Robert A. Lanham and Erving Goffman that style
and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of
society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral
events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and
integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology,
one probably cannot yet[update] expect a consensus conceptualization of
communication across disciplines.
Currently, there is one paradigm from which communication scholars may work, a
universal law, posited by S. F, Scudder (1900). "The Universal Law of
Communication states that, "All living entities communicate." All living entities
communicate via movements, sounds, reactions, physical changes, gestures,
languages, breath, etc. Communication is primarily used as a means of survival.
Examples such as the cry of a hungry infant (communication that it is hungry), the
browing a leaf (communication that it is dehydrated), the cry of an animal
(communication that it is injured) falls under the Universal Law of Communication.
Everything living must communicate, primarily as a means of survival."
Contents
[hide]
1 History of Communication Theory
2 Communication Theory Framework
3 Mapping the theoretical landscape
3.1 Contexts
3.2 Assumptions
4 Some realms of communication and their theories
5 More information
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
[edit] History of Communication Theory
The Academic Study of Communication
Communication has existed since the beginning of human beings, but it was not until
the 20th century that people began to study the process. As communication
technologies developed, so did the serious study of communication. When World War
I ended, the interest in studying communication intensified. The social-science study
was fully recognized as a legitimate discipline after World War II.
Before becoming simply communication, or communication studies, the discipline
was formed from three other major studies: sociology, psychology, and anthropology.
Sociology is the study of human behavior, psychology is the study of society and
social process, and anthropology is the study of communication as a factor which
develops, maintains, and changes culture. Communication studies focus on
communication as central to the human experience, which involves understanding
how people behave in creating, exchanging, and interpreting messages.[citation
needed]
Communication Theory is based on one universal law posited by S. F. Scudder
(1900). "The Universal Communication Law states that, "All living entities
communicate." All living entities communicate via movements, sounds, reactions,
physical changes, gestures, languages, breath, etc. Communication is a means of
survival. Examples such as the cry of a hungry infant (communication that it is
hungry), the browing a leaf (communication that it is dehydrated), the cry of an
animal (communicating that it is injured falls under this universal communication law.
Everything living must communicate as a means of survival."
[edit] Communication Theory Framework
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the
following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication as a perfect transaction of a
message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to
a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the
message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view considers communication
to be the product of the interactsnts sharing and creating meaning. The Constructionist
View can also be defined as, how you say something determines what the message is.
The Constructionist View assumes that “truth” and “ideas” are constructed or
invented through the social process of communication. Robert T. Craig saw the
Constructionist View or the constitutive view as it’s called in his article, as “…an
ongoing process that symbolically forms and re-forms our personal identities.”(Craig,
125). The other view of communication, the Transmission Model, sees
communication as robotic and computer-like. The Transmission Model sees
communication as a way of sending or receiving messages and the perfection of that.
But, the Constructionist View sees communications as, “…in human life, info does
not behave as simply as bits in an electronic stream. In human life, information flow
is far more like an electric current running from one landmine to another”(Lanham,
7). The Constructionist View is a more realistic view of communication because it
involves the interacting of human beings and the free sharing of thoughts and ideas.
Daniel Chandler looks to prove that the Transmission Model is a lesser way of
communicating by saying “The transmission model is not merely a gross over-
simplification but a dangerously misleading representation of the nature of human
communication”(Chandler, 2). Humans do not communicate simply as computers or
robots so that’s why it’s essential to truly understand the Constructionist View of
Communication well. We do not simply send facts and data to one another, but we
take facts and data and they acquire meaning through the process of communication,
or through interaction with others.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via
“through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted
as it travels through people.
Critical: This view considers communication as a source of power and oppression of
individuals and social groups.[1]
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature
of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological,
epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, it is the theorist is
examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in
one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through
the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the
world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and
cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside
of one’s cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the
fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create
together.
Epistemology is an examination of how the theorist studies the chosen phenomena. In
studying epistemology, particularly from a positivist perspective, objective knowledge
is said to be the result of a systematic look at the causal relationships of phenomena.
