Indonesian literacy in Australia has received a considerable amount of attention in the context of a broad review of Asian literacy in Australia. This attention has been expressed through government policy which aims to increase the raw numbers of Indonesian language speakers in Australia. This policy is guided by the belief that Indonesian literate Australians are needed in the workplace, which will allow Australian governments and businesses to better operate in the Asian Century. Such policies have directed over $280 million of funding into increasing the numbers of Indonesian literate Australians. Language Planning Theory, which is concerned with the extent to which language can be structured, acquired and used in accordance with a language plan, provides a unique perspective for the study of Asia Century Policy in Australia.
This thesis analyses the policy, using the perspectives of the Indonesian language graduates who have been subject to the policies. This study surveyed 139 Indonesian language graduates all of whom graduated from various Australian universities in the last ten years. The study contains various questions, which pertain to how the participant uses their Indonesian language skills in their workplace, and in their personal lives. Several focus group sessions took place after the survey, which asked participants to further detail aspects of their life related to their Indonesian language ability, especially career related. The survey and focus group sessions elicited original data, which demonstrates that few Indonesian literate Australians apply their linguistic ability in the workplace post-study. This thesis can contribute positively to policy by informing policy makers on the outcomes of graduates who have gained Indonesian literacy and by providing an illustration of their employment outcomes.
Indonesian literacy in Australia has received a considerable amount of attention in the context of a broad review of Asian literacy in Australia. This attention has been expressed through government policy which aims to increase the raw numbers of Indonesian language speakers in Australia. This policy is guided by the belief that Indonesian literate Australians are needed in the workplace, which will allow Australian governments and businesses to better operate in the Asian Century. Such policies have directed over $280 million of funding into increasing the numbers of Indonesian literate Australians. Language Planning Theory, which is concerned with the extent to which language can be structured, acquired and used in accordance with a language plan, provides a unique perspective for the study of Asia Century Policy in Australia.
This thesis analyses the policy, using the perspectives of the Indonesian language graduates who have been subject to the policies. This study surveyed 139 Indonesian language graduates all of whom graduated from various Australian universities in the last ten years. The study contains various questions, which pertain to how the participant uses their Indonesian language skills in their workplace, and in their personal lives. Several focus group sessions took place after the survey, which asked participants to further detail aspects of their life related to their Indonesian language ability, especially career related. The survey and focus group sessions elicited original data, which demonstrates that few Indonesian literate Australians apply their linguistic ability in the workplace post-study. This thesis can contribute positively to policy by informing policy makers on the outcomes of graduates who have gained Indonesian literacy and by providing an illustration of their employment outcomes.
Indonesian literacy in Australia has received a considerable amount of attention in the context of a broad review of Asian literacy in Australia. This attention has been expressed through government policy which aims to increase the raw numbers of Indonesian language speakers in Australia. This policy is guided by the belief that Indonesian literate Australians are needed in the workplace, which will allow Australian governments and businesses to better operate in the Asian Century. Such policies have directed over $280 million of funding into increasing the numbers of Indonesian literate Australians. Language Planning Theory, which is concerned with the extent to which language can be structured, acquired and used in accordance with a language plan, provides a unique perspective for the study of Asia Century Policy in Australia.
This thesis analyses the policy, using the perspectives of the Indonesian language graduates who have been subject to the policies. This study surveyed 139 Indonesian language graduates all of whom graduated from various Australian universities in the last ten years. The study contains various questions, which pertain to how the participant uses their Indonesian language skills in their workplace, and in their personal lives. Several focus group sessions took place after the survey, which asked participants to further detail aspects of their life related to their Indonesian language ability, especially career related. The survey and focus group sessions elicited original data, which demonstrates that few Indonesian literate Australians apply their linguistic ability in the workplace post-study. This thesis can contribute positively to policy by informing policy makers on the outcomes of graduates who have gained Indonesian literacy and by providing an illustration of their employment outcomes.
Vocational Experiences of Indonesian Language Graduates
Samuel Bashfield
This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honours in Indonesian Studies.
Indonesian Department School of Languages Cultures and Linguistics MONASH UNIVERSITY 2013
Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 2
DECLARATION
This thesis contains no material that has been accepted for the award of any other degree in any University. To the best of my knowledge and belief, this thesis contains no material previously published or written by any other person, except where due reference is given in the text.
