Track and field

The track and field stadium is at the heart of the sport.

Track and field (also known as track and field sports and track and field athletics) is a sport comprising various competitive
athletic contests based around the activities of running, jumping and throwing. The name of the sport derives from the venue for the
competitions: a stadium which features an oval running track surrounding a grassy area. The throwing and jumping events generally
take place within the central enclosed area.
Track and field is one of the sports which (along with road running, cross country running and race walking) makes up the umbrella
sport of athletics. It is under the banner of athletics that the two most prestigious international track field competitions are held: the
thletics competition at the !lympic "ames and the I# $orld %hampionships in thletics. The International ssociation of
thletics #ederations is the international governing body for track and field.
Track and field events are generally individual sports with athletes challenging each other to decide a single victor. The racing events
are won by the athlete with the fastest time, while the jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who has achieved the
greatest distance or height in the contest. The running events are categorised as sprints, middle and long&distance events, relays, and
hurdling. 'egular jumping events include long jump, triple jump, high jump and pole vault, while the most common throwing events
are shot put, javelin, discus and hammer. There are also combined events, such as heptathlon and decathlon, in which athletes compete
in a number of the above events.
'ecords are kept of the best performances in specific events, at world and national levels, right down to a personal level. (owever, if
an athlete is deemed to have violated the event)s rules or regulations, they are dis*ualified from the competition and their marks are
erased.
History
"reek vase from +,,-% depicting a running contest
The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory. Track and field&style events are among the oldest of all sporting
competitions as running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical e.pression. The first recorded
e.amples of organi/ed track and field events at a sports festival are the ncient !lympic "ames. t the first "ames in 001 -% in
!lympia, "reece, only one event was contested: the stadion footrace.
234
The scope of the "ames e.panded in later years to include
further running competitions but the introduction of the ncient !lympic pentathlon marked a step towards track and field as it is
recognised today 5 it comprised a five&event competition of the long jump, javelin throw, discus throw, the stadion foot race, and
wrestling.
264274
Track and field events were also present at the 8anhellenic "ames in "reece around this period and they spread to 'ome in Italy
around 6,, -%.
2942+4
fter the period of %lassical anti*uity (in which the sport was largely "reco&'oman influenced) new track and
field events began developing in parts of :orthern ;urope in the <iddle ges. The stone put and weight throw competitions popular
among %eltic societies in Ireland and =cotland were precursors to the modern shot put and hammer throw events. !ne of the last track
and field events to develop was the pole vault, which stemmed from competitions such as the #ierljeppen contests in the :orthern
;uropean >owlands in the 3?th century.
n early model of hurdling at the @etroit thletic %lub in 3???.
@iscrete modern track and field competitions, separate from general sporting festivals, were first recorded in the late 3?,,s. These
were typically organised by educational institutions, military organisations and sports clubs as competitions between rival
establishments.
214
%ompetitive hurdling first came into being around this point, with the advent of the steeplechase in ;ngland around
3?+,.
204
The mateur thletic ssociation was established in ;ngland in 3??, as the first national body for the sport of athletics and,
under this grouping, track and field became the focus of the annual %hampionships. The Anited =tates also began holding an
annual national competition 5 the A= !utdoor Track and #ield %hampionships 5 first held in 3?01 by the :ew Bork thletic %lub.
2?4

