BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS

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3
Electricity: Buildings
are now producers!
Extend our current lifestyle and consumption level to the rest of
humanity is not possible our planet cannot supply the required
resources without becoming unliveable. We must change our
consumption level, even if this means revolutionising our energy
use. Until now energy production has dictated consumption levels,
and the environmental consequences of our energy
production were only acted on after the fact.
Today, our energy behaviour must change:
Reduce our energy requirements to ensure
a sustainable development
Adapt energy production to specific energy
use for overall energy efficiency
Progressively reduce our consumption of fossil
fuels, condemned by the lack of resources and
high pollution.
The share of renewable energies in our energy mix
must increase over half our energy production could
be supplied by renewable energies in the long term.
Whilst the evolution of the energy mix is possible,
because of the decentralised nature of renewable
energy production, it will require significant changes
in our current, irresponsible consumption habits.
Todays careless consumers must become tomorrows
informed, responsible, energy consumers AND
energy producers.
The examples and case studies presented in this booklet are a first
step. We must work hard to promote and generalise photovoltaics,
ready for the near future, when building integrated photovoltaics
become a financially competitive energy producer.
Didier Lenoir, Chairman of the Comit
de Liaison Energies Renouvelables
AESTHETIC
TECHNIC
ECOLOGY
ECONOMY
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Photovoltaic modules have gained
all the necessary technical approvals
and their durability is no longer
an issue the first installations
are now over twenty years old.
The durability of the material itself
(the modules) and the production
capacity guarantee (20 to 26 years
for crystalline modules) is such
that photovoltaics, when integrated
into a building, often have a longer
guaranteed life than many other
building elements. The construction
features (frame and glazing) have
benefited from the same research and
technical progress as any other const-
ruction material in the last twenty years.
Finally, besides their electrical
capabilities, building integrated
photovoltaics make a strong
environmental statement. The
symbolic value can be a crucial
point for the image of certain
companies, communities
and inhabitants.
As we can see, the reliability and
the many ways of adapting photo-
voltaics to a building make it an ideal
partner for architects, both for new
constructions and renovations.
A durable material for
a sustainable image
WITH A CLEAN, SUSTAINABLE IMAGE AND AN INNOVATIVE MODERN
LOOK, PHOTOVOLTAICS ARE AN IDEAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL.
A VARIETY OF SHAPES, COLOURS AND FORMS, AND THE ABILITY
TO BLEND IN (OR STAND OUT!) ALLOWS ARCHITECTS TO EITHER
HIGHLIGHT (OR HIDE) THE USE OF PHOTOVOLTAICS.
AESTHETIC
4 ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS
Interesting
repetitive
shadow
effects
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Photovoltaic panels can be integra-
ted in buildings in many ways:
for roofing, faades or as shading.
They can form part of the actual
structure of a wall, providing
a waterproof shell, or positioned
alongside it in order to provide
shade from the sun. Photovoltaics
can even act as a balustrade. They
can often be found integrated into
roofs and curtain walls, but more
recently, photovoltaics have taken
the form of tiles and slating which
can be very simply integrated
in a conventional roof covering.
The panels are mostly a midnight
blue colour and their finishes give
them a hi-tech appearance. This
aspect can be highlighted throu-
ghout the entire building or conver-
sely, be used as a contrast to
the more rustic features
of an existing construction.
They thus add an undeniably
contemporary dimension
to the whole.
The multiple possibilities of shape
and size of the actual panels can
even offer an outlet for creativity,
by highlighting either repetitive
or different features.
Nowadays, the increased use of
semi-transparent panels has further
extended the range of possibilities
by offering a further element of
light which can be varied at will by
the architect. In fact, the percen-
tage of cover provided by the cells
and their shape can be jointly deci-
ded by the architect and the
manufacturer.
Even better, the shade provided by
photovoltaic cells for conservatories
and greenhouses enables the tem-
perature to be controlled and pre-
vents excessive heating, which
makes semi-transparent panels an
invaluable element in bio-climatic
construction. They can also provide
an innovative feature in the faade
by making use of the double
envelope principle.
Flexibility in design
The versatility
of photovoltaics
makes it an ideal
construction
material
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TECHNIC
PHOTOVOLTAICS CAN HELP BUILDINGS SUPPLY THEIR ENERGY NEEDS
BY GENERATING ELECTRICITY FROM SUNLIGHT. THIS ELECTRICITY
CAN THEN BE USED ON THE SPOT OR SOLD ON TO THE GRID.