This knowledge is usually attained through use of the scientific method. Scholars
often think that empirical evidence collected in an objective manner is most likely to
reflect truth in the findings. Theories of this ilk are usually created to predict a
phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated
knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and
also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand
phenomena in the social world.
Axiology is concerned with what values drive a theorist to develop a theory. Theorists
must be mindful of potential biases so that they will not influence or skew their
findings (Miller, 21-23).
[edit] Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication
studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation
makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common
taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two
common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
[edit] Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called
"contexts" or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The
study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of
psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally
developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism. While many of
these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical
roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and
from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and
mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of
communication research, including intercultural and international communication,
small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of
communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels.
Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend
more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward
production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication
theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or
fail to find a home at all.
[edit] Assumptions
Another way of dividing up the communication field emphasizes the assumptions that
undergird particular theories, models, and approaches. While this approach also tends
to have as its basis institutional divisions, theories within each of the seven
"traditions" of communication theory that Robert Craig suggests tend to reinforce one
another, and retain the same ground epistemological and axiological assumptions. His
traditions include:
rhetorical - practical art of discourse
semiotic – intersubjective mediation through signs in order to mediate between
different perspectives
phenomenological - experience of otherness, dialogue
cybernetic - information processing and explains how all kinds of complex systems,
whether living or nonliving, macro or micro, are able to function, and why they often
malfunction
sociopsychological - expression, interaction and influence
critical - discursive reflection
sociocultural - reproduction of social order (Miller, 13)
Craig finds each of these clearly defined against the others, and remaining cohesive
approaches to describing communicative behavior. As a taxonomic aid, these labels
help to organize theory by its assumptions, and help researchers to understand why
some theories may seem incommensurable.
While communication theorists very commonly use these two approaches, theorists
decentralize the place of language and machines as communicative technologies. The
idea (as argued by Vygotsky) of communication as the primary tool of a species
defined by its tools remains on the outskirts of communication theory. It finds some
representation in the Toronto School of communication theory (alternatively
sometimes called medium theory) as represented by the work of Innis, McLuhan, and
others. It seems that the ways in which individuals and groups use the technologies of
communication — and in some cases are used by them — remain central to what
communication researchers do. The ideas that surround this, and in particular the
place of persuasion, remain constants across both the "traditions" and "levels" of
communication theory.
[edit] Some realms of communication and their theories
universal communication Law: Universal Theory, Universal Theory
message production: Constructivist Theory, Action Assembly Theory
message processing: Elaboration Likelihood Model, Inoculation theory
discourse and interaction: Speech Acts Theory, Coordinated Management of Meaning
developing relationships: Uncertainty Reduction Theory, Social Penetration Theory
ongoing relationships: Relational Systems Theory, Relational Dialectics
organizational: Structuration Theory, Unobtrusive and Concertive Control Theory
small group: Functional Theory, Symbolic Convergence Theory
media processing and effects: Social Cognitive Theory, Uses and Gratifications
Theory
media and society: Agenda Setting, Spiral of Silence, Symbolic Convergence Theory
culture: Speech Codes Theory, Face-saving Theory
making social worlds: Coordinated Management of Meaning
[edit] More information
There is a wealth of information available about communication and communication
theory. Included here are some examples of texts, journals, and organizations focusing
on communication theory.