#ollowing the establishment of general sports governing bodies for the Anited =tates (the mateur thletic Anion in 3???) and #rance
(the Anion des sociCtCs franDaises de sports athlCti*ues in 3??E), track and field events began to be promoted and codified.
Fim Thorpe fell foul of the sport)s early amateur principles and lost his !lympic medals
The rebirth of the !lympic "ames at the end of the 3Eth century marked a new high for track and field. The !lympic athletics
programme, comprising track and field events plus a marathon race, contained many of the foremost sporting competitions of the 3?E1
=ummer !lympics. The !lympics also consolidated the use of metric measurements in international track and field events, for race
distances as well as measuring jumps and throws. The !lympic athletics programme greatly e.panded over the ne.t decades and track
and field contests remained among the "ames most prominent. The !lympics was the elite competition for track and field and only
amateur sportsmen could compete. Track and field would continue to be a largely amateur sport as this rule was strictly enforced: Fim
Thorpe was stripped of his track and field medals from the 3E36 !lympics after it was revealed that he had played baseball
professionally.
2E4
That same year, the International mateur thletic #ederation (I#) was established, becoming the international governing body for
track and field, and it enshrined amateurism as one of its founding principles for the sport. The :ational %ollegiate thletic
ssociation held their first <en)s !utdoor Track and #ield %hampionship in 3E63, making it one of the most prestigious competitions
for students, and this was soon followed by the introduction of track and field at the inaugural $orld =tudent "ames in 3E67.
23,4
The
first continental track and field competition was the 3E3E =outh merican %hampionships, which was followed by the ;uropean
thletics %hampionships in 3E79.
2334
Ap until the early 3E6,s, track and field had been almost e.clusively a male&only pursuit. The
women)s sports movement led to the introduction of five track and field events for women in the athletics at the 3E6? =ummer
!lympics and more women)s events were gradually introduced as years progressed (although it was only towards the end of the
century that the men)s and women)s programmes approached parity of events). #urthermore, major track and field competitions for
disabled athletes were first introduced at the 3E1, =ummer 8aralympics.
%arl >ewis was among the athletes who helped increase track and field)s profile
$ith the rise of numerous regional championships, as well as the growth in !lympic&style multi&sport events (such as the
%ommonwealth "ames and the 8an&merican "ames), competitions between international track and field athletes became
widespread. #rom the 3E1,s onwards, the sport gained more e.posure and commercial appeal through television coverage and the
increasing wealth of nations. fter over half a century of amateurism, the amateur status of the sport began to be displaced by growing
professionalism in the late 3E0,s.
214
s a result, the mateur thletic Anion was dissolved in the Anited =tates and it was replaced
with a non&amateur body solely focused on the sport of athletics: The thletics %ongress (later A= Track and #ield).
2364
The I#
soon followed suit in 3E?6, abandoning amateurism, and later removing all references to it from its name by rebranding itself as the
International ssociation of thletics #ederations.
214
The following year saw the establishment of the I# $orld %hampionships in
thletics 5 the first ever global competition for just athletics which became one of track and field)s most prestigious competitions
along with the !lympics.
The profile of the sport reached a new high in the 3E?,s, with a number of athletes becoming household names (such as %arl >ewis,
=ergey -ubka, =ebastian %oe, Gola -udd and #lorence "riffith&Foyner). <any world records were broken in this period and the added
political element between competitors of the Anited =tates, ;ast "ermany, and the =oviet Anion, in reaction to the %old $ar only
served to stoke the sport)s popularity. The increase in the commercial capacity of track and field was also met with developments in
the application of sports science and there were many changes to coaching methods, athlete)s diet regimes, training facilities and sports
e*uipment. This was also accompanied by an increase in the use of performance&enhancing drugs and prominent cases, such as
!lympic gold medallists -en Fohnson and <arion Fones, damaged the public image and marketability of the sport.
#rom the 3EE,s onwards, track and field became increasingly more professional and international, as the I# gained over two
hundred member nations. The I# $orld %hampionships in thletics became a fully professional competition with the introduction
of pri/e money in 3EE0,
214
and in 3EE? the I# "olden >eague 5 an annual series of major track and field meetings in ;urope 5
provided a higher level of economic incentive in the form of a A=H3 million jackpot. In 6,3,, the series was replaced by the more&
lucrative I# @iamond >eague which comprises meetings in ;urope, sia, :orth merica and the <iddle ;ast 5 the first ever
worldwide annual series of track and field meetings.
2374
Events
Track and field events are divided in to three broad categories: track events, field events, and combined events. The majority of
athletes tend to specialise in just one event (or event type) with the aim of perfecting their performances, although the aim of
combined events athletes is to become proficient in a number of disciplines. Track events involve running on a track over a specified
distances and 5 in the case of the hurdling and steeplechase events 5 obstacles may be placed on the track. There are also relay races in
which teams of athletes run and pass on a baton to their team member at the end of a certain distance.
There are two types of field events: jumps, and throws. In jumping competitions, athletes are judged on either the length or height of
their jumps. The performances of jumping events for distance are measured from a board or marker, and any athlete overstepping this
mark is judged to have fouled. In the jumps for height, an athlete must clear their body over a crossbar without knocking the bar off
the supporting standards. The majority of jumping events are unaided, although athletes propel themselves vertically with purpose&
built sticks in the pole vault.
The throwing events involve hurling an implement (such as a heavy weight, javelin or discus) from a set point, with athletes being
judged on the distance that the object is thrown. %ombined events involve the same group of athletes contesting a number of different
track and field events 5 points are given for their performance in each event and the athlete with the greatest points total at the end of
all events is the winner.
Official world championship track and field events
Track Field
Combined events
Sprints Middle-distance Lon-distance H!rdles "elays #!mps Throws
60 m
3,, m
6,, m
9,, m
?,, m
3+,, m
3000 m
+,,, m
3,,,,, m
60 m hurdles
3,, m hurdles
33, m hurdles
9,, m hurdles
7,,, m steeplechase
9I3,, m relay
9I9,, m relay
>ong jump
Triple jump
(igh jump
8ole vault
=hot put
@iscus throw
(ammer throw
Favelin throw
Pentathlon
(eptathlon
@ecathlon
:ote: ;vents in italics are competed at indoor world championships only
Footraces
Sprints
Main article: Sprint (race)
The finish of a women)s 3,, m race
'aces over short distances, or sprints, are among the oldest running competitions. The first 37 editions of the ncient !lympic "ames
featured only one event 5 the stadion race, which was literally a race from one end of the stadium to the other.
234
=printing events are
focused around athletes reaching and sustaining their *uickest possible running speed. There are three sprinting events which are
currently held at the !lympics and outdoor $orld %hampionships: the 3,, metres, 6,, metres, and 9,, metres. These events have
their roots in races of imperial measurements which were later altered to metric: the 3,, m evolved from the 3,, yard dash,
2394
the
6,, m distances came from the furlong (or 3J?th of a mile),
23+4
and the 9,, m was the successor to the 99, yard dash or *uarter&mile
race.
2314
t the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before leaning forward and
gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained.
2304
thletes remain in the same lane on the
running track throughout all sprinting events,
23?4
with the sole e.ception of the 9,, m indoors. 'aces up to 3,, m are largely focused
upon acceleration to an athlete)s ma.imum speed.
23E4
ll sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance.
26,4
(uman physiology dictates that a runner)s near&top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so as lactic acid
builds up and leg muscles begin to be deprived of o.ygen.
23?4
The 1, metres is a common indoor event and it an indoor world championship event. !ther less&common events include the +,
metres, ++ metres, 7,, metres and +,, metres which are used in some high school and collegiate competitions in the Anited =tates.
The 3+, metres, though rarely competed, has a star&studded history: 8ietro <ennea set a world best in 3E?7,
2634
!lympic champions
<ichael Fohnson and @onovan -ailey went head&to&head over the distance in 3EE0,
2664
and Asain -olt improved <ennea)s record in
6,,E.
2634
Middle distance
rne ndersson (left) and "under (Kgg (right) broke a number of middle distance world records in the 3E9,s
Further information: Middle distance track event
-eyond the short distances of sprinting events, factors such as an athlete)s reactions and top speed becomes less important, while
*ualities such as pace, race tactics and endurance become more so.
26742694
The most common middle distance track events are the ?,,
metres, 3+,, metres and mile run, although the 7,,, metres may also be classified as a middle distance event.
26+4
The ??, yard run, or
half mile, was the forebear to the ?,, m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the Anited Lingdom in the 3?7,s.
2694
The
3+,, m came about as a result of running three laps of a +,, m track, which was commonplace in continental ;urope in the 3E,,s.
2674
'unners start the race from a standing position along a curved starting line and after hearing the starter)s pistol they head towards the
inner&most track to follow the *uickest route to the finish. In ?,, m races athletes begin at a staggered starting point before the turn in
the track and they must remain in their lanes for the first 3,, m of the race.
2614
This rule was introduced in order to reduce the amount
of physical jostling between runners in the early stages of the race.
2694
8hysiologically, these middle distance events demand that
athletes have good aerobic and anaerobic energy producing systems, and also that they have strong speed endurance.
2604
The 3+,, m and mile run events have historically been some of the most prestigious track and field events. =wedish rivals "under
(Kgg and rne ndersson broke each other)s 3+,, m and mile world records on a number of occasions in the 3E9,s.
26?426E4
The
prominence of the distances were maintained by 'oger -annister, who (in 3E+9) was the first to run the long&elusive four&minute mile,
27,42734
and Fim 'yun)s e.ploits served to popularise interval training.
2674
'aces between -ritish rivals =ebastian %oe, =teve !vett and
=teve %ram characterised middle distance running in 3E?,s.
2764
#rom the 3EE,s onwards, :orth fricans such as :oureddine <orceli
of lgeria and (icham ;l "uerrouj of <orocco came to dominate the 3+,, and mile events.
2674
Lon distance
Lenenisa -ekele leading in a long distance track event
Main article: Longdistance track event
There are three common long distance running events in track and field competitions: 7,,, metres, +,,, metres and 3,,,,, metres.
The latter two races are both !lympic and $orld %hampionship events outdoors, while the 7,,, m is held at the I# $orld Indoor
%hampionships. The +,,, m and 3,,,,, m events have their historical roots in the 7&mile and 1&mile races. The 7,,, m was
historically used as a women)s long distance event, entering the $orld %hampionship programme in 3E?7 and !lympic programme in
3E?9, but this was abandoned in favour of a women)s +,,, m event in 3EE+.
2774
In terms of competition rules and physical demands, long distance track races have much in common with middle distance races,
e.cept that pacing, stamina, and race tactics become much greater factors in performances.
279427+4
(owever, a number of athletes have
achieved success in both middle and long distance events, including =aMd ouita who set world records from 3+,, m to +,,, m.
2714