4 ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS
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Solar energy
Photovoltaic systems use the
suns energy to produce electricity.
As the amount of energy the sun
delivers varies across Europe, so to
the amount of electricity generated
by a photovoltaic system will vary.
However, once photovoltaics are inte-
grated into buildings, other criteria,
such as aesthetics, weatherproofness
or shading capacity, become more
important. The real advantage
of photovoltaics is that they
are a building element that just
happens to produce electricity!
Cells and Modules
The photovoltaic effect, where
a semiconductor generates a direct
current (DC electricity) when exposed
to light, was discovered by Becquerel
in 1839 and forms the basis
of modern photovoltaics.
Crystalline photovoltaic cells consists
of a two layer semiconductor with
a screen printed metallic network
to collect the electrical current genera-
ted. Because the voltage generated
by a single cell is low, cells are joined
together inside a protective sand-
wich of toughened highly trans-
parent glass and plastic (transparent
or opaque) to create modules.
These modules can then be incor-
porated into many common building
elements as a glass panel of a given
transparency (double or triple glazed
windows, glass faades, skylights...)
suitable for structural applications,
as an opaque glass element, or
a classic photovoltaic module.
Cell technology
The most commonly used cell
technologies are mono-crystalline,
multi-crystalline and thin film.
Modules with crystalline cells domi-
nant the market; they have a high
efficiency and long life. Whilst they
are generally shades of blue, many
different colours can be made to
order by changing the thickness of
the anti-reflective coating on the cell.
Mono crystalline cells are generally
dark blue whereas multicrystalline
cells have a less regular multi-crystal
composition.
Crystalline cells are generally
preferred for window and faade
applications, and roof installations
where space is limited.
Thin film modules are created by
the deposition of a thin layer of semi-
conductor onto a smooth homoge-
nous surface (glass, metal... even
flexible plastics!). The deposition
process gives thin film modules a
smooth black appearance. Whilst thin
film modules have a lower efficiency
than crystalline cells, their manufac-
ture requires less semi-conductor
and is cheaper per square meter.
Thin film products are particularly
well suited to industrial building
faade and roof elements as well
as other places where large surfaces
need to be covered.
Grid connected systems
Photovoltaic systems can be used with
(grid-connected) or without (stand
alone) the utility grid. In Europe
the fastest growing application is grid
connected systems, because of the
extended coverage of the utility
grid, the flexibility of grid connected
systems and the generally lower
system costs involved.
The photovoltaic systems direct
current electricity (D.C.) is converted
to alternating current (A.C) by an
inverter, and is then injected into the
electricity grid. The inverter ensures
that the exported electricity has the
same characteristics as the utility grid
generally a frequency of 50Hz at
230V. Other components, such as
module wiring and electricity meters
also form part of the system.
Two basic photovoltaic grid connection
situations exist depending on the local
legal framework
Photovoltaics production supplies
buildings needs and any excess
production is fed into the grid
the entire production is exported to
the grid. Electricity fed into the grid
can either be sold at the same price
as the electricity bought from the
grid (net metering) or at a different
price (feed in tariff).
Of course, a photovoltaic system
will only produce electricity when
exposed to light; at night the utility
grid must supply the buildings
electricity needs.
Optimal Production
Factors that influence the production
of a photovoltaic system include
the location, orientation and inclina-
tion of the system, temperature
and shadowing.
The ideal orientation and tilt to the
photovoltaic modules will generally
be due south at an angle of 30 (sou-
thern Europe) to over 40 (northern
Europe). However, a deviation from
the ideal need not significantly reduce
production a south-east photovoltaic
faade will lose just over 10%
compared to an ideal system, whilst
preserving the photovoltaic systems
double use as a building element.
Increased temperatures reduce the
efficiency of photovoltaic cells, and
with their dark colouring a significant
amount of solar energy is retained
as heat, so adequate ventilation is
essential. A module may only produce
as much power as its least productive
cell, so it is important that shadowing
be minimised, or accounted for in
the production estimates of a system.
PV
array
inverter
electric
appliances
kW.h
kW.h
grid
d.c.
=
a.c.
PHOTON
lectrons
0,5V
n
p
Solar energy
source: Perseus
Cells and modules
source: Perseus
grid connected systems
source: Hip hip
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2kWp PV Tile
Domestic System
This 2kWp systems consists
of 40 pre-cabled PV tiles,
retrofitted into an existing
clay-tiled roof. The pv tiles
replace 5 existing clay tiles
the metal frame holding
the pv module has the same
shape as the existing tiles,
so no further waterproofing
work is required.