The following list is a survey of Communication Theory texts:
Communication Theory: Epistemological Foundations by James A. Anderson
Communication Theories: Origins, Methods and Uses in the Mass Media (5th
Edition) by Werner J. Severin and James W. Tankard
Theories of Human Communication (9th Edition) by Stephen W. Littlejohn and Karen
A. Foss
Communication: Theories and Applications by Mark V. Redmond
Communication Theories: Perspectives, Processes, and Contexts by Katherine Miller
Communication Theory: Media, Technology and Society by David Holmes
Building Communication Theory by Dominic A. Infante, Andrew S. Rancer, and
Deanna F. Womack
The Communication Theory Reader by Paul Cobley
Clarifying Communications Theories: A Hands-On Approach by Gerald Stone,
Michael Singletary, and Virginia P. Richmond
An Introduction to Communication Theory by Don W. Stacks, Sidney R. Hill, and
Mark, III Hickson
Scholarly journals are also a great source for recent research and academic discussion
of theory. Some communication journals that emphasize theory are as follows:
Argumentation
Asian Journal of Communication
China Media Research
Communication Abstracts
Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies
Communication Education
Communication Monographs
Communication Quarterly
Communication Research Reports
Communication Research
Communication Studies
Communication Theory
Communications and the Law
Continuum - Journal of Media and Cultural Studies
Critical Discourse Studies
Critical Studies in Media Communication
Discourse Studies
Howard Journal of Communications
Human Communication: A Journal of the Pacific and Asian Communication
Association
Human Communication Research
Intercultural Communication Studies
Journal of Applied Communication Research
Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media
Journal of Communication
Journal of Communication Inquiry
Journal of Intercultural Communication Research
Journal of Language Identity and Education
Journal of Mass Media Ethics
Journal of Multicultural Discourses
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development
Journal of Public Relations Research
Journal of Technical Writing and Communication
Journalism - Theory Practice and Criticism
Journalism History
Journalism Studies
Keio Communication Review
Language in Society
Listening - Journal of Religion and Culture
Mass Communication and Society
Media Asia
Media, Culture and Society
Multilingua - Journal of Cross-Cultural and Interlanguage Communication
New Media and Society
Philosophy and Rhetoric : Paper for Muse Participants
Political Communication
PR Reporter
Public Relations Quarterly
Qualitative Research Reports in Communication
Review of Communication
Rhetoric and Public Affairs
Rhetorica
Southern Communication Journal
Studies in Communication Sciences
Text - Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of Discourse
Vital Speeches of the Day
Western Journal of Communication
Women's Studies in Communication
Word and Image
Written Communication
Finally, there are many Communication Organizations that create a network of
scholars who actively pursue and test theories. These organizations usually hold an
annual conference showcasing the latest and best research in the field, as well as
publish scholarly Journals. Examples of Communication Organizations with contact
information are:
American Communication Association
Central States Communication Association
Eastern Communication Association
International Communication Association
National Communication Association
Southern States Communication Association
Western States Communication Association
[edit] See also
List of basic communication topics
Metacommunicative competence
Rogerian argument
Time- and space-bias and Harold Innis's communications theories
Tetrad of media effects
Communication Theory Wikibook
[edit] References
^ Littlejohn, S.W. and Foss, K.A. (2008). Theories of human communication, 9th
edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
[edit] Bibliography
Chandler, Daniel. Transmission Model of Communication (1994).
Http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/trans.html. Daniel Chandler, 1994.
Web. 10 Oct. 2009.
Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York, NY:
Anchor/Doubleday, 1959. 73.
Lanham, Richard A. Analyzing Prose' 2nd (2003): 7, 10.
Littlejohn, S. W.,Theories of human communication. 7th edition, Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, 2002.
Emory A Griffin, A first look at communication theory. 3rd edition, New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1997. ISBN 0-07-022822-1
Miller, K., Communication Theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts. 2nd
edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005.
Werner, E., "Cooperating Agents: A Unified Theory of Communication and Social
Structure", Distributed Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 2, L. Gasser and M. Huhns, eds.,
Morgan Kaufmann and Pitman Press, 1989. Abstract
Werner, E., "Toward a Theory of Communication and Cooperation for Multiagent
Planning", Theoretical Aspects of Reasoning About Knowledge: Proceedings of the
Second Conference, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, pp. 129–143, 1988. Abstract PDF
Witzany, G, "The Logos of the Bios 2. Bio-Communication", Helsinki, Umweb,
2007.
Robert , Craig T. "Communication." Encyclopedia of Rhetoric (2001): 125.
[edit] External links
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of
Communication Theory
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_theory"
Categories: Communication | Communication theory
Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from January 2008 | All articles lacking
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