Signed:
Date: 31 st October 2013
Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 3
THESIS SUMMARY Indonesian literacy in Australia has received a considerable amount of attention in the context of a broad review of Asian literacy in Australia. This attention has been expressed through government policy which aims to increase the raw numbers of Indonesian language speakers in Australia. This policy is guided by the belief that Indonesian literate Australians are needed in the workplace, which will allow Australian governments and businesses to better operate in the Asian Century. Such policies have directed over $280 million of funding into increasing the numbers of Indonesian literate Australians. Language Planning Theory, which is concerned with the extent to which language can be structured, acquired and used in accordance with a language plan, provides a unique perspective for the study of Asia Century Policy in Australia. This thesis analyses the policy, using the perspectives of the Indonesian language graduates who have been subject to the policies. This study surveyed 139 Indonesian language graduates all of whom graduated from various Australian universities in the last ten years. The study contains various questions, which pertain to how the participant uses their Indonesian language skills in their workplace, and in their personal lives. Several focus group sessions took place after the survey, which asked participants to further detail aspects of their life related to their Indonesian language ability, especially career related. The survey and focus group sessions elicited original data, which demonstrates that few Indonesian literate Australians apply their linguistic ability in the workplace post-study. This thesis can contribute positively to policy by informing policy makers on the outcomes of graduates who have gained Indonesian literacy and by providing an illustration of their employment outcomes.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to firstly acknowledge my supervisor, Mr. Paul Thomas, for your hard work throughout the past year. Thank you for the many hours spent structuring this study and reviewing my writing. Terima kasih Pak. Many thanks are directed toward both Dr. Beatrice Trefalt and Mrs. Yacinta Kurniasih for their copious amounts of track changes, and pointed questions regarding the contents and ideas of this thesis. Without both of your amazingly valuable input, this thesis would not have reached its potential. Thank you to Arjuna Dibley, President of the Australia-Indonesia Youth Association for your help with the AIYA members survey results. Keep up the good work! To all of my friends and family who read, discussed and revised this thesis, thank you! I particularly want to acknowledge Mas Luke Dawes for your consistent barrage of encouragement, Andrew Bashfield, my Dad, for picking apart my grammar and providing a business perspective on the study, Amelia (Millie) Walsh for letting out a big yawn to indicate the dry bits of the thesis while reviewing, and to Kate McMorrow for discussing with enthusiasm the topic of this thesis. Thank you also to everyone who participated in this study. I hope I have accurately and thoroughly represented your views and opinions.
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DECLARATION ......................................................................................................................................... 2 THESIS SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................... 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... 6 GLOSSARY............................................................................................................................................... 8 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................ 18 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................................................................... 18 Language Planning Theory ............................................................................................................ 18 PAST SURVEYS ....................................................................................................................................... 21 Graduate Careers Australia - Graduate Destination Survey .......................................................... 21 Australia Indonesia Youth Association - Member Surveys ............................................................. 22 ASIAN CENTURY DISCOURSE AND GOVERNMENT POLICY .............................................................................. 23 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................ 27 CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 29 SURVEY ................................................................................................................................................ 29 FOCUS GROUPS ..................................................................................................................................... 30 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 31 RECRUITMENT AVENUES ......................................................................................................................... 32 LIMITATIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 34 CONCLUDING REMARKS .......................................................................................................................... 36 CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................... 37 RESPONDENTS BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................. 37 INDONESIAN LANGUAGE IN THE WORKPLACE .............................................................................................. 39 INDONESIAN LANGUAGE GRADUATES AS A WHOLE ..................................................................................... 47 ADDITIONAL COMMENTS IN SURVEY ......................................................................................................... 50 FOCUS GROUP SESSIONS ......................................................................................................................... 53 IMPLICATIONS FOR LANGUAGE PLANNING THEORY ...................................................................................... 56 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................... 59 Recommendation One, Current and Prospective Indonesian Language Students ........................ 65 Recommendation Two, for Government and Business .................................................................. 65 Recommendation Three, Policy Makers and Academia ................................................................ 66 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 67 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................................... 70
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LIST OF FIGURES 1. Survey participants employment status at time of the survey. Data synthesized from both questions 11 and 12, page 40. 2. Qualification important to main paid job, bachelor graduates in full-time employment, by broad field of education, 2011 (%). Data from GCA Report, page 42. 3. Question 13: Do you use Indonesian in your workplace? Includes only participants who are working, and who graduated between 2002 and 2010, page 43. 4. Questions 6: Please rate your Indonesian language skills upon graduation. Results shown for participants who are currently working only, page 44. 5. Question 7: Please rate your current Indonesian language skill. Results shown for participants who are currently working only, page 44. 6. Question 16: Do you feel your cultural knowledge of Indonesia is useful in your career? Results shown for participants who are currently working only, page 45. 7. Question 17: Do you feel your Indonesian language knowledge was a factor in your recruitment? Results shown for respondents who are working only, page 46. 8. Question 20: How often do you currently speak Indonesian? Results shown for respondents who are working only, page 46. 9. Question 21: How often do you consume Indonesian language media? Results shown for respondents who are working only, page 47. 10. Question 19: Upon graduation, did you feel that careers which valued your Indonesian language knowledge were readily available? All respondents included, page 48. 11. Question 25: Do you feel that your Indonesian language and cultural studies have been important in your personal lives since graduation? All respondents included, page 48. 12. Question 26: In general, do you feel you have the proper opportunities to use your Indonesian language and cultural knowledge in Australia? All respondents included, page 49. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 7
13. Question 27: Do you want to increase your engagement with Indonesian language and culture? All respondents included, page 50.