The use of pace&setters in long distance events is very common at the elite level, although they are not present at championship level
competitions as all *ualified competitors want to win.
27+42704
The long distance track events gained popularity in the 3E6,s by the achievements of the N#lying #innsN, such as multiple !lympic
champion 8aavo :urmi. The successes of ;mil GOtopek in the 3E+,s promoted intense interval training methods, but 'on %larke)s
world record&breaking feats established the importance of natural training and even&paced running. The 3EE,s saw the rise of :orth
and ;ast frican runners in long distance events. Lenyan and ;thiopian athletes, in particular, have since remained dominant in these
events.
2774
"elays
'elay races are the only track and field event in which a team of runners directly compete against other teams.
27?4
Typically, a team is
made up of four runners of the same se.. ;ach runner completes their specified distance (referred to as a leg) before handing over a
baton to a team mate, who then begins their leg upon receiving the baton. There is usually a designated area in which athletes much
e.change the baton. Teams may be dis*ualified if they fail to complete the change within the area, or if the baton is dropped during the
race. team may also be dis*ualified if its runners are deemed to have wilfully impeded other competitors.
"irls handing over the baton in a relay race in >eip/ig in 3E+,
'elay races emerged in the Anited =tates in the 3??,s as a variation on charity races between firemen, who would hand a red pennant
on to team mates every 7,, yards. There are two very common relay events: the 9I3,, metres relay and the 9I9,, metres relay. -oth
events entered the !lympic programme at the 3E36 =ummer "ames after a one&off men)s medley relay featured in 3E,? !lympics.
27E4

The 9I3,, m event is run strictly within the same lane on the track, meaning that the team collectively runs one complete circuit of
the track. Teams in a 9I9,, m event remain in their own lane until the runner of the second leg passes the first bend, at which point
runners can leave their lanes and head towards the inner&most part of the circuit. #or the second and third baton change overs, team
mates must align themselves in respect of their team position 5 leading teams take the inner lanes while team mates of the slower
teams must await the baton on outer lanes.
27?429,4
The I# keeps world records for five different types of track relays. s with 9I3,, m and 9I9,, m events, all races comprise teams
of four athletes running the same distances, with the less commonly contested distances being the 9I6,, m, 9I?,, m and 9I3+,, m
relays.
2934
!ther events include the distance medley relay (comprising legs of 36,, m, 9,, m, ?,, m, and 31,, m) which is fre*uently
held in the Anited =tates, and a sprint relay 5 known as the =wedish medley relay 5 which is popular in =candinavia and is also
featured on the $orld Bouth %hampionships in thletics programme.
2964
'elay events have significant participation in the Anited
=tates, where a number of large meetings (or relay carnivals) are focused almost e.clusively on relay events.
2974
H!rdlin
women)s 9,, m hurdles race at the 6,,0 @utch %hampionships
Main articles: !urdling and steeplechase
'aces with hurdles as obstacles were first popularised in the 3?,,s in ;ngland.
2994
The first known event, held in 3?7,, was a variation
of the 3,,&yard dash which included heavy wooden barriers as obstacles. competition between the !.ford and %ambridge thletic
%lubs in 3?19 refined thisP holding a 36,&yard race (3,E.06 m) which had ten hurdles of 7&foot and 1 inches (3.,1 m) in height (each
placed 3, yards (E.39 m) apart), with the first and final hurdles 3+ yards from the start and finish, respectively. #rench organisers
adapted the race into metric (adding 6? cm) and the basics of this race, the men)s 33, metres hurdles, has remained largely unchanged.
29+4
The origin of the 9,, metres hurdles also lies in !.ford, where (around 3?1,) a competition was held over 99, yards and twelve
3.,1 m high wooden barriers were placed along the course. The modern regulations stem from the 3E,, =ummer !lympics: the
distance was fi.ed to 9,, m while ten 7&foot (E3.99 cm) hurdles were placed 7+ m apart on the track, with the first and final hurdles
being 9+ m and 9, m away from the start and finish, respectively.
2914
$omen)s hurdles are slightly lower at ?9 cm for the 3,, m event
and 01 cm (6ft 1in) for the 9,, m event.
29+42914
-y far the most common events are the 3,, metres hurdles for women, 33, m hurdles for men and 9,, m hurdles for both se.es. The
men)s 33, m has been featured at every modern =ummer !lympics while the men)s 9,, m was introduced in the second edition of the
"ames.
29+42914
$omen)s initially competed in the ?, metres hurdles event, which entered the !lympic programme in 3E76. This was
e.tended to the 3,, m hurdles at the 3E06 !lympics,
29+4
but it was not until 3E?9 that a women)s 9,, m hurdles event took place at the
!lympics (having been introduced at the 3E?7 $orld %hampionships in thletics the previous year).
2914
<en traversing the water jump in a steeplechase competition
!utside of the hurdles events, the steeplechase race is the other track and field event which includes obstacles. Fust as the hurdling
events, the steeplechase finds its origin in student competition in !.ford, ;ngland. (owever, this event was born as a human variation
on the original steeplechase competition found in horse racing. steeplechase event was held on a track for the 3?0E ;nglish
championships and the 3E,, =ummer !lympics featured men)s 6+,, m and 9,,, m steeplechase races. The event was held over
various distances until the 3E6, =ummer !lympics marked the rise of the 7,,, metres steeplechase as the standard event.
2904
The
I# set the standards of the event in 3E+9, and the event is held on a 9,, m circuit which includes a water jump on each lap.
29?4

