IN THE NAME OF ALLAH

Rocket direction
LECTURES
in
GASDYNAMICS
FOR 3rd YEAR OF MECHANICAL POWER ENGINEERING

Prepared by
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Eng. Mostafa Nasr
e-meil, mostafanasr@yahoo.com
Exhaust gas
direction
Gas dynamics is a branch of fluid mechanics
.which describes the flow of compressible fluids

Fluids which show appreciable variation in

density,
as a result of the flow are called compressible
fluids (such as gases).

Variation in density is due mainly to variation

in pressure and temperature.
 Pre-requests Courses

• Engineering mathematics
• Thermodynamics
• Fluid mechanics
• Computer programming
languages for these applications
(for example FORTRAN).
 :SAMPLE of REFERENCES
Shapiro, H.:” The Dynamic and thermodynamics of. 1
Compressible Fluid Flow”, Vol 1 and 2 ,The Ronald Press
Company, New York, 1955
Liepman H.W. and Roshko A.:” Element of gas. 2
.dynamics ”, John Wiley &Sons, Inc., New York, 1957
Zucrow,M.J., and Hoffman,J.D. :” Gas Dynamics”,. 3
John Willey, New York,1976; Vol.2 reprinted 1985, Krieger
.Publishing Co. Melbourne,Fl
Michel A. Saad, :” Compressible Fluid Flow”,. 4
.Prentic-Hill, Inc., 1985
Hodge,B.K., and Ketith Koenig :” Compressible. 5
Fluid Dynamics with Personal Computer Applications”,
Prentice-Hill, Inc.,A Simon&Schuster company Englewood
. cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1995
• Applications:-
• Aerodynamics at very high speeds
• Transport of gases along considerable
distances at very low speeds.
• Transport of gases along considerable
distances at very low speeds.
• Many applications in aerospace.
• Compressible fluid is playing the key role in
numerous non-aerospace devices.
• Gas turbines, Compressors, Gas
transportation pipelines, Internal combustion
engine, Combustors, rockets, missiles, Wave
interactions, Tunnels, aero planes, ….., etc.)
Aeronautical and astronautically engineering*
Design and construction of airplanes bodies
Rocket
direction

Modeling of the solid and liquid rocket

motor chambers
Design and construction of aerospace
vehicles
Design of the boosting satellites

Exhaust gas
Pneumatics systems* direction
 CONTENTS
(five chapters)
CHAPTER 1 Fundamental Concepts of Compressible
Fluid Dynamics

)CHAPTER 2 Isentropic Flow (Simple Area change

CHAPTER 3 Waves in Compressible Fluid Flow

)CHAPTER 4 - SimpleFrictional Flow (Fanno Flow

)Flow with Heat Interaction (Ralieigh Flow -

.CHAPTER 5 The Method of Characteristics

Lecture Tutorial Lab. Total
4 2 1 7
 CHAPTER 1

Fundamental Concepts of
Compressible Fluid Dynamics
‫المفاهيم الساسيه لديناميكا المائع النضغاطي‬
 Two techniques are available
for fluid dynamics description as
:-follows
‫توجد طريقتين امعالجة ووصف حركة المائع‬
‫ تى‬:-‫كال‬
Eullerian approach Lagrangian approach
Macroscopic or* Microscopic or*
phenomenological .molecular standpoint
.standpoint .
Treat the fluid as an* Provides details of the*
infinitely divisible sub- fluid molecules
.stance a continuum interaction {consider a
All fluid properties are fluid as a collection of
continuous functions and particles (molecules,
time within the framework atoms, ions, & electrons)
of the continuum which are in random
.assumption {.motion

Classical fluid mechanics* Statistical*

and classical thermodynamics
.thermodynamics ) Kinetic theory of gas(
• The kinetic theory of gases and the
subject of statistical thermodynamics
provide information that can be used
in the macroscopic formulation

• Statistical thermodynamics is
especially useful since it permits
the evaluation of thermodynamics
properties that can be used in
classical thermodynamics.
 Knudsen Number (Kn)
Kn=l /L
- l the mean free path (for air at
standard conditions l=10-7 m)
.- L characteristic line dimension
Kn=l /L Flow regime
Kn > 3.0 Free molecular
Kn = 0.1 : 3.0 Transition
Kn = 0.01 : 0.1 Slip
Kn < 0.01 Continuum
Note: Kn > 1.0 A rarefied gas flow
• Governing equations :- (5 equations)
• The 1st Law of thermodynamics, which
relates to energy balance (conservation of
energy).
• The 2nd law of thermodynamics, which
relates heat interaction and irreversibility to
entropy
• The flow is also affected by both kinetic and
dynamic effects, which are described by
Newton's law of motion (conservation of
momentum).
• The flow fulfills the requirements of
conservation of mass.
• The equation of state
• The 1st law of thermodynamics
(conservation of energy):-

• For control volume

∂ Q – ∂ W + Σ m (h+V2+gz) = dU •
• de= ∂ q – ∂ w.D.
• ∂ w.D.= P dv
• du= ∂ q – ∂ w.D.
• h=u+Pv=u+P/ρ
• dh+dV2/2=0.0
• The 2nd law of thermodynamics :-
•
• S2 – S1 = ∫ dq /T dq =T dS
 Equation of state for a perfect
gas
) :- (thermal equation of state
Functional form Name
P=P(v,T) or P(ρ ,T) Thermal equation of state

Internal energy & Entropy Caloric equation of state

U=u (v ,T) or
u(ρ ,T)s=s(v,T) or s(ρ ,T)

U= u(s,v) or u (s, ρ ) Canonical equation of

Enthalpy h=h(s,P) state
• Thermal equation of state
P = R T / v = ρ RT
• Where: R = R' / (molecular weight, MW)
• Universal gas constant R' = 8.3135 Kj/Kg.mol.
• R' is the same for all perfect gases. MW for
air=28.966 Kg/(Kg.mol)
• The thermal equation of state is an accurate
representation for gases and mixtures of gases
except for conditions at high pressure (or
density) and/or low temperature. (15000 psia,
100R) Under these conditions the behavior of
real gas deviates from that of a perfect gas. The
extent of deviation is indicated by means of a
compressibility factor, Z.
• compressibility factor, Z, which is defined
by: Z = Pv/RT approximately.
• For a perfect gases:
• U=u(T), H=u+Pv= u(T)+RT=h(T)
• Specific heat C=dq/dT
• Cv=(∂ q/∂ T)v=(∂ u/∂ T)v
• Cp=(∂ q/∂ T)p =(∂ h/∂ T)p
• R=Cp- Cv γ = Cp / Cv
• Cp=γ R/(γ -1) Cv =R/(γ -1)
• For air under P=1 Bar & T=300 K
• Cp=1.0035 Kj/Kg.K , Cv=0.7165 Kj/Kg.K,
γ =1.4