Contributing to
a cleaner environment
The owners were environ-
mentally motivated for
their system, and were
very pleased with the
aesthetic integration of
the photovoltaic system.
PHOTOVOLTAICS AND SINGLE DWELLINGS
PV TILE HOME SYSTEM
We wanted our home to have an
active solar architectures, and show
our desire to act in favour of clean
energy generation. We chose
to put the PV modules over the garage door
because our roof is not orientated towards
the south. This solution also had the advantage
of leaving the cabling visible from below.
Paul Coste
Location Duingt, Haute Savoie (France)
Building function Family home
Peak Power 2.2kWp
Annual production 2000kWh/year
PV system 20m
2
; pre-cabled 50W
photovoltaic (pv) tile fully
compatible with 9 models
of Imerys Toitures
clay roofing tiles.
PV system supplier Imerys Toiture
PV system installer Imerys Toiture
Date commissioning September 2002
Overall PV Approx. 16800 installed
system cost (not including VAT)
photo: Hespul
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9.6kWp photovoltaic system
The remains of an 11
th
century church have been
used to create a tourist
information centre; 3 multi
level bay windows increase
the usable space within the
tourist information centre.
Each of these bays is a
double PV and insulated-
glass faade, with an 11cm
gap between the semi-
transparent PV modules
and the double glazed glass
wall. The air in this gap,
warmed by the sun, is used
for pre-heating the building
in winter and ventilation
in summer.
The PV designers goal was
to imagine an active South
faade that would optimise
and balance the climatic
behaviour of the building
(Yves Jautard)
The modules are semi
transparent glass-glass
with a brown/black anti-
reflection coating, selected
for aesthetic reasons.
Principally installed at 38
west of south, each of the
three faades contains 70
Photowatt modules of 46Wp
(for a total of 210 modules
or 9.6kWp).
The modules are connected
in 3 series to a SMA 25000
inverter before finally
delivering their production
to each phase of the
buildings three-phase
connection. Production and
consumption is measured
through two disc meters
installed in series.
Lower annual charges
The need to create
additional working volumes
under south facing arches
in a sunny region naturally
lead to the idea of using
photovoltaics. Transparent
modules added light to
the workspaces whilst
the innovative use of the
photovoltaics and a system
of hot air recuperation
allows a substantial share
of the buildings energy
needs to be supplied by
the building itself. A lower
annual bill is good news
for public buildings!
HIGH TECH IN HERITAGE BUILDINGS
ALS AND CVENNES TOURIST INFORMATION OFFICE
Location Als, Gard (France)
Building function Tourist Information Office
Owner Als Local Council
Peak Power Three 3.2kWp faades
for a total of 9.6kWp
Annual production 6000kWh/year
PV system Made to order Photowatt
46Wp modules with
a brown coating
Project Management Jean-Franois Roug
/Architect
PV Design Solarte
and Installation
Faade Technicalu
Thermal Consultants Izuba Technologies
Date commissioning April 2001
Total cost 480000
of renovation (total cost of faade: 160000)
Overall PV system cost 67 000
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ECOLOGY
WITH THE CAPACITY TO GENERATE CLEAN CO2-FREE ELECTRICITY FROM
THE SUN, PHOTOVOLTAICS ARE PART OF THE ANSWER TO TODAYS ENERGY
AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS.
4 ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS
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Solar photovoltaic electricity is unique
amongst the new energy sources for
the wide range of energy and non-
energy benefits which it provides,
whilst the use of a photovoltaic power
system as an integral part of a building
provides the greatest opportunity
for exploiting non-energy benefits and
for adding value to the photovoltaic
power system.
Photovoltaic power systems installed
on the surfaces of buildings allow
the possibilities of combining energy
production with other functions
of the building envelope, including
structural support, weatherproofing,
shading or solar thermal collection.
Cost savings through these combined
functions can be substantial.
Additionally, no high-value land
is required, no separate support
structure is necessary and electricity
is generated at the point of use. This
last contributes directly to the buil-
ding occupant's electricity require-
ments while also avoiding transmis-
sion and distribution losses and
reducing capital and maintenance
costs for utilities.
The integration of the photovoltaic
power system into the architectural
design offers more than cost benefits.