@espite the long history of men)s steeplechase in track and field, the women)s steeplechase only gained $orld %hampionship status in
6,,+, with its first !lympic appearance coming in 6,,?.
#!mpin
Lon $!mp
:aide "omes in the jumping phase of the event
The long jump is one of the oldest track and field events, having its roots as one of the events within the ancient "reek pentathlon
contest. The athletes would take a short run up and jump into an area of dug up earth, with the winner being the one who jumped
furthest.
29E4
=mall weights ((alteres) were held in each hand during the jump then swung back and dropped near the end in order to
gain e.tra momentum and distance.
2+,4
The modern long jump, standardised in ;ngland and the Anited =tates around 3?1,, bears
resemblance to the ancient event although no weights are used. thletes sprint along a length of track which leads up to a jumping
board and a sandpit.
2+34
The athletes must jump before a marked line and their achieved distance is measured from the nearest point of
sand which was disturbed by the athlete)s body.
2+64
The athletics competition at the first !lympics featured a men)s long jump competition and a women)s competition was introduced at
the 3E9? =ummer !lympics.
2+34
8rofessional long jumpers typically have strong acceleration and sprinting abilities. (owever, athletes
must also have a consistent stride to allow them to take off near the board while still maintaining their ma.imum speed.
2+642+74
In
addition to the traditional long jump, a standing long jump contest e.ists in which athletes must leap from a static position without the
aid of a run up. men)s version of this event featured on the !lympic programme from 3E,, to 3E36.
2+94
Triple $!mp
=imilar to the long jump, the triple jump takes place on a track heading towards a sandpit. !riginally, athletes would hop on the same
leg twice before jumping into the pit, but this was changed to the current Nhop, step and jumpN pattern from 3E,, onwards.
2++4
There is
some dispute over whether the triple jump was contested in ancient "reece: while some historians claim that a contest of three jumps
occured at ncient "ames,
2++4
others such as =tephen ". <iller believe this to be incorrect, suggesting that the belief stems from a
mythologised account of 8hayllus of %roton having jumped ++ ancient feet (around 31.7 m).
2+,42+14
The -ook of >einster, a 36th century
Irish manuscript, records the e.istence of gealruith (triple jump) contests at the ancient Tailteann "ames.
2+04
8hillips Idowu in the phases of the triple jump
The men)s triple jump competition has been ever&present at the modern !lympics, but it was not until 3EE7 that a women)s version
gained $orld %hampionship status and went on to have its first !lympic appearance three years later.
2++4
men)s standing triple jump
event featured at the 3E,, and 3E,9 !lympics but such competitions have since become very uncommon, although it is still used as a
non&competitive e.ercise drill.
2+?4
Hih $!mp
n athlete using the #osbury #lop to jump over the bar
The first recorded instances of high jumping competitions were in =cotland in the 3Eth century.
2+E4
#urther competitions were
organised in 3?9, in ;ngland and in 3?1+ the basic rules of the modern event were standardised there.
21,4
thletes have a short run up
and then take off from one foot to jump over a hori/ontal bar and fall back onto a cushioned landing area.
2134
The men)s high jump was
included in the 3?E1 !lympics and a women)s competition soon followed in 3E6?.
Fumping techni*ue has played a significant part in the history of the event. (igh jumpers typically cleared the bar feet first in the late
3Eth century, using either the =cissors, ;astern cut&off or $estern roll techni*ue. The straddle techni*ue became prominent in the mid&
3E,,s, but @ick #osbury overturned tradition by pioneering a backwards and head&first techni*ue in the late 3E1,s 5 the #osbury #lop
5 which won him the gold at the 3E1? !lympics. This techni*ue has became the overwhelming standard for the sport from the 3E?,s
onwards.
21,42164
The standing high jump was contested at the !lympics from 3E,, to 3E36, but is now relatively uncommon outside of
its use as an e.ercise drill.
%ole va!lt
nna "iordano -runo releases the pole after clearing the bar
In terms of sport, the use of poles for vaulting distances was recorded in #ierljeppen contests in the #risian area of ;urope, and
vaulting for height was seen at gymnastics competitions in "ermany in the 300,s.
2174
!ne of the earliest recorded pole vault
competitions was in %umbria, ;ngland in 3?97.
2194
The basic rules and techni*ue of the event originated in the Anited =tates. The rules
re*uired that athletes do not move their hands along the pole and athletes began clearing the bar with their feet first and twisting so
that the stomach faces the bar. -amboo poles were introduced in the 3E,,s and a metal bo. in the runway for planting the pole became
standard. >anding matresses were introduced in the mid&3E,,s to protect the athletes who were clearing increasingly greater heights.
2174
The modern event sees athletes run down a strip of track, plant the pole in the metal bo., and vault over the hori/ontal bar before
letting go of the pole and falling backwards onto the landing matress.
21+4
$hile earlier versions used wooden, metal or bamboo,
modern poles are generally made from artificial materials such as fibreglass or carbon fibre.
2114
The pole vault has been an !lympic
event since 3?E1 for men, but it was over 3,, years later that the first women)s world championship competition was held at the 3EE0
I# $orld Indoor %hampionships. The first women)s !lympic pole vaulting competition occured in 6,,,.
2174
Throwin
Shot p!t
'emigius <achura preparing to throw within the circle
The genesis of the shot put can be traced to pre&historic competitions with rocks:
2104
in the middle ages the =tone put was known in
=cotland and the steinstossen was recorded in =wit/erland. In the 30th century, cannonball throwing competitions within the ;nglish
military provided a precursor to the modern sport.
21?421E4
The modern rules were first laid out in 3?1, and legal throws had to be taken
within a s*uare throwing area of seven feet (6.37 m) on each side. This was amended to a circle area with a seven foot diameter in
3E,1 and the weight of the shot was standardised to 31 pounds (0.61 kg). Throwing techni*ue was also refined over this period, with
bent arm throws being banned as they were deemed too dangerous and the side&step and throw techni*ue arising in the Anited =tates
in 3?01.
21?4
The shot put has been an !lympic sport for men since 3?E1 and a women)s competition using a 9 kg (?.?6 lb) shot was added in 3E9?.
#urther throwing techni*ues have arisen since the post&war era: in the 3E+,s 8arry !)-rien popularised the 3?, degree turn and throw
techni*ue, setting world records along the way, and leksandr -aryshnikov introduced the spin or rotational techni*ue in 3E01.
21?420,4
&isc!s throw
GoltOn LQvOgR preparing to spin and throw the discus
Main article: "iscus thro#
s one of the events within the ancient pentathlon, the history of the discus throw dates back to 0,? -%.
2034
In ancient times a heavy
circular disc was thrown from a set standing position on a small pedestal, and it was this style that was revived for the 3?E1 !lympics.
2064
This continued until the 3E,1 Intercalated "ames in thens, which featured both the ancient style and the increasingly popular
modern style of turning and throwing. -y the 3E36 !lympics, the ancient standing throw style had fallen into disuse and contests
starting within a 6.+ m s*uared throwing area became the standard.
2074
The discus implement was standardised to 6 kg (9.9 pounds) in
weight and 66 cm (? inches) in diameter in 3E,0.
2064
The women)s discus was among the first women)s events on the !lympic
programme, being introduced in 3E6?.
2094
#avelin throw
-regje %rolla beginning to throw the javelin
s an implement of war and hunting, javelin throwing began in prehistoric times.
20+4
long with the discus, the javelin was the second
throwing event in the ancient !lympic pentathlon. 'ecords from 0,? -% show two javelin competition types co&e.isting: throwing at
a target and throwing the javelin for distance. It was the latter type from which the modern event was derived.
2014
In ancient
competitions, athletes would wrap an ank$le (thin leather strip) around the javelin which acted as a sling to gain e.tra distance.
2004
The
javelin throw gained much popularity in =candinavia in the late 3?th century and athletes from the region continue to be among the
most dominant throwers in men)s competitions.
2014
The modern event features a short run up on a track and then the thrower releases
the javelin before the foul line.
The first !lympic men)s javelin throw contest was held in 3E,? and a women)s competition was introduced in 3E76.
20?420E4
The first
javelins were made of various types of wood, but in the 3E+,s, former athlete -ud (eld introduced a hollow javelin, then a metal
javelin, both of which increased throwers performances.
2014
nother former athlete, <iklRs :Cmeth invented the rough&tailed javelin
and throws reached in e.cess of 3,, m 5 edging towards the limits of stadia.
2?,4
The distances and the increasing number of hori/ontal
landings led the I# to redesign the men)s javelin to reduce distance and increase the implement)s downward pitching moment to
allow for easier measurement. 'ough&tailed designs were banned in 3EE3 and all marks achieved with such javelins were removed
from the record books. The women)s javelin underwent a similar redesign in 3EEE.
2014
The current javelin specifications are 6.1 to
6.0 m in length and ?,, grams in weight for men, and between 6.6 to 6.7 m and 1,, g for women.
2?34
Hammer throw
Bury =hayunou spinning with the hammer within the circle
The earliest recorded precursors to the modern hammer throw stem from the Tailteann "ames around 3?,, -%, which featured events
such as throwing either a weight attached to a rope, a large rock on a wooden handle, or even a chariot wheel on a wooden a.le.
2?64