• For isentropic flow, S1 = S2

• P2/P1= (v1/v2)γ = (ρ 2/ρ 1)γ = (T2/T1)γ /(γ -1)
• The isentropic approximation is common in
compressible-flow theory. The entropy
change is computed from the 1st and 2nd
laws of thermodynamics for pure substance.
• TdS=dh-dp/ρ ∫ dS=∫ Cp dT/T-R∫ dP/P
• S2-S1=Cp {Ln(T2/T1)}-R{Ln(P2/P1)}
• =Cv {Ln(T2/T1)}-R{Ln(ρ 1/ρ 2)}
• These equations are used to compute the
entropy change across an irreversible
process.
• Conservation of mass

• m. = ρ A u ( 1-D )

• General form
∂ ρ /∂ t + ∂ ρ u/∂ x + ∂ ρ v/∂ y +
∂ ρ w/∂ z = 0
• Conservation of momentum
• Newton's 2nd law of motion:- Σ F=m*a
• F (pressure force, body force, …….….. etc

• General form of the Navier-Stokes equation:

ρ DV/Dt = -∇ P+∇ ((4/3)µ ∇ V)-µ *∇ (∇ *V)+ ρ F

• In x-direction:
ρ Du/Dt=-∂ P/∂ x+∂ /∂ x[(2µ ∂ u/∂ x+(-(2/3)µ ∇ V)]
+∂ /∂ y[µ (∂ u/∂ y+∂ v/∂ x)] +∂ /∂ z[µ (∂ w/∂ x+∂ u/∂ z )]+X

• In y-direction:
ρ Du/Dt=-∂ P/∂ y+∂ /∂ y[(2µ ∂ v/∂ y+(-(2/3)µ ∇ V)]
+∂ /∂ z[µ (∂ v/∂ z+∂ w/∂ y)] +∂ /∂ x[µ (∂ u/∂ y+∂ v/∂ x )]+Y

• In z-direction:
ρ Du/Dt=-∂ P/∂ z+∂ /∂ z[(2µ ∂ w/∂ z+((2/3)µ ∇ V)]
+∂ /∂ x[µ (∂ w/∂ x+∂ u/∂ z)] +∂ /∂ y[µ (∂ v/∂ z+∂ w/∂ y )]+Z
• Euler's equation:-
∂ u/∂ t+u∂ u/∂ x=-(1/ρ )∂ p/∂ x (1-D)
At ∂ u/∂ t=0 udu=-dp/ρ
• In integral form
U2/2 + ∫ dp/ρ = const. (Bernoulli's
equation for compressible fluid flow)
∀ ∂ /∂ t∫ (ρ uA)dx+(ρ 2u22A2-ρ 1u12A1)=(P1A1-
P2A2)+Pm(A2 -A1)
• For steady flow in a duct of constant
cross-sectional area:
• ρ 2u22-ρ 1u12 = P1-P2
• Conservation of energy
• General form:
∀ ρ Dh / Dt = DP / Dt + q. +µ F+ chemical
reaction energy+…………..+etc.
• F sometimes called the viscous dissipation
function.
∀ µ F Mechanical work is entirely dissipated
by heat transfer only if the boundary
condition permits (not isolated system)
• In the case of the system is insulated, the
work mFis not really dissipated but is
retained by the system as internal energy.
• In an adiabatic steady-state flow
process, the following equation
expresses energy relationships for a
perfect gas:
• δ Q – δ W + Σ m (h+V2+gz) = dU
• ho= h+ V2/2 = constant
• dh + v dv = 0
• Cp To = CP T +V2/2
(The stagnation or the reservoir
enthalpy)
 Reservoir condition

Gas flow direction

ho h‘o
To T‘o
Po P‘o

h
T
P‘

Flow between two reservoirs

If there is no heat addition to the flow between
the two reservoirs, then ho= ho'
(throttling process)
Cp To = CP T +V2/2,
To= T o'

From 2nd of thermodynamic :

S'o-S0 =R { Ln (Po /P'o ){- Cp{Ln (T'o /To){
For a perfect gas

S'o-S0=R{ Ln (P o /P 'o){
 S'o-S0 ≥ 0

Po/P'o ≥ 1 Po ≥ P'o

dS = δ Q / T = [ dh - dP / ρ ] / T

(∂ S / ∂ P ) h=const . = - ( 1/ ( ρ T ) ) 〈 0

An increase in entropy (ho =constant), must result

in a decrease of stagnation pressure.

In an adiabatic flow To = To'

Isentropic flow To = To' , So = So', and Po = Po'

 )The speed of sound ( c
Sound Waves

Molecules in the air vibrate about some average position

creating the compressions and rarefactions. We call the
frequency of sound the pitch.
 Sound Waves Measurement

●Sound waves propagate in any medium that can

respond elastically and thereby transmit vibration
energy.
Waves
The speed of sound ( c ) ( gas dynamics )

Velocity propagation of a plan infinitesimal pressure pulse,

along a pipe of constant cross-sectional area, is
calculated
as follows:-
Piston

V=0
P,T
Cylinder with piston at
rest
Movable
Piston
(It's
impulsive dV dV V=0 P,T, a
ly
accelerat
ed) at Flow properties
very behind a planer
small sound wave
velocity dP+P, dV+V
dV

Cylinder with piston in motion (in the absence of

viscosity and wall effects)
Note: This sound wave propagates ahead of the
piston at speed c .
(c is the speed of sound)
 P+dP
T+dT P
ρ + T
dρ ρ .
. .
. C
c-dV
A