It also allows the designer to create
environmentally benign and energy
efficient buildings without sacrificing
comfort, aesthetics or economy, and
offers a new and versatile building
material.
Solar photovoltaic electricity can
contribute significantly to reductions
in greenhouse gas emissions from
the electricity sector. Lifetime CO
2
emissions with current photovoltaic
power system technologies are 85
to 94% less than those from coal
fired power stations and will be
95 to 97% less with new technologies.
Solar photovoltaic electricity can
contribute to improvements in air
quality. When it displaces coal fired
generation, the N0x emissions are
typically reduced by 50% and S0x
emissions by 90%, making solar
photovoltaic electricity a valuable
addition to clean air policies.
Solar photovoltaic electricity can
assist in securing energy supplies in
both the long-term and short-term.
Dispersed photovoltaic power systems
feeding into electricity distribution
networks, or operating independently,
can provide more reliable electricity
supplies during power outages caused
by summer peaks or emergency
situations.
IMEC, as a micro-electronics
research institute, is a centre
of excellence in solar cells
research. For its newly built
cafeteria, it has chosen to
demonstrate different
methods of PV system
integration.
Soltech, a spin-off company
of IMEC, was at that time
developing a technology
based on acrylates, for semi-
transparent PV modules,
and therefore it was chosen
to use this type of modules.
The PV system is split up
into 3 different surfaces:
2 sun shading surfaces above
the south-oriented windows
and 1 semi-transparent
atrium glazing.
Each of the sun shading
surfaces consists of 7x116Wp
modules each 1.2 m
2
large.
The modules are based
on a glass glass sandwich
and the distance between the
modules is 3cm. The modules
are fixed on a steel structure
using structural glazing
components.
In the atrium 5PV modules
of 130Wp each and
1 module of 84Wp, have
been integrated. The semi-
transparent modules are
integrated in a double
insulating glazing structure
and mounted in standard
greenhouse aluminium
profiles.
Each of the 20 PV modules
is connected to the local grid
via a separate module inverter
of the type NKF OK4E-100.
IMEC CAFETERIA
HEVERLEE
Location Kapeldreef 75, B-3000 Leuven
Building function Company restaurant
Owner IMEC
Peak Power 2.38 kWp
Annual Production 1309 kWh/year
PV System sunscreens 16.13 m2,
sunspace roof 7.68 m2
Architect Atenco nv
Engineering IMEC
PV system supplier Soltech
PV system installer Soltech
Date commissioning 1999
Overall PV system cost 25000
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ECONOMY
PROVIDING THE SERVICES OF TRADITIONAL BUILDING MATERIALS SUCH
AS SUN SHADING OR WATERPROOFING, PHOTOVOLTAICS HAVE MORE
TO OFFER INCOME GENERATION THROUGH ELECTRICITY SALES!
4 ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS
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For customers, photovoltaic power sys-
tems offers a range of benefits, which can
significantly increase the system value.
These include providing aesthetically
pleasing, non-intrusive, multi-purpose
building elements, ensuring supply relia-
bility, reducing energy and peak demand
charges and contributing to environmen-
tal protection.
Building Integrated Photovoltaics
represent the combination of proven
renewable power generating technology
and the building exterior using traditio-
nal building practices. It means that solar
panels are planned and built along with
the building structure. This combination
brings benefits such as:
Financial appeal
costs are combined for a building
material and power generation
Distributed power
generation
greater independence and less reliance
on centralised fossil fuel power sources
Economies of scale
leverages large inventory of constructed
surface area for renewable power
production
Improved real
estate values
capitalise on short and long term
property investment
Easy integration to standard
construction practice
can be retrofitted to existing
construction or installed new
No independent
support structures
minimise system cost
Hassle-free operation
low to no maintenance
with no moving parts
Improved aesthetics
avoids the look of being
an afterthought or add-on
a winner
on any terms
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PHOTOVOLTAICS IN SOCIAL HOUSING
EUROPES LARGEST RESIDENTIAL BUILDING INTEGRATED PV FACADE
Electricity from PV system
covers part of the electricity
demand for lifts, ventilation,
emergency lighting, etc in
the building. Additionally, the
solar installation is connec-
ted to the public grid to feed
the excess electricity not
consumed in the building.