!ther ancient competitions included throwing a cast iron ball attached to a wooden handle 5 the root of the term Nhammer throwN due
to their resemblance to the tools.
2?74
In 31th century ;ngland, contests involving the throwing of actual blacksmith)s =ledgehammers
were recorded.
2?64
The hammer implement was standardised in 3??0 and the competitions began to resemble the modern event. The
weight of the metal ball was set at 31 pounds (0.61 kg) while the attached wire had to measure between 3.30+ m and 3.63+ m.
2?74
The men)s hammer throw became an !lympic event in 3E,, but the women)s event 5 using a 9 kg (?.?6 lb) weight 5 was not widely
competed until much later, finally featuring on the women)s !lympic programme a century later.
2?94
The distance)s thrown by male
athletes became greater from the 3E+,s onwards as a result of improved e*uipment using the denser metals, a switch to concrete
throwing areas, and more advanced training techni*ues.
2?+4
8rofessional hammer throwers as historically large, strong, sturdy athletes.
(owever, *ualities such as refined techni*ue, speed and fle.ibility have become increasingly important in the modern era as the legal
throwing area has been reduced from E, to 79.E6 degrees and throwing techni*ue involves three to four controlled rotations.
2?742?142?04
Combined events
%ombined (or multi&discipline) events are competitions in which athletes participate in a number of track and field events, earning
points for their performance in each events which goes towards a total points score. !utdoors, the most common combined events are
the men)s decathlon and the women)s heptathlon. @ue to stadium limitations, indoor combined events competition have a reduced
number of events, resulting in the men)s heptathlon and the women)s pentathlon. thletes are allocated points based on an
international&standard points scoring system, such as the decathlon scoring table.
The ncient !lympic pentathlon (comprising long jump, javelin, discus, the stadion race and wrestling) was a precursor to the track
and field combined events and this ancient event was restored at the 3E,1 =ummer !lympics (Intercalated "ames). men)s decathlon
was held at the 3E,9 =ummer !lympics, albeit contested between five merican and two -ritish athletes.
Composition of combined events
Event Track Field
Men's decathlon 3,, m 9,, m 3+,, m 33, m hurdles >ong jump (igh jump 8ole vault =hot put @iscus throw Favelin throw
(omen's heptathlon 6,, m ?,, m 3,, m hurdles >ong jump (igh jump =hot put Favelin throw
Men's heptathlon 1, m 3,,, m 1, m hurdles >ong jump (igh jump 8ole vault =hot put
(omen's pentathlon ?,, m 1, m hurdles >ong jump (igh jump =hot put
Stadi!m
The 8anathinaiko =tadium was the one of the first modern track and field stadiums
O!tdoor
The term track and field is intertwined with the stadiums which first hosted track and field competitions. The two basic features of a
track and field stadium are the outer oval&shaped running track and an area of turf within this track 5 the field. In earlier competitions
the lengths of the tracks varied: the 8anathinaiko =tadium measured 777.77 metres at the 3?E1 =ummer !lympics, while at the 3E,9
!lympics the distance was a third of a mile (+71.9+ m) at #rancis #ield. s the sport developed, the I# standardised the length to
9,, m and stated that the tracks must be split into si. to eight running lanes. 8recise widths for the lanes were established, as were
regulations regarding the curvature of the track. Tracks made of flattened cinders were popular in the early 6,th century but synthetic
tracks became standard in the late 3E1,s. 7<)s Tartan track (an all&weather running track of polyurethane) gained popularity after its
use at the 3E1? A= !lympic Trials and the 3E1? =ummer !lympics and it began the process in which synthetic tracks became the
standard for the sport. <any track and field stadiums are multi&purpose stadiums, with the running track surrounding a field which is
built for other sports such as the various types of football.
typical layout of an outdoor track and field stadium
The field of the stadium combines a number of elements for use in the jumping and throwing events. The long jump and triple jump
areas comprise a straight, narrow 9,&metre running track with a sandpit at each end. Fumps are measured from a take off board 5
typically a small strip of wood with a plasticine marker attached 5 which is used to ensure athletes jump from the same area. The pole
vault area is also a 9,&metre running track and it has a metal indentation in the ground (the bo.) in which poles are planted. thletes
then propel themselves over a crossbar before falling onto a cushioned area of landing mats. The high jump is a stripped down version
of this, with an open area of track or field leading up to a crossbar with a s*uare area of crash mats behind it.
The four throwing events generally all begin on one side of the stadium. The javelin throw typically takes place on a piece of track that
is central and parallel to the straights of the main running track. The javelin throwing area is an inverted pyramid shape across the
middle of the stadium, ensuring that the javelin has minimal chance of causing damage or injury. The discus throw and hammer throw
contests begin in a tall metal cage which is situated in one of the corners of the field. The cage removes the danger of implements
being thrown out of the field of play and throws will travel diagonally across the field in the centre of the stadium. The shot put takes
place in the other corner nearest the throwing cage and this event features a circular throwing area with a toe board at one end. The
throwing area is an inverted trape/oid e.panding towards the centre of the stadium. =ome stadia also have a water jump area on one
side of the field specifically for steeplechase races.
)ndoor
The spire @ome during the 6,3, $orld Indoor %hampionships
-asic indoor venues may be adapted gymnasiums, which can easily accommodate high jump competitions and short track events.
#ull&si/e indoor arenas (i.e. those fully e*uipped to host all events for the $orld Indoor %hampionships) bear similarities with their
outdoor e*uivalents. Typically, a central area is surrounded by a 6,,&metre oval track with four to eight lanes. The track may be
banked at the turns to allow athletes to run around the radius more comfortably. There is also a second running track going straight
across the field area, parallel to the straights of the main circuit. This track is used for the 1, metres and 1, metres hurdles events 5
competitions which are held almost e.clusively indoors.
ll four of the common jumping events are held at indoor venues. The long and triple jump areas run alongside the central 1, m track
and are mostly identical in form to their outdoor counterparts. The pole vault track and landing area are also alongside the central
running track. =hot put (or weight throw) is the only throwing event held indoors due to si/e restrictions. The throwing area is similar
to the outdoor event, but the landing sector is a rectangular section surrounded by netting or a stop barrier.
2??4
Oranisations
=ince its foundation in 3E36, the international governing body for track and field has been the International ssociation of thletics
#ederations (I#). It is the governing body for the sport of athletics and it has 637 member nations and territories, which are divided
into si. continental areas (or area associations).
2?E4
The si. association areas are for sia, frica, ;urope, !ceania, :orth merica and
=outh merica. t international, continental, and national level, track and field is governed under the wider classification of athletics.
2E,4
<ap of the si. continental federations of the I#
5 sian thletics ssociation
% 5 %onfederation of frican thletics
%!:=A@T>; 5 =outh merican thletics %onfederation
:%% 5 :orth merica, %entral merica and %aribbean thletic ssociation
; 5 ;uropean thletics ssociation
! 5 !ceania thletics ssociation
=ome national federations are named after the sport, including A= Track S #ield and the 8hilippine mateur Track S #ield
ssociation, but these organisations govern more than just track and field and are in fact athletics governing bodies.
2E342E64
These
national federations regulate sub&national and local track and field clubs, as well as other types of running clubs.
2E,4
Competitions
Olympics and (orld Championships
The 3,, m final at the 6,,? =ummer !lympics
The major global track and field competitions are both held under the scope of athletics. Track and field contests make up the majority
of events on the !lympic athletics programme which occurs every four years. Track and field events have held a prominent position at
the =ummer !lympics since its inception in 3?E1,
2E74
and the events are typically held in the main stadium of the !lympics. ;vents
such as the 3,, metres receive some of the highest levels of media coverage of any !lympic sporting event.
The other two major international competition for track and field are organised by the I#. The I# had selected the !lympic
competition as its world championship event in 3E37, but a separate world championships for athletics alone was first held in 3E?7 5
the I# $orld %hampionships in thletics. The championships comprised track and field competitions plus the marathon and
racewalking competitions. Initially, this worked on a *uadrennial basis but, after 3EE3, it changed to a biennial format. In terms of
indoor track and field, the I# $orld Indoor %hampionships in thletics has been held every two years since 3E?+ and this is the
only world championships that consists of solely track and field events.