Control
surface

Sound wave in stationary reference

frame
 The continuity equation:
ρ cA= (ρ +dρ )(c-dV)A
c dρ - ρ dV = 0 ……………..(1)
The momentum equation (with no shear forces):
Σ F=m*a =m. *V
PA-(P+dP)A= (ρ +dρ ) (c-dV)2A - (ρ cA)c
P - P - dP = (ρ +dρ ) (c2-2cdV+ dV2 ) - ρ c2
dP = 2ρ cdV - c2dρ
From Eq.(1) dV=c dρ/ρ
dP = c2 dρ …………………(2)

C =dP/dρ ….……….
2
 [S1 = S2 &
P2/P1= (v1/v2) γ = (ρ 2/ρ 1)γ = (T2/T1)γ /
(γ -1)
]
P2/ ρ 2
γ
= P1 /ρ 1
γ
= constant =
P /ρ γ = P /ρ γ
constant
dP = constant * γ ρ γ -1
*
dP = P /ρ γ * γ ρdργ -1 *
dP /dρ = γ P /ρ = γ dρ
RT
(C = γ RT ………….(4
2
 For air (γ =1.4,

M.W.=38.966Kg/Kg.mol, and
R=287 J/kg.K

C2 = 20.046 T (T in K)

C2 = 49.021 T (T in R)
The speed of sound is the speed at
which information about an
infinitesimal disturbance or
pressure pulse is transmitted
through a medium.
Waves involving finite disturbances
also exist and can likewise move or
propagate through a medium.
Such finite waves are called shock
wave.
For incompressible fluid (r=const.)
C2=E/r where E is Bulk modulus
C=1415 m/Sec for water at 15oC
and E=2*109 N/m
Speed of sound depends on
:the following
• Depends on the material of the vibrating
medium
• Sound can vibrate water, wood (speaker
enclosures, pianos), metal, plastic, etc.
• Sound speed in dry air is 330
meters/second at 0o C
• Faster in warm air, slower in cold
• Water 4 times faster, steel 15 times faster
speedgases < speedliquids < speedsolids

Medium Speed of sound

(m s−1)
air (at 0°C) 330
air (at 20°C) 340
water 1400
concrete 5000
steel 6000
Wave is a traveling disturbance.
Wave carries energy from place to place.
There are two basic types of waves:
Transverse and longitudinal waves.

Transverse
waves

A transverse wave is one in which the disturbance is perpendicular to

the direction of travel of the wave.
Examples: Light wave, waves on a guitar string.
 Longitudinal Waves

Longitudinal wave is one in which the disturbance is parallel

to the line of travel of the wave.
Example: Sound wave in air is a longitudinal wave.
Wave Parameters Wavelength (λ ) length or size of one oscillation
)Amplitude (A) strength of disturbance (intensity
Frequency (f) repetition / how often they occur per
second

The frequency (ƒ) is the number of complete oscillations made in

one second. Unit : Hz
The period (T) is the time taken for one complete oscillation. It is
related to frequency by T = 1/ƒ Unit : s
Sound waves propagate in any medium that can respond elastically
and thereby transmit vibration energy.
sound waves in gases and liquids are longitudinal (alternating
compression and rarefaction); in solids, both longitudinal and
transversal;
speed of sound is independent of frequency;
speed of sound in air ≈ 340m/s at 20o C; increases with
temperature; ≈ 1500m/s in water;
three frequency ranges of sound waves:
** below 20 Hz: infrasonic
** 20 Hz to 20 kHz: audible, i.e. sound proper
** above 20 kHz: ultrasonic, “ultrasound”
pitch is given by frequency e.g. “standard a” corresponds to 440 Hz
intervals between tones given by ratio of frequencies (e.g. doubling
of frequency - one octave)
male voice range 80 Hz to 240 Hz for speech, up to 700 Hz for
song;
female voice range 140 Hz to 500 Hz for speech, up to 1100 Hz for
song.
Question
When you move away from a fixed
source of sound, the frequency of
the sound you hear...
(a) is greater than what the source emits
(b) is less than what the source emits
(c) is the same as what the source emits
?Then why
(b) is less than what the source emits
Mach Number (Ernst
)Mach 1870s

The ratio of flow speed to

sound speed is defined
as Mach number.
M=V/c
 The classification of fluid flow

M<0.25 0.8<M<1.2 M>5.0

Incompre-ssible Transonic Hypersonic
flow flow flow

0.25<M<0.8 1.2<M<5.0
Subsonic Supersonic
flow flow

Compressible fluid flow

0.25 < M >1 M=1 1<M <5

Subsonic Transonic Supersonic
flow flow flow
In an adiabatic-steady flow process, the following
equation expresses energy relationships for a
perfect gas:
CpTo= CpT+V2/2
Cp=γ R/(γ
C2o =γ RTo, and C2 =γ RT
-1),
Substituting these relations into energy equation
gives:
2 C2o /(γ -1) = 2 C2 /(γ -1) +V2= V2max …....(5)
Where:
Co is the speed of sound at stagnation temperature
(M= 0.0)
Vmax is the maximum attainable speed which is
attained when the static temperature is 0 K.
(T=0.0 K)
 2 C2 /((γ -1) V2max ) +V2 /V2max = 1
2 C2 /[(γ -1) (2 C2o /(γ -1))] +V2 /V2max = 1
C2 / C2o +V2 /V2max = 1 ……………(6)
This equation describes an ellipse as shown in the next figure.
C
M<1 M=1

Cmax =Co
M>1

C*

Vmax V
V
*

A plot of C versus V Prandtl velocity

ellipse.
The sonic velocity at Mach (M=1) is
calculated as follow:-
From equation (6)
C*2 /C2o + C*2 / V2max =1

C*2 /C2o = 1/(1+ (Co/ Vmax )2) ………..(7)

Where C=C* at M=1 Then C= V

If the fluid is generated sound
waves incompressible, the
move at an infinite speed and
can be considered as a series of
concentric spheres of pressure
disturbances.
In a compressible fluid, the
speed of sound is finite. As
shown in the next figure:
 Plane flights with M<1 at time t

C*t

Disturbed gas

Undisturbed gas
 Plane flights with M<1 at time 2t

C*t C*2t

B
A
Disturbed gas

L= V*t
Undisturbed gas
 (C)3t
(C)2t

(C)t Disturbed
gas

V
D C B A
Undisturbed
gas at rest

Initial wave
L3=Vt
L2=V2t
L1=V3t
(a) V < C
Plane flights with M<1 at time 3t
( a ) suppose a particle
moves at constant
subsonic velocity V, and it
reaches each of locations
A,B,C, and D at times 0,t,2t,
and 3t, it will emit spherical
waves.
 Mach wave

Disturbed
gas

V
D C B A
Undisturbed
gas at rest

L3=Vt Initial wave

L2=V2t
L1=V3t
(b) V = C
( b ) If the velocity of source
is sonic ,the source moves
at the same speed as the
wave that it propagates.
The sound waves can be
represented as a series of
spheres that touch each
other tangentially at the
disturbing point.
Supersonic Flight
The Mach angle Mach wave line
Undisturbed gas (Zone
of Silence).