With the reconstruction of
the double tower block dwel-
lings, the building owner
wanted
to set a persuasive precedent
and showcase possible solu-
tions for the future-oriented
management of apartment
tower blocks. This is clearly
visible on the 70-meter high
south facade with its photo-
voltaic installation. The
architecturally magnificent
PV-design was presented
in the frame
of the Berlin 21 bridges to
the Solar Age decentralised
project of the Hannover
Expo2000.
Location Helene-Weigel-Platz 6/7,
Berlin-Marzahn
Building function Residential building
Owner Wohnungsbaugesellschaft
Marzahn mbH, Berlin,
Architect Becker Gewers Khn und Khn
PV system 426m
2
south facing panels;
480 modules made
of multi-layer safety glass,
with 72 multi-crystalline
solar cells
Peak Power 48kWp
Annual Production 25,000 kWh /year
CO2 savings 72 tons/year
Energy savings 4,500/year (corresponding
to an average of 12
per apartment)
Overall PV system cost 3.6 Million
Date commissioning 2000
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FAADE INTEGRATED PV
A NEW AREA OF INDUSTRIAL CONSTRUCTION CULTURE
To demonstrate that indus-
trial buildings can do more
than express the dreariness
and coldness of a production
centre the installation work
for Europes greatest steel
facade had been completed
in 2002. ThyssenKrupp Stahl
has ushered in a new indus-
trial construction culture era
by means of the reconstruc-
tion of this building in which
the heat fission system is
accommodated. PV ele-
ments, created according
to the drafts of a renowned
colour designer, have been
attached to the facade in an
undulating design. Matching
tones of green integrate
the building very well in
the surrounding landscape
and the wave
shaped structure forms an
interesting contrast to the
straight lines of modern
architecture. In this way
it meets the demand for an
innovative triad of design,
colour and functionality on
an industrial building in an
attractive fashion: Ecology
for eyes as stated by the
involved colour designer
Friedrich Ernst von Ganier.
each
Location ThyssenKrupp Stahl AG,
47139 Duisburg-Beeckerwerth
Building function Industrial building
Owner ThyssenKrupp Stahl AG,
Germany
Planner Mr. Malavasi
Installer CONTECNA, Oberhausen,
Germany
PV system 1004 solar modules
of THYSSEN-Solartec
design arranged on 6 southern
faades up to 24 metres
in height with a pure solar
surface area of approx. 1000m
2
Peak Power 51.06 kWp
Annual Production 32,130 kWh/a
Overall PV system cost 830,000 (includes PV facade
modules, structuring elements,
installation work, inverters,
cost for grid connection etc.)
Date commissioning May 2002
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In a word
Durable, modular and flexible in use, as
demonstrated by the different case studies
in this publication, photovoltaics can replace
diverse building elements, from glass faades
to weather proof roofs. Available in many
shapes, colours and styles, photovoltaics
can be integrated into any project, form high-
tech science centres to prestigious heritage
buildings.
Versatile, photovoltaics not only produce
electricity but can also play an active role
in regulating building energy use through
controlled shading and transparency.
All these qualities make photovoltaics
an ideal modern building materiel. What
is more, the clean electricity produced by
photovoltaics is particularly suited to our
energy-hungry but over-polluted world,
helping to create responsible, aware
consumer-producers.
Further information
The information and examples
in this booklet are by no means
exhaustive; further information
can be obtained through
the PREDAC partners
and the PREDAC website:
www.cler.org/predac
the PREDAC web site presents
the results of the PREDAC project
(case studies, snapshot of current
practices, this leaflet is downloadable
for free)
www.hespul.org
(in French)
www.apere.org
(in French)
www.iea-pvps.org
for information on building
integrated photovoltaic projects
around the world, the International
Energy Agency PVPS task group
has established a searchable on-line
database with photos and information
about building integrated photovoltaic
projects and constructions.
www.pvportal.com
a multi-purpose site with links
to different organisations and
companies across the world
www.demosite.ch
a website dedicated to photovoltaic
integration products
PREDAC coordination
Emmanuel Poussard (CLER, France)
predac@cler.org
WP6 consortium
Project coordination
Melodie de l'Epine (Hespul, France)
melodie.delepine@hespul.org
Isabelle Prignot (APERe, Belgium)
iprignot@apere.org
Klaus Grepmeier (ZREU, Germany)
grepmeier@zreu.de
graphism
Atelier des grands pchers
Un projet soutenu par
l'Union Europenne
(www.cordis.lu/fp5)
et l'ADEME (www.ademe.fr),
coordonn par
le CLER (www.cler.org)