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GLOSSARY AIYA - Australia-Indonesia Youth Association. ASEAN - Association of South-East Asian Nations. DFAT - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. GCA - Graduate Careers Australia. GPA - Grade Point Average MUHREC - Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee. NALSSP National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools Program. NALSAS - National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools Strategy. OS-HELP - Overseas Higher Education Loan Program.
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I want our nation to be a winner as our region changes and I want every Australian to be a winner too. Former Prime Minister Julia Gillard, in her foreword in the Australia in the Asian Century, White Paper.
Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 10
INTRODUCTION A global power shift is occurring. Just as the world witnessed the United States attain superpower status from the British Empire around the end of the 19 th Century, it is argued that the American Century is now drawing to a close (Kamener et al., 2012, p.1). Power is shifting this time from West to East. The 21 st Century, already dubbed the Asian Century by the Australian Government, has been characterised by an enormous expansion economically, politically, culturally and militarily, of many Asian states. This growth has been explosive, dramatically altering global power structures. Facts and figures exemplify the huge expansion Asia is undergoing. As a whole, Asias real GDP by 2030 is expected to double to US$67 trillion, which is US$30 trillion higher than the US in 2030 (BCG, 2012). This rise in GDP is also compounded against a massive expansion of middle class populations. It is expected that by 2020, more than half of the worlds middleclass will be living in Asia (Kharas and Santiso, 2010). This unprecedented growth of Asian nations has led to debates in Australia as to how our country can best position itself to share in the mainly economic, but also political and cultural benefits the Asian region can offer. Australias goals in relation to the Asian Century are five-fold according to the Australia in the Asian Century White Paper. The federal governments policies revolve around firstly, fostering a productive Australian economy, secondly, building Asia-relevant capabilities, thirdly, operating in and connecting to growing Asian markets, fourthly, building sustainable security in the region, and lastly creating deeper and broader relationships with Asian nations (DPM&C, 2013). These goals are met with a wide variety of implementation strategies, from launching high-tech satellites for the provision of internet access to rural locations in Australia, to the introduction of competition and regulatory reform to make Australia an attractive place to invest. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 11
In Australia, Asia Century policy is very wide in its scope, but this thesis will focus on point two, simply entitled Building Capabilities. According to former Prime Minister Gillard It [Australia in the Asian Century White Paper+ calls on all of us to play our part in becoming a more Asialiterate and Asiacapable nation, which will create a nation of winners (DPM&C, 2012, p.iii). As per Gillards quote, one key bipartisan aspect of the Building Capabilities objective is increasing literacy in Asian languages in Australia. Essentially, the education system is required to educate Australians to raise our productivity and enable all Australians to participate successfully, helping Australia seize the opportunities on offer in the Asian century (DPM&C, 2012, p.162). Building Capabilities includes a wide variety of skills, which according to the Australia in the Asian Century White Paper, include Specialised Capabilities which include areas such as engineering and Asian expertise, Broad Capabilities which includes foundation knowledge, and social foundations which includes knowledge of democratic institutions, social systems and social value (DPM&C, 2012, p.163).
Narrowing the scope further, the first of the three mentioned capability categories is Specialist Capabilities, and a key aspect of this policy is promoting literacy in Asian languages. As outlined in the white paper, the school system and the tertiary sector are tasked with teaching Australians key Asian languages. Knowledge of Asian languages is a central objective to increase Asia-relevant capabilities, which in turn, strategically positions Australia to benefit from the Asian Century. Increasing Asian Literacy, but more specifically Indonesian literacy, will form the context of this thesis. The white paper has been preceded by decades of policies promoting the study of Asian languages in Australia, which all aim to further Australias interests in the Asian region. As will be discussed, this policy has received wide support from political parties, many academics and private research institutions. Despite this plan for the future prosperity of Australia, there are currently few recognisable measures of the success of such policies.
Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 12
The aim of this research project is to provide a measure of these policies, by uncovering the professional experiences of Indonesian language graduates after the completion of their studies. These graduates were the targets the above mentioned policies, and are now literate in Indonesian language. Little is known about what these graduates do after their graduation, and this project aims to provide an empirical study of a section of this cohort. I intend to allow the perspectives of these graduates to be heard, and for them to reflect on their experiences in the workplace as they deploy their advanced Indonesian language skills. My hypothesis contends that few Indonesian language graduates apply their language skills in the workforce. Accordingly, I will show that Indonesian language graduates are less likely to apply their Indonesian language skills in the workplace compared to graduates of other disciplines. Furthermore, I will contend that Indonesian language graduates find it difficult to translate their studies into a career. Lastly, I will advocate for various policy changes, which I suggest will increase the effectiveness of current policy directed toward Asian-literacy in Australia. I theorise that if the opportunities are created to apply the Indonesian language in the Australian workforce, increased rates of acquisition will rise in response. Current language planning policies (which will be explained in Chapter One) are backward in application-: rather than training Australians in Indonesian language in anticipation of the creation of career opportunities, these opportunities should be highlighted and advertised, which will demonstrate to the public as a whole the value in learning Asian languages. In that sense, this thesis also aims to contribute a part explanation for the decline of Indonesian language studies in Australian schools and universities, linking this decline to difficulties in applying such specialist skills in the Australian workforce. This study is significant in the current global landscape. As will be articulated in Chapter One, governments and private interests are witnessing the expansion of Indonesia, and assessing how Australia can position itself to take advantage of this future global power. One such strategy is to promote the study of the Indonesian language to students both in schools and universities, and in Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 13
some cases to employees. The implementation of this strategy has entailed millions of dollars being spent on various projects to increase the numbers of Indonesian, Mandarin, Hindi and Japanese literate Australians. The fact that these funds are being allocated and the existence of the associated policy for Australians to learn Indonesian creates a unique vista for Indonesian language graduates. One would assume that Indonesian language graduates are highly sought after in the job market, and that their rare linguistic ability is in high demand, as government policy would suggest. This paper essentially seeks to investigate this assertion and, through original research, discover whether such graduates really are in relevant in an employment context in Australia in this Asian Century. The scope of this study is limited to Indonesian language university graduates who graduated in the last ten years. They must have studied at an Australian university to participate, and must have completed a major in Indonesian language. While policy aimed at increasing Indonesian literacy in Australia is not limited to potential or current university students, this study is limited to university graduates, because studying the language for three years demonstrates a commitment to the discipline, and allows for the assumption that research participants will have a proficient knowledge of Indonesian language. Due to the space limitations of this thesis, I have not included high school students in this project, but such a project could form the basis for further research. Furthermore, this study is limited to only studying Indonesian literate Australians who graduated between 2002 and 2012. This breadth of graduation years allows for analysis of those who are more recent graduates as well as others who entered the job market earlier in the Asian Century. I have set up these parameters to clearly define my research participants, and their situation within the career market. As will be discussed in the following chapter, these graduates may well have been subject to language planning policies, which could have influenced their decision to start to study Indonesian. My personal interest in this topic developed during my final year of my undergraduate degree. I had studied Indonesian during high school and Indonesian language during my Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 14
undergraduate degree. Throughout my education, I was keenly aware of the various policies regarding the study of Indonesian language, and was continuously told that the career prospects were very bright for Indonesian literate graduates. I made lots of friends during this time, many of whom were Indonesian language students, as well as during my time in Indonesia on exchange. The last year of my study coincided with the release of the Australia in the Asian Century White Paper which reinstated the priority which the Commonwealth Government is placing on the study of Asian Languages in Australia. My interest in this topic was solidified upon graduation when finding a career which valued my Indonesian language skills was proving more difficult to achieve than anticipated. This realisation was compounded by the fact that the vast majority of my fellow students upon graduation are not using their Indonesian language skills in their chosen career. Despite their intention to move into a workplace which requires Indonesian language skills, they could not realise this goal. I was confused by the reality my friends and I experienced, while at the same time reading reports from government bodies, which planned the dramatic expansion of Asian Language programs. Their reasoning is that Indonesian language skills are in drastic short supply in the workplace. Some influential figures, including the then Minister for Tertiary Education, Skills, Science and Research Senator the Hon Chris Evans, advocated for over 10,000 Australian students per year to be sent to Asia to study for at least a