Mach angle C(3t)

Ct C(2t)
D
Zone of V
dependenc C B A
e L3=Vt Disturbe
Apex d gas
of the L2=V2t
cone. Initial wave
L1=V3t

2c
(c) V > C (V is a constant speed)
α

t
sin α = Ct / Vt = C/V =1/M L2
( C) distance Ct while the particle
moves a During an interval time t
the wave propagates a distance Vt.
From the geometry of the figure
(c ), it is evident that:
sin α = Ct / Vt = C/V =1/M …………(8)
It applies to supersonic flow only,
and a<90o
As M increases, a decreases, and
Mach cone becomes narrower.
 Compression Shock
Mach Wave Wave

Streamline
Db

Expansion
Mach Wave

Streamline

Db

Mach waves past a concave wall and a convex wall in

the supersonic flow condition.
 Flight Path

Wave shape
Incident
wave Reflected wave

Ground level

Sonic boom

Pressure wave produced by supersonic airplane in

steady flight
 After shock
front

Forward shock
front

Flight path

Boom
carpet
Ground track

Shock cones produced by supersonic

airplane
 EFFECTIVE PARAMETERS OF
GAS FLOW WHICH ARE
CONSIDERED IN THE PRESENT
COURSE..

VARIABLE CROSS- HEAT ADD OR

SECTIONAL AREA REJECT EFFECT
DUCT EFFECT

WALL FRICTION
EFFECT.
 CHAPTER 2
Isentropic Flow (Simple
) Area change
Adiabatic flow through a variable-
area duct approaches isentropic
flow if the walls of the duct are
smooth (frictionless) and if the fluid
has zero viscosity.
 Inlet Throat
Assumption
-1-D
-Compressible fluid
-The flow is adiabatic
and frictionless
(isentropic)
To= constant, Control
Po= constant volume Outlet
According to steady-state continuity relationships:-
m. = ρ Au=constant
Ln ρ + Ln A+ Ln u = Ln const.
dρ /ρ +dA/A +du/u =0. (2.1)
According to Euler's equation:
udu=-dp/ρ (2.2)
From equations (2.2), and (2.1)
-udu/dp =1 /ρ

(-udu/dp) dρ +dA/A +du/u =0

-u2 (dρ /dp) (du/u)+dA/A +du/u =0
du/u(-(u2/c2) +1 )+dA/A =0
(du/u) ( 1 - M2 ) = - dA/A
 du/u =[1/ (M2-1)] dA/A (2.3)

From equation (2.2) udu=-dp/ρ (2.2)

du/u=-dp/(ρ u2)
dp/(ρ u2)=[1/ (1-M2)] dA/A (2.4)
From equation (2.2)
1/ρ =- (du/u)* u2/ dp *
(dρ /dρ )
1/ρ =-(du/u) (u2/ c2) / dρ
dρ /ρ = - M2 (du/u)
dρ /ρ =[ M2/ (1-M2)] dA/A (2.5)
 dA=+ve
dA=-ve

Flow
direction
Equation (in the case ofM<1 M>1
dA/A= -ve )
[du/dA]*[ A/u] =[1/ (M2-1)] du= du=
+ve -ve

[dp/ dA]*[A /(ρ u2)]=[1/ (1- dp= dp=

M2)] -ve +ve

dρ /dA]*[A/ρ ] =[ M2/ (1- dρ Dρ

M2)] = =
-ve +ve
 Equation (in the case ofM<1 M>1
dA/A=+ve )
[du/dA]*[ A/u] =[1/ (M2-1)] du= Du=
-ve +ve

[dp/ dA]*[A /(ρ u2)]=[1/ dp= Dp=

(1-M2)] +ve -ve
dρ /dA]*[A/ρ ] =[ M2/ (1- dρ = Dρ =
M2)] +ve -ve
 The energy equation:
ho= h+V2/2
To=T+V2/2 Cp
Dividing by T
To/T=1+V2/2 CpT To/T=1+V2(γ -1)/2γ RT =1+V2(γ -1)/2c
To/T=1+(γ -1)M2/2
When the flow is isentropically, its relationships
(2.6)
as follows:
(P2/P1)= (v1/v2)γ = (ρ 2/ρ 1)γ = (T2/T1)γ /( γ -1) Co2/C2 =
To/T
)Po/P=[1+(γ -1)M2/2] γ /( γ -1)
(2.7
ρ o/ρ =[1+(γ -1)M2/2] 1/( γ -1)

co/c=[1+(γ -1)M2/2] )1/2 (2.8)

 Equations describing critical
properties referred to stagnation
properties as obtain from equations
)and(2.9), 2,8),(2,7),(2.6(
by substituting M=1 and,
:when γ =1.4
T*/T0 = c*2 /c02=2/(γ +1)=0.8333
P*/P0 =[2/(γ +1)] γ /( γ -1) =0.5283
ρ */ρ 0 =[2/(γ +1)] 1/( γ -1) =0.6339
c*/c0 =[2/(γ +1)] 1/2 =0.912
 Mass flow rate in terms of Mach number :
G = m /A = ρ V =
.
P γ
V γ
RT
G =P V γ
c RT
Po P To γ
m /A =
.
M
To Po TR
m. /A =
Po γ [1+ (γ -1) M2 / 2 ]1/2 [M / [1+(γ -1)M2/2] γ /( γ -1)

To R ]

m /A =
.
Po γ [M/[1+(γ -1)M2/2] (γ +1) /(2( γ -1))
]
To R
 .
Po γ
= m /A [M/[1+(γ -1)M2
/2] (γ +1) /(2( γ -1))
]
To R

(2.10)

Po γ
m /A
. *
= To R
[2/(g+1)] (γ +1) /(2( γ -
(2.11)
1))
]

A/A*= (m. /A*) / (m. /A)

A/A*= [ (2/(g+1))(1+(γ -1)M2/2) (γ +1) /(2( γ -1))

]/M
A/A* >1 (2.12)
 Equations (2.6) to (2.12) values of To/T, Po/P, ρ o/ρ , co/c,
m. To A/A*, and
APo

can be plotted and tabulated for several g and M.