Other championships
The 6,,1 ;uropean thletics %hampionships at the Allevi =tadium
=imilar to the event programmes at the !lympics and $orld %hampionships, track and field forms a significant part of continental
championships. The =outh merican %hampionships in thletics, created in 3E3E, was the first continental championships and the
;uropean thletics %hampionships became the second championships of this type in 3E79. The sian thletics %hampionships and
frican %hampionships in thletics were created in the 3E0,s and !ceania started its championships in 3EE,.
There are also indoor continental competitions in ;urope (;uropean thletics Indoor %hampionships) and sia (sian Indoor
thletics %hampionships). There has not been a consistent championships for all of :orth merica, which may be (in part) due to the
success of both the %entral merican and %aribbean %hampionships and the A= !utdoor Track and #ield %hampionships. <ost
countries have a national championship in track and field and, for athletes, these often play a role in gaining selection into major
competitions. In some countries there are many track and field championships at high school and college&level which serve to develop
the abilities of younger athletesP some of these have achieved significant e.posure and prestige, such as the :% Track and #ield
%hampionship in the Anited =tates and the Famaican (igh =chool %hampionships.
2E94
(owever, the number and status of such
competitions significantly vary from country to country.
M!lti-sport events
The pole vault competition at the 6,,0 8an merican "ames
<irroring the role that track and field events have at the =ummer !lympics, the sport is featured within the athletics programmes of
many major multi&sport events. mong some of the first of these events to follow the !lympic&style model were the $orld Aniversity
"ames in 3E67, the %ommonwealth "ames in 3E7,, and the <accabiah "ames in 3E76.
2E+4
The number of major multi&sport events
greatly increased during the 6,th century and thus did the number of track and field events held within them. Typically, track and field
events are hosted at the main stadium of the games.
fter the !lympic "ames, the most prominent events for track and field athletes include the three I!%&sanctioned continental games:
the ll&frica "ames, sian "ames, and the 8an merican "ames. !ther games such as the %ommonwealth "ames and =ummer
Aniversiade, and $orld <asters "ames have significant participation from track and field athletes. Track and field is also present at
the national games level, with competitions such as the %hinese :ational "ames serving as a the most prestigious national competition
for domestic track and field athletes.
Meetins
'unners competing at the 6,,1 8refontaine %lassic meeting
!ne&day track and field meetings form the most common and seasonal aspect of the sport 5 they are the most basic level of track and
field competition. <eetings are generally organised annually either under the patronage of an educational institution or sports club, or
by a group or business which serves as the meeting promoter. In the case of the former, athletes are selected to represent their club or
institution. In the case of privately&run or independent meetings, athletes participate on an invitation&only basis.
2E14
child taking part in a local schools meeting in %ambodia
The most basic type of meetings are all&comers track meets, which are largely small, local, informal competitions that allow people of
all ages and abilities to compete.
2E04
s meetings become more organi/ed they can gain official sanctioning by the local or national
association for the sport.
2E?4
t the professional level, meetings began to offer significant financial incentives for all athletes in the 3EE,s in ;urope with the
creation of the N"olden #ourN competition, comprising meetings in GTrich, -russels, -erlin and !slo. This e.panded and received
I# backing as the I# "olden >eague in 3EE?,
2EE4
which was later supplemented by the branding of selected meetings worldwide
as the I# $orld thletics Tour. In 6,3,, the "olden >eague idea was e.panded globally as the I# @iamond >eague series and
this now forms the top tier of professional one&day track and field meetings.
23,,4
"ecords
thletes performances are timed or measured at virtually all track and field competitions. @oing so can not only serve as a way of
determining the winner in an event, but it can also be used for historical comparison (i.e. a record). large variety of record types
e.ist and men)s and women)s performances are recorded separately. The foremost types of records are those which organise athlete)s
performances by the region which they are representing: beginning with national records, then continental records, up to the global or
world record level. :ational governing bodies control the national record lists, the area associations organise their respective
continental lists, and the I# is the body which ratifies world records.
graph of the world record progression in the men)s 3,, metres
The I# ratifies track and field world records if they meet their set criteria. The I# first published a world records list in 3E39,
initially for men)s events only. There were +7 recognised records in running, hurdling and relay, and 36 field records. $orld records in
women)s events began in 3E71 as more events were gradually added to the list, but significant changes were made in the late 3E0,s.
#irst, all records in imperial measurements were abandoned in 3E01, with the sole e.ceptional being the mile run due to the prestige
and history of the event. The following year, all world records in sprint events would only be recognised if fully automatic electronic
timing was used (as opposed to the traditional hand&timing stopwatch method). In 3E?3, electronic timing was made compulsory for
all world record runs in track and field with times being recorded to within 3J3,,th of a second. Two additional types of world record
were introduced in 3E?0: world records for indoor competitions, and world records for junior athletes under 6, years old.
23,34
The ne.t most important record type are those achieved at a specific competition 5 for e.ample the !lympic records which are the
best performances by athletes during events at the =ummer !lympics. ll major championships and games have their relevant
competition records and a large number of track and field meetings keep a note of their meet records. !ther record types include:
stadium records, records by age range, records by disability, and records by institution or organisation. %ash bonuses are usually
offered to athletes if they break significant records, as doing so can generate greater interest and public attendance in track and field
competitions.
&opin
<arion Fones admitted to doping and was banned from the sport and lost her !lympic gold medals as a result.
Track and field athletes are banned from ingesting or using certain substances by governing bodies for the sport, from national to
global level. The I#)s constitution incorporates the $orld nti&@oping %ode among other anti&doping measures.
23,64
8ractices such
as blood doping and the use of anabolic steroids, peptide hormones, stimulants, or diuretics can give athletes a physical competitive
advantage in track and field.
23,74
The use of such substances in track and field is opposed on both ethical and medical grounds. "iven
that the sport functions by measuring and comparing athletes) performances, performance&enhancing substances create an uneven
playing field 5 athletes who do not use doping substances have a disadvantage over rivals who do. <edically, the use of banned
substances may have an adverse effect upon athletes) health. (owever, some e.emptions are made for athletes who take banned
substances for therapeutic use and athletes are not sanctioned for usage in these cases,
23,94
such as Lim %ollins) failed drug test due to
asthma medication.
23,+4
In order to prevent the use of performance&enhancing substances, athletes must submit to drug tests which conducted both in& and out&
of&competition by anti&doping officials or accredited medical staff.
23,94
thletes found to have taken substances on the $orld nti&
@oping gency)s banned list receive sanctions and may be banned from competition for a period of time,
23,14
reflecting the seriousness
of the infraction. (owever, the use of substances not on the prohibited list may also result in sanctions if the substance is deemed to be
similar to a banned substance in either composition or effect. thletes may also be sanctioned for: missing tests, seeking to avoid
testing or tampering with results, refusing to submit to testing, through circumstantial evidence, or confession of use.
23,94
@oping has played a significant part in the modern history of track and field. =tate&sponsored doping in ;ast "ermany with hormones
and anabolic steroids marked the rise of women from the "erman @emocratic 'epublic in track and field from the late 3E1,s to the
3E?,s. number of these women, such as <arita Loch, broke world records and were highly successful at international competitions.
=ome athletes, who were following a doping plan from their teenage years, suffered significant health problems as a result of the
regime.
23,0423,?4
-en Fohnson ran a new world record in the 3,, m at the 3E?? =eoul !lympics but was later banned for using anabolic
steroids.
23,E4
In the mid&6,,,s, the ->%! =candal eventually resulted in the downfall of prominent sprinters such as <arion Fones
and Tim <ontgomery, among others, through their usage of banned substances.
233,4
"eferences
3. U
a