semester (Minister's Website for Industry, 2012). The problem I see, and the reason I dedicated a year to this project, is that there is a disconnect between Indonesian literate graduates, and the careers which require their skills. I argue that if the current cohort of Indonesian literate graduates are struggling to find work which values their linguistic ability, then this fact should be widely known, and current Asia Century policy should be revised. If current Indonesian language graduates cannot use their language in the workplace, why should the Commonwealth and State governments allocate vast sums to educating more Australians in Asian languages, which will only exacerbate this problem? I am both an Indonesian language graduate, and the Chapter President of the Australia-Indonesia Youth Association in Victoria (AIYA), an organisation engaged in aiding Indonesian literate young Australians to find work Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 15
which utilises their Indonesian language ability. It is my experience that many AIYA members, who themselves are Indonesian language graduates, are struggling to find work which requires their Indonesian language skills, and this I find most disappointing. Hence, this thesis is my way of establishing solid facts regarding the career paths of Indonesian language graduates, in the hope to inform future Asia Century policy regarding the studies of Indonesian. Hence, this study will probe the success of past policy, and aims to provide raw qualitative and quantitative data to detail what these Indonesian language graduates are engaged in after their studies. I intend to provide solid data which can be used to illuminate a proportion of Indonesian literate Australians. These graduates have been voiceless in the debate surrounding the Asian literacy in Australia, and their experiences should be a paramount concern in the continuation of such policies. It is important to note that finding employment which requires specific language skills is not the sole reason for language study. I acknowledge that while this study revolves around the employability of Indonesian language graduates, there are many other key facets of language programs which are just as important as employability. Second language acquisition allows for better global understanding, sharpened cognitive abilities, the ability to enjoy international literature, music and film, the ability to travel more easily, the opportunity to make friends, and developing a foundation in inter-cultural communication, in essence becoming a global citizen. Moreover, bilingualism is associated with enhanced cognitive performance(Lo Bianco, 2009). All of these benefits of second language acquisition can be just as vitally important to the language learner as attaining a desirable career post-study, which values the additional language skills. As such, I am keenly aware that not all Indonesian language graduates have the intention to work in an Indonesia- related field and that if indeed they do not use Indonesian in their workplace, that this may be a personal choice. After conducting the focus group sessions, I am not under the assumption that if an Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 16
Indonesian literate graduate cannot not use their skills in the workplace in the first ten years after graduation, that their years of study has in any way been wasted. This thesis is presented in three chapters. The first chapter provides a literature review, and includes relevant academic theories, past surveys, and an analysis of Asian Century discourse. The second chapter contains the methodology. This chapter explains in detail the survey and focus groups, in addition to limitations associated with the research method. The final chapter provides the results of the survey, and the findings of the focus group. This section includes various graphs, and many quotations from the focus groups. The paper will finish with a concluding section, which will include several recommendations, which will be useful for prospective/current students, policy makers, academics and business leaders. All associated documentation will be included in the appendices, followed by the reference list. This study has used a wide variety of sources in order to draw conclusions. Aside from the original research conducted, I have utilised a combination of journal articles, government reports, academic books, web pages, private research institution reports, past survey reports, university survey reports and newspaper articles. I have analysed as much literature associated with the research question as possible, ranging from purely theoretical academic literature to survey reports. I have used a variety of primary and secondary resources, and have made an attempt to bring all perspectives to light on this issue. The first and only theory assessed is Language Planning, as the literature review will demonstrate. The literature review chapter located this study within existing academic discourse, and demonstrated the originality of the project. This study samples a defined group of individuals, who share a common second language. As of yet, a study with these parameters is yet to be conducted within Australia, which makes the results difficult to compare. Much research is and has been conducted in Australia which seeks to profile groups of graduates based on broad disciplines, but this is the first study which is focusing solely on Indonesian language graduates. Research studying Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 17
graduates in general is conducted by Graduates Careers Australia, which surveys graduates as a whole, and whose reports only filter their findings into broad categories. As will be elaborated on the literature review, the only similar study found was conducted by the Australia-Indonesia Youth Association who completed a non-academic survey of their membership. While the target audience was similar, the survey content was different. As such, my project, which samples such a small group of graduates, is original in its scope and cannot be directly compared to other similar literature. This study provides an original set of findings that have not as yet been addressed in scholarly literature. The conclusion will provide recommendations for government and Australian businesses which engage with Indonesia, as well as Indonesian language students. These recommendations provide insight from the survey