From equation (2.10)
G'=m'/A

γ [M/[1+(γ -1)M2/2] (γ +1) /(2( γ -

m. To
= R
1))
]
APo
m. To
=constant = C1
APo
M 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5
C1 0.694 1.364 3.402 3.893 4.042 3.436
 m. To
In the next figure the parameter APo
is ploted as a function of M, for g=1.4, and
.R=287.04 J/kg
m. To m. To
max ( )
APo APo

M=1 M
 Gmax occure at the section of minimum flow area
when M=1

Po γ
=G*=(m. /A)max ))
γ +1)] (γ +1)/(2( γ -1
/(2[
To R

For g=1.4, and R=287.04 J/kg.K

P
o
G*=(m. /A)max = 0.04042
To

m.(kg/sec), A(m2), Po(Pa), and To(K)

From equations (2.6) to (2.9): To/T=1+(γ -1)M2/2 (2.6)
Po/P=[1+(γ -1)M2/2] γ /( γ -1) (2.7)
T γ+1 ρ o/ρ =[1+(γ -1)M2/2] 1/( γ -1)
∴ = γ−1 M 2 ) co/c=[1+(γ -1)M2/2] )1/2
(2.8)
T * 2(1 +
(2.9)
2 T o
*
γ T
P γ +1 ( γ−
 =
P*
= [
γ −1
] 1) To
2(1 + M 2
) T
2
(1 +
γ −1
(1) 2 )
2
ρ γ +1
1
( γ− γ −1 M
ρ* = [
γ −1 M
] 1)
(1 + 2
)
2(1 + 2
) 2
2

c γ +1 1
[ ] 2
= γ −1
c* 2(1 +
2
M 2)
 The energy equation:
V=
2Cp (To − T ) ho= h+V2/2

To=T+V2/2 Cp
γR
= 2 (To − T )
γ −1
γRTo
Vmax = 2
γ −1
γ Po
= 2
γ − 1 ρo
 2
Vmax = Co
γ −1

) For  =1.4 Vmax = 2.24 Co (2.13

Note that Vmax is always finite, at Vmax however,

the Mach number is infinite, because the sonic
velocity at that temperature is zero.
Note that Vmax is always finite, at Vmax however,
the Mach number is infinite, because the sonic
velocity at that temperature is zero. The highest
velocity attainable with 293 K air is therefore:

Vmax =
2 *1.4 * 287.04
To = 44.82 T = 767.2 m/s
1.4 − 1 o

Critical Mach number M*=V/c*

M*/M = (V/c*) / (V/c) = c/c*

C*/C0 = [2 / (γ +1) ] 1/2

 Co/C = [1 + (γ -1) M2 / 2 ] 1/2

M*/M = { [(γ +1)/2] 1/2 { / [1+(γ -1)M2/2] 1/2

γ +1
M
M* = 2
(2.14).……..…
γ −1 2
1+ M
2

2
M*
γ +1
M = (2.15).……..…
γ −1
1+ M* 2

γ +1
At M=1 for g=1.4

γ +1
*=M 2.4495=
γ −1

A plot of M* versus M is shown

in figure.
 Impulse function
Force acting a control volume
F is the wall F
force exerted on
the fluid by inner V1 P A V2
P2 A2
walls of the duct 1 1
in the direction
of flow.
Note that the force F acts in a direction
opposite to thrust.
The momentum equation is:-
F+ P1A1- P2A2= m. V2-m. V1
The thrust produced by the stream between section 1 and 2 is :-
F= (P2A2+m. V2) - (P1A1+m. V1)=I2-I1
I is the impulse function.
I is the impulse function, is defined as :-

I = (PA + m. V) =PA (1+ ρ V2 / P)

I = PA(1 + γ M2) (2.16)

Specific impulse Is = F/ m. (2.17)

 e
Patm Ae
Pe Ae

Applying momentum equation at exit cross-section

area:- F+ ( Patm - Pe ) Ae= m. Ve
Applying momentum equation at exit cross-section
area:- F+ ( Patm - Pe ) Ae= m. Ve
F= m. Ve +(Pe –Patm ) Ae
From energy equation:- T =T+V 2/2C o e p

2γR T
V = 2C p (To − T ) = To (1 − )
γ −1 To
γ −1
2γRT o Pe γ (2.18)
Ve = (1 −( ) )
γ −1 Po
γ −1
2γRTo Pe γ
F =m .
(1 − ( ) ) + ( Pe − Patm ) Ae
γ −1 Po
 γ −1
2γRTo Pe γ
F =m .
(1 − ( ) ) + ( Pe − Patm ) Ae
γ −1 Po
(∂ F/∂ A e) Pe =0 to determine Pe which provides
maximum thrust.
P e-P atm =0
(Pe=Patm at maximum thrust (2.18
(∂ F/∂ P e) Ae =0 to determine A e which provides
maximum thrust. −1
. γ
2m RTo Pe
Ae = [ γ −1
] (2.19)
γ −1
2γ P γ
RTo (1 − ( ) e γ
) Po
γ −1 Po
 ‫‪−‬‬‫‪1‬‬