b
Instone, =tephen (3+ :ovember 6,,E). The !lympics: ncient versus <odern. --%. 'etrieved on 67 <arch 6,3,.
6. * ncient !lympic ;ventsP 8entathlon. 8erseus digital library. 'etrieved on 7 ugust 6,,E.
7. * $aldo ;. =weet, ;rich =egal (3E?0). Sport and recreation in ancient %reece. !.ford Aniversity 8ress. p. 70. 'etrieved on 7 ugust
6,,E.
9. * Fean&8aul Thuillier, Le sport dans la &ome anti'ue +French,, 8aris, ;rrance, 3EE1, pp. 33+5331, I=-:: 6?0006339,
+. * The !lympic "ames in nti*uity. The !lympic <useum. 'etrieved on 6+ <arch 6,3,.
1. U
a

b

c

d
(istory 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 6+ <arch 6,3,.
0. * (unter, Iain S (unter, 'achel. (istory of the =teeplechase (3?9E56,,9). -righam Boung Aniversity (-iomechanics). 'etrieved on 6+
<arch 6,3,.
?. * The Anited =tates) :ational %hampionships In Track S #ield thletics: Introduction. (rack and Field )e#s. 'etrieved on 3E =eptember
6,,E.
E. * #latter, 'on. Thorpe preceded @eion, -o. ;=8: (3EEE). 'etrieved on 63 <ay 6,3,.
3,. * $orld =tudent "ames. "-' thletics. 'etrieved on 6+ <arch 6,3,.
33. * =outh merican %hampionships. "-' thletics. 'etrieved on 6+ <arch 6,3,.
36. * The (istory of A=T#. A=T#. 'etrieved on 6+ <arch 6,3,.
37. * I# to launch global @iamond >eague of 3 @ay <eetings. I# (6 <arch 6,,E). 'etrieved on 6+ <arch 6,3,.
39. * 3,, m 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
3+. * 6,, m Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
31. * 9,, m Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
30. * 3,, m 5 #or the ;.pert. I#. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
3?. U
a

b
9,, m Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
3E. * 3,, m 5 #or the ;.pert. I#. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
6,. * 6,, m #or the ;.pert. I#. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
63. U
a

b
=uperb -olt storms to 3+,m record . --% =port (30 <ay 6,,E). 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
66. * Tucker, 'oss (61 Fune 6,,?). $ho is the fastest man in the worldV. The =cience of =port. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
67. U
a

b

c

d
3+,, m 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on + pril 6,3,.
69. U
a

b

c
?,, m 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on + pril 6,3,.
6+. * <iddle&distance running. *nc$clopaedia +rittanica. 'etrieved on + pril 6,3,.
61. * 'osenbaum, <ike. Introduction to <iddle @istance 'unning. Trackandfield&bout. 'etrieved on + pril 6,3,.
60. * <iddle @istance 'unning. ustralian Institute of =port. 'etrieved on + pril 6,3,.
6?. * Fulin, >ennart (6? :ovember 6,,9). tribute to the career of "under (Kgg. I#. 'etrieved on + pril 6,3,.
6E. * =tepping&=tones to the #our <inute <ile. (he (imes (0 <ay 3E+9). 'etrieved on + pril 6,3,.
7,. * -ritish thletics (opes. (he (imes (1 <ay 3E+9). 'etrieved on + pril 6,3,.
73. * #our <inute <ile 5 Triumph of '. ". -annister. (0 <ay 3E+9). 'etrieved on + pril 6,3,.
76. * =ebastian %oe. --% =port (6,,,&,?&,E). 'etrieved on + pril 6,3,.
77. U
a

b
+,,,&3,,,, m 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
79. * +,,,&3,,,, m 5 Is it for meV. I#. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
7+. U
a

b
Introduction to >ong @istance ;vents. bout.com. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
71. * thletics. *nc$clopaedia +ritannica. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
70. * $ermuth, =tefan @o pacemakers have a place in athleticsV. 'euters. 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
7?. U
a

b
9.3,, m 'elay 5 Is it for meV. I#. 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
7E. * 9.3,, m 'elay 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
9,. * 'osenbaum, <ike. $hat re !lympic =prints and 'elaysV. bout.com. 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
93. * $orld records track events. I#. 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
96. * <artin, @avid (36 Fune 6,,E). $illiams and Fames achieve unprecedented doubles as Lenya steals the show in middle distance 5 @ay
#ive 5 ;vening report. I#. 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
97. * The 'elaysW. Sports ,llustrated (6 <ay 3E++). 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
99. * 'osenbaum, <ike. -rief (istory of =prints and (urdles. bout.com. 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
9+. U
a

b

c

d
3,, m (urdles 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
91. U
a

b

c

d
9,, m (urdles 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
90. * 7,,, m =teeplechase 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
9?. * 7,,, m =teeplechase 5 Is it for meV. I#. 'etrieved on E pril 6,3,.
9E. * =waddling, Fudith. (he -ncient .l$mpic %ames. Aniversity of Te.as 8res. I=-: ,6E6000+3+.
+,. U
a

b
<iller, =teven ". (6,,9). -ncient %reek -thletics. 8g. 1?. Bale Aniversity. I=-: ,7,,33+6E1.
+3. U
a