‫‪2m RT‬‬‫‪.‬‬
‫‪Pe γ‬‬
‫= ‪Ae‬‬ ‫‪o‬‬
‫‪γ−‬‬
‫[‬ ‫‪γ−‬‬‫‪1‬‬
‫]‬ ‫)‪(2.19‬‬
‫‪2γ‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪Pe‬‬ ‫‪γ‬‬ ‫‪Po‬‬‫‪γ‬‬
‫‪RT‬‬ ‫(‬‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪−‬‬‫(‬ ‫)‬ ‫)‬
‫‪γ −1‬‬ ‫‪o‬‬
‫‪Po‬‬
‫المعادلة السابقه توضح أنه عند أى مساحه يوجد ضغط خروج معين (‪ ( Pe‬هو الذى يساعد‬
‫على اعطاء أكبر قوة دفع‪(If Pe=Patm (maximum thrust case‬‬
‫‪γ −1‬‬
‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪2γRTo‬‬ ‫‪Pe‬‬ ‫‪γ‬‬ ‫(‪(2.20‬‬
‫‪( I s ) optimum‬‬ ‫= ‪= .‬‬ ‫) ( ‪(1 −‬‬ ‫)‬
‫‪m‬‬ ‫‪γ −1‬‬ ‫‪Po‬‬
‫‪γ −1‬‬
‫‪2γRT o‬‬ ‫‪Pe‬‬ ‫‪γ‬‬
‫‪Foptimum = m‬‬ ‫‪.‬‬
‫) ( ‪(1 −‬‬ ‫)‬ ‫(‪(2.21‬‬
‫‪γ −1‬‬ ‫‪Po‬‬
‫‪Pe‬‬
‫‪= 0.0‬‬
‫‪Po‬‬ ‫للحصول على أقصى دفع يجب أن يكون ()‪Pe/Po=0.0‬‬
‫وهذا يعنى أن (‪ ( -Pe‬يساوى صفر وهذا ل يمكن الحصول عليه ال فى حالةأن تكون‬
‫المساحة كبيرة جدا جدا‪.‬‬
 The maximum impulse is therefore obtained at
zero exit pressure and is calculated from:-

2γ RTo
( I s ) m axim um = (2.22(
γ −1
.‫هذه المعادله ل يمكن أن تتحقق ولكنها نظريه‬
impulse( ‫تأثير نظام الدفع نستطيع تصنيفه بواسطة دالة الدفع‬
( function
I=PA + m. V =PA (1+γ M)

At M=1 the critical condition is occured

I*=P*A* (1+γ )
 I PA (1 +γM ) 2
=
I* P A (1 +γ )
* *

γ
P γ +1 ( γ− 1)
[ ]
= γ −1
2(1 + M 2)
P* 2
A/A*=[(2/(γ +1))(1+(γ -1)M2/2) (γ +1) /(2( γ -1))
]/M
I 1 + γM
γ +1 2 (2.23)
=
I * M 2(γ +1)(1 + 2 M )
I
Where is tabulated as a function of M and γ .
I*
Real nozzles and diffusers:
According to frictional effects, the losses occur through
nozzle and diffuser.
From 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics:
To d So= d ho-v d Po
If no heat is transferred and if no work done (adiabatic),
then:-
T0 d S=-v o d Po (d So=d S)
Vo=R To/Po
d S/R= -d Po/Po
by integration:- ln Po2 - ln Po1 =-(S2-S1)/R
ln (Po2 /Po1 ) =-(S2-S1)/R (2.24)
‫طبقا للقانون الثانى للثروموديناميك النتروبى دائما تزيد فى هذا لجراء‬
.‫وبالتالى يجب ان يقابلها نقص فى الضغط الكلى‬
 Nozzle efficiency:

h
Po1 Po2
ho
o
V12/2
V22/2
V2s 2/2 1
h1

h2
2
h2s
2s
S
h-s diagram for nozzle
 2
(V / 2) real
η nozzle = 2
2

(V2 s / 2)isentropic
According to 1st law of thermodynamic:-

ho − h2
η nozzle = ≅ 0.9 : 0.99 (2.25(
ho − h2 s
Velocity coefficient

Cv =
(V2 ) real Cv = η nozzle (2.26)
(V2 s )isentropic
.
(m ) real
The coefficient of discharge Cd = .
(2.27(
(m ) isentropic
 Diffusers efficiency: ηD
Diffuser efficiency is defined as the isentropic enthalpy if the
flow is decelerated to pressure equal to stagnation pressure at
the diffuser exit divided by the decrease in kinetic energy if the
flow entering is decelerated isentropically to the isentropic
stagnation state
h Po1 Po2
o1
o2
3 P2
V12 /2 P1
2s 2
ηD =
1
h3 −h1 S
V12 / 2 h-S diagram for diffuser
 h3 −h1 = h3 −h1
ηD = 2 ho −h1
V1 / 2
T3
− 1 P (
γ−1
)
T3 −T1 T1 ( o2
) γ
−1
η D = V 2 / 2C =
V12 =
P1
γ −1 V12
1 p
2C pT1
2 γRT 1
(1 +
γ−1
M 2
)
(
γ−
1
2
)
(
Po 2
)
(
γ−
γ
1
)
−1
ηD =
1
2 Po1
γ−1
M 2
1
2
P02 −P1
Pressure coefficient=
Po1 −P1
 Isentropic Flow through a Nozzle
Operation of A Convergent nozzle
.under varying pressure ratios
• From equation (2.11) maximum mass
flow rate per unit area (flow density)
occurs at M=1 . Pe=P* (CHOKED
FLOW)

Po γ
m /A
. *
= To R
[2/(g+1)] (γ +1) /(2( γ -
(2.11)
1))
]
 Pe/Po
Po Pb
1 To Pe
1
2
P*/Po 3
4 d
Pb/Po
Pb/Po 1
Pe/Po 1
P*/Po 1 2
3
Pe/Po P*/Po d
2 4
1 3
d
Distance along nozzle
m.max 4

.
m

Me=1

* )Illustration of expansion from a choked convergent nozzle ( Pb < P

 Chapter 3
Waves in compressible fluid flow

Simple pressure waves Compression waves

)Rarefaction (expansion
waves
Normal stationary
shock waves Normal shock waves

Normal moving Oblique and conical

shock waves shock waves

Prantle Meyer flow and the shock

expansion procedure waves
 Normal stationary shock
waves

• Governing equations:-
• Assumption:
• A shock wave is thin, steady,
stationary, and one dimensional.
 Normal stationary shock wave

(1 ) (2 )

FLOW DIECTION

)Behind shock (1 )Front of shock (2

Upstream shock Downstream shock
M1, V1, P1, T1, r1, h1, M2, V2, P2, T2, r2, h2,
S1, Po1 S2, Po2
 From continuity equation:-
ρ 1 V1A1= ρ 2 V2A2
ρ 1 V1=ρ 2 V2
(3.1)
Conservation of momentum:-
P1A1- P2A2 =ρ 2 V22 A2 –ρ 1 V12 A1
P1+ρ V
1 1
2
= P2+ρ V
2 2
2

ρ V2 = (P/RT) V2 = γ PM
P1(1+γ M12)= P2(1+γ M22)
(3.2)
From energy equation:-
ho1 = ho2 To1 = To2
h1+V12/2= h2+V22/2
T1+V12/2Cp= T2+V22/2Cp
T1[1+V12/(2CpT1)] = T2[1+V22/(2CpT2)]
V 2

=
γ−1
M 2

2C PT 2

1+
γ− 1
M 2
T1 2
2
(3.3)
=
T2 1+
γ− 1
M 2
1
2
ρ1
=
P1 RT 2
ρ2 RT 1 P2

ρ1 P1 T2
= (3.4(
ρ2 P2 T1
From equation (3.1):-
ρ1 V1= ρ2 V2
P1 P2
M 1 γRT1 = M 2 γRT 2
RT1 RT 2
P1 P2
M1 = M2
T1 T2
From equation (3.2)
M1 M2
=
T1 (1 +γM 12 ) T2 (1 +γM 22 )
 1 1
M1 γ −1 M2 γ −1
(1 + M ) =
1
2 2
(1 + 2 2
M )
2
(1 + γM 1 )
2
2 (1 + γM 2 )
2
2
This is quadratic equation in M2 (or a quadratic
in M22) .
2 +(γ −1) M 1 2
M 2
=±
2γM 1 −(γ −1)
2 2

, ± M1 2
M12= M22 is a simple solution, means that a
shock wave is not present. The negative roots
are imaginary.
 2 +(γ −1) M 2
M 2
= 1 (3.5)
2γM 1 −(γ −1)
2 2

P02 Po 2 P2 P1 (3,6)
=
P01 P2 P1 P01
From 2nd law of thermodynamics:-
T2 P2
S 2 − S1 = C p ( Ln ) − R ( Ln )
T1 P1
S 2 − S1 P02
= −Ln ( ) (3.7)
R P01
All equations from (3.2)to (3.7) can be formed as a function
of M1 only (see gas dynamics table) as follows:-

P2 2γM γ −1 2
= − 1 (3.8)
P1 γ +1 γ +1
γ −1 2γ
(1 + M )( M 1 −1)
2 2

T2 2 γ −11
= (3.9)
T1 2γ γ −1
2
M1 ( + )
γ −1 2
ρ2 V1 (γ +1) M 2 (3.10)
= = 1
ρ1 V2 (γ −1) M 1 +1
2
 (γ −1) M +2 2
M 2
= 1 (3.11)
2γM 1 −(γ −1)
2 2

To1
= 1 (3.12)
To 2
(3.13)
1
(γ + 1) M 1 γ
2
1
Po1 2 γ −1 1 γ −1
=( ) ( )
Po 2 1 + 1 (γ − 1) M 2 2γ 2 γ −1
1 M1 −
2 γ +1 γ +1
 T2 P2
S 2 − S1 = C p ( Ln ) − R ( Ln ) (3.14)
T1 P1
S 2 − S1 1 2γM γ −1 2
= ( Ln ( − 1
))
R 1 γ −1 γ +1 γ +1
γ 2 + (γ −1) M 2
+ ( Ln ( 1
))
γ −1 (γ +1) M 12

S 2 − S1 Po 2
= −Ln (3.16)
R 1 Po1
The next figure present the plot of ∆S/R versus M1
forg=1.4

2
Shocks
are
1 possible
∆S/R
0
Shocks are
not possible

-1
0 1 2 3 4
M1

Entropy changes across a normal

stationary shock wave. (γ =1.4)
 M>1 ∆S/R= +ve
M<1 ∆S/R= -ve shocks are not possible
S2>S1 Po2 <Po1
Stagnation pressure is always lost across a station-
nary normal shock wave.
Shock wave is a discontinuous process involving
large gradient in properties.
The pressure rise across a shock wave, (P2 / P1)
is called the strength of the shock wave.

G*=(m./A)max =m./A*=

Po γ
[2/(γ +1)](γ +1) /(2( γ -1))
]
To R
m1 =
.
Po1 γ +1)] (γ +1)/(2(γ -1))]/(2[
T o R A*1

=m 2 .
Po2 γ [2/(γ +1)] (γ +1) /(2( γ -1))
] A*2
To R

m.1=m.2
*
A Po 2
1
*
= (3.17(
A 2 Po1
 ‫معادله (‪(3.17(, (3.16‬‬
‫توضح أنه بعد الصدمه يجب أل تقل المساحة عن ‪ A*2‬لنها اذا قلت عن ذلك ستسبب فى‬
‫اقلل معدل التصرف مما يؤدى الى تناقض فى المشكله الساسيه عند الدخول‪ .‬والمفهوم‬
‫السابق مهم عند مناقشة تطبيقات السريان خلل البواق‪.‬‬
‫‪S 2 −S1‬‬ ‫‪Po 2‬‬ ‫*‪A1‬‬ ‫‪Po 2‬‬
‫‪=−Ln‬‬ ‫=‬
‫‪R‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪Po1‬‬ ‫‪A2‬‬‫*‬
‫‪Po1‬‬
‫‪Stationary normal shock wave‬‬

‫‪A‬‬ ‫*‬ ‫‪A*2‬‬

‫‪1‬‬

‫‪M1>1‬‬ ‫‪M2<1‬‬

‫‪P‬‬

‫‪X‬‬
 By means of equations
(3.2) to (3.7)and eqn.(3.17),
values of M2, P2/P1, ρ 2/ρ 1,
T2/T1, PO2 /PO1 , S2-S1/R, and
A*2/A*1 can be tabulated
for several of  and for any
upstream Mach number
(M ).
 The Rankin-Hugoniot
relations
From the pressure expression given by equation
(3.8) and substituting that into the density ratio
given by equation (3.10), the following equations can
be obtained:-
P2 2γM γ−1 2
= − 1
(3.8)
P1 γ+1 γ+1

ρ2 V1 (γ +1) M 12 (3.10)
= =
ρ1 V2 (γ −1) M 1 +1
2
 γ +1 ρ2 −1
P2
=
γ − 1 ρ1
P1 γ +1 −ρ2 (3.18)

γ −1 ρ 1

γ +1 P2
+1
ρ2 γ −1 P1
=
γ +1 P2
(3.19)
ρ1 +
γ −1 p1
 From Rankin Hoiguount relation

U 2 −U 1 2 1
=± (M S − ) (3.20)
C1 γ +1 MS
C2 2 2(γ − 1) 1
( ) =1+ (γM S − 2 − γ + 1)
2
(3.21)
C1 (γ + 1) 2
MS
ρ2 1
= (3.22)
ρ1 1 + 2 (1 − 1 )
γ +1 MS2

P2 2γ
=1 + ( M S −1) (3.22)
2

P1 γ +1
Equations (3.18), and (3.19) are
called the Rankin-Hugoniot
relations.
For isentropic flow process:

P2 ρ2 γ
=( ) (3.23)
P1 ρ1
 100
70 Normal
50 shock
P2/P1 30 wave

10
7
5
Isentropi
3
c
3
5 7 10
ρ 2 /ρ
The normal shock wave (Rankine-hugniot)
1 and
isentropic curves for g =1.4.
 Operation of a
Convergent-divergent
nozzle
under varying pressure
)ratios (De-Laval nozzle
 throat
(a) nozzle Pt Pb
geometry with Po , T0 Pe
possible flow
configuration

P/Po

1.0
(b) Pressure AB
distribution C
D
caused by E
P*/Po F
various back
Sonic G
pressure H
throat I
0 X
m /m max
, .

I H G F E D C
1.0 B
(c) Mass flux
Design A
versus back
0 pressure ratio
pressure P*/Po 1.0
 Curve A, and B
The back pressure is not low enough to induce sonic flow in
the throat, and flow in the nozzle is subsonic throughout. The
pressure distribution is computed from subsonic area-
change relation. The exit pressure Pe=Pb and the jet is
subsonic.
Curve C Ae/At=Ae/A* for Me
-The throat becomes sonic and mass flux reach a
maximum.
- The remainder of the nozzle flow is subsonic Pe=Pb
Curve H
-Here Pb is such that Pb/Po corresponds to the critical
area ratio Ae/A* for a supersonic Me
-The diverging flow is entirely supersonic, including the
jet flow, and Pe=Pb.
- this is called "THE DESIGN PRESSURE RATIO OF THE
NOZZLE" . It is the back pressure suitable for:-
*operating a supersonic wind tunnel
 Curve D, E, and F
-Here, it is impossible according to purely
isentropic-flow calculations.
- the throat remains choked at the sonic value.
-We can match Pe=Pb by placing a normal
stationary shock wave at just the right place in the
diverging section to cause a subsonic diffuser flow
- The mass flux remains at maximum.
-At back pressure (F) the required normal
stationary shock wave stands in the duct exit.
Curve G
-No signal normal stationary shock wave can
do the job, and so the flow compresses outside the
exit in a complex series of oblique shocks until it
matches Pb
Curve I
at exit Pback<Pdesign
-the nozzle is choked
-the exit flow expands in a complex series of
supersonic wave motions until it match the low
back pressure.
Note:
Downstream of shock, the nozzle flow has
an adverse pressure gradient, usually leading to
wall boundary-layer separation. Blockage by the
greatly thickened separated layer interacts
strongly with the core flow.
Moving normal shock
wave relation :-
 (b) (a)
Pb Vb Va Pa
Vs
Tb Ta
. .

. .

. Vb>Va .

Moving

(2) (1)
P2 P1
T2 Vs-Vb=V2 Vs-Va=V1 T1
. .

. .

.
V1>V2 .
Stationary
 Moving Normal shock wave Stationary Normal shock wave
Pa=P1 Pa =P1
Pb =P2 Pb =P2
Ta =T1 Ta =T1
Tb =T2 Tb =T2
Ma =Va /ca M1 =(Vs –Va )/c1 =V1 /c1
Mb =Vb /cb M1 =(Vs –Vb )/c2 =V2 /c2
Toa =Ta (1+(γ -1)Ma2 /2) To1 =T1 (1+(γ -1)M12 /2)
Tob =Tb (1+(γ -1)Mb2 /2) To2 =T2 (1+(γ -1)M22 /2)
Poa =Ta (1+(γ -1)Ma2 /2) γ /( γ -1) Po1 =T1 (1+(γ -1)M12 /2) γ /( γ -1)

Pob =Tb (1+(γ -1)Mb2 /2) γ /( γ -1 ) Pob =T2 (1+(γ -1)M22 /2) γ /( γ -1)

Toa Not equal Tob T01 =To2

Super sonic wind
tunnels
M<1 M>1 Test Section M<1

Throat
M=1

Flow Direction
Compressor Heat Exchanger

Continuous Wind Tunnel (no diffuser)

 Test
M<1 M>1 Section M<1

Throat Throat
M=1 M=1

Flow Direction
Compressor Heat Exchanger

Continuous Wind Tunnel with diffuser

 Wind Tunnel Startup Sequence
(A) Initial startup

Test
M<1 M<1 Section M<1

M<1 M<1
Throat Throat

(B) Frist throat sonic

M<1 M<1 M<1

Throat Throat
M=1 ,A*1 M<1
(C) Shock in diverging section

M>1

M<1 M<1 M<1

M<1
Throat Throat
M=1 ,A*1
(D) Shock in Test Section Entrance

M<1 M>1 M<1 M<1

Throat Throat
M=1 ,A*1 M=1 , A*2
(E) Shock Swallowed ‫الصدمة ُأبتلعت‬
M>1

M<1 M>1 M>1 M<1

Throat
M=1 ,A*1
(F) Shock-Free deceleration with variable-area diffuser throat.

M<1 M>1 M>1 M<1

Throat Throat
M=1 ,A*1 M=1 , A*2
(G) Shock in diffuser ( fixed area ) throat.

M<1 M>1 M>1 M<1

Throat
M=1 ,A*1
 End of Chapters 1,2, and 3.

CHAPTER 1 Fundamental Concepts of Compressible

Fluid Dynamics

)CHAPTER 2 Isentropic Flow (Simple Area change

CHAPTER 3 Waves in Compressible Fluid Flow

) (Stationary and Moving Normal Shock Wave