b
>ong Fump 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
+6. U
a

b
'osenbaum, <ike. Introduction to the >ong Fump. bout. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
+7. * >ong Fump 5 Is it for meV. I#. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
+9. * long jump. ;ncyclopXdia -ritannica (6,3,). 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
++. U
a

b

c
Triple Fump 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
+1. * 8hayllos of Lroton. ncient !lympics. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
+0. * <c%ormack, <ike. Fames %onnolly 5 The thlete. )ational !istorian. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
+?. * >ee, Fimsun (? pril 6,3,). The Importance of the =tanding Triple Fump. =peed ;ndurance. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
+E. * (igh Fump. Spikes Maga/ine. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
1,. U
a

b
(igh Fump & Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
13. * 'osenbaum, <ike. Introduction to the (igh Fump. bout. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
16. * "illon, @oug (3+ <ay 6,,E). (ow a flop turned #osbury into a legend. (he !erald. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
17. U
a

b

c
8ole Yault 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
19. * Turnbull, =imon (37 Fune 6,,E). Late @ennison: )It helps being a little bit cra/y). (he ,ndependent. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
1+. * 'osenbaum, <ike. Introduction to the 8ole Yault. bout. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
11. * 'osenbaum, <ike. n Illustrated (istory of 8ole Yault. bout. 'etrieved on 3, <ay 6,3,.
10. * =hot put. ;ncyclopaedia -ritannica (6,3,). 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
1?. U
a

b

c
=hot 8ut & Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
1E. * 'osenbaum, <ike. n Illustrated (istory of =hot 8ut 5 The early days of shot put. bout. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
0,. * 'osenbaum, <ike.Introduction to =hot 8ut. bout. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
03. * <iller, =teven ". (6,,9). -ncient %reek -thletics. 8g. 13. Bale Aniversity. I=-: ,7,,33+6E1.
06. U
a

b
@iscus Throw 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
07. * <urphy, %olm (3EEE). The "reek @iscus ;vent. 0ournal of .l$mpic !istor$, $inter 3EEE (pg. 7). 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
09. * 'osenbaum, <ike. n Illustrated (istory of @iscus 5 $omen join !lympics. bout. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
0+. * 'osenbaum, <ike. n Illustrated (istory of Favelin 5 The early days of Favelin throwing. bout. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
01. U
a

b

c

d
Favelin Throw 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
00. * <iller, =teven ". (6,,9). -ncient %reek -thletics. 8g. 1E. Bale Aniversity. I=-: ,7,,33+6E1.
0?. * 'osenbaum, <ike. n Illustrated (istory of Favelin & The early days of Favelin throwing. bout. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
0E. * 'osenbaum, <ike. n Illustrated (istory of Favelin 5 $omen enter !lympic competition. bout. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
?,. * 'osenbaum, <ike. n Illustrated (istory of Favelin 5 %hanging configurations. bout. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
?3. * 'osenbaum, <ike. Introduction to Favelin Throwing. bout. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
?6. U
a

b
'osenbaum, <ike. n Illustrated (istory of the (ammer Throw 5 The early days of the hammer throw. bout. 'etrieved on 33 <ay
6,3,.
?7. U
a

b

c
(ammer Throw 5 Introduction. I#. 'etrieved on 33 <ay 6,3,.
?9. * 'osenbaum, <ike.n Illustrated (istory of the (ammer Throw 5 $omen)s hammer time. bout. 'etrieved on 36 <ay 6,3,.
?+. * 'osenbaum, <ike. n Illustrated (istory of the (ammer Throw 5 <ore 8ower. bout. 'etrieved on 36 <ay 6,3,.
?1. * (ammer Throw 5 Is it for meV. I#. 'etrieved on 36 <ay 6,3,.
?0. * 'osenbaum, <ike.n Illustrated (istory of the (ammer Throw 5 $here the hammer throw is now. bout. 'etrieved on 36 <ay 6,3,.
??. * %ompetition 'ules 6,,E. I#. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
?E. * I# :ational <ember #ederations. I#. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
E,. U
a

b
I# <ember #ederation <anual 5 %hapter 6 (pp. 3053?). I#. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
E3. * bout A=T#. A=T#. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
E6. * 8hilippine mateur Track S #ield ssociation. @-??. 'etrieved on 61 <arch 6,3,.
E7. * 'osenbaum, <ike. Track and field)s greatest events and top competitors. Trackandfield.about. 'etrieved on 1 pril 6,3,.
E9. * 'edpath, >aura (6, <arch 6,3,). (istoric book on %hamps hits the market. 0amaica %leaner. 'etrieved on 1 <arch 6,3,.
E+. * -ell, @aniel (6,,7). *nc$clopedia of ,nternational %ames. <c#arland and %ompany, Inc. 8ublishers, Fefferson, :orth %arolina. I=-:
,&0?19&3,61&9.
E1. * >es <eetings. #CdCration franDaise d)athlCtisme. 'etrieved on 1 pril 6,3,.
E0. * Fuare/, %arolynne (6, Fanuary 6,3,). ###1e2aminer1com3244565San0ose*2plosive(raining*2aminer7$4080m8d40Local
allcomerstrackmeetsunder#a$ (blacklisted) $inter all&comers track meets underway4. ;.aminer.com. 'etrieved on 1 pril 6,3,.
E?. * ;vent =anctions & !verview S -enefits. A=T#. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
EE. * 'owbottom, <ike (36 :ovember 3EE0). thletics: "olden #our e.tended with more money and meetings. (he ,ndependent. 'etrieved
on 1 pril 6,3,.
3,,. * @iamond >eague to launch ne.t year. (he %uardian (6 <arch 6,,E). 'etrieved on 1 pril 6,3,.
3,3. * I# %onstitution (pp. 0E5?,). I#. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
3,6. * I# %ompetition 'ules 6,3,533. I#. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
3,7. * -anned =ubstances. International Tennis #ederation. 'etrieved on 1 pril 6,3,.
3,9. U
a

b

c
I# nti&@oping 'egulation. I#. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
3,+. * Lim %ollins. =ports %aribe. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
3,1. * The 6,3, 8rohibited >ist. I#. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
3,0. * Turnbull, =imon (67 !ctober 6,,+). thletics: Ander the microscope. (he ,ndependent. 'etrieved on 31 Fuly 6,,E.
3,?. * -erendonk, -rigitte S $. #ranke, $erner (3EE0). (ormonal doping and androgeni/ation of athletes: a secret program of the
"erman @emocratic 'epublic government. 9linical 9hemistr$ 97: 3616&360E, 3EE0. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
3,E. * =lot, !wen (=eptember 66, 6,,7). Nmbition, naivety and tantalising prospect of inheriting the worldN. (imes of London.
http:JJwww.timesonline.co.ukJarticleJ,,,E,?,&?6+119,,,.html.
33,. * (olt, =arah (1 @ecember 6,,9). =tars dimmed by -alco)s shadow. --% =port. 'etrieved on 0 pril 6,3,.
E-ternal links
International ssociation of thletics #ederations website
A= Track S #ield website
Track and field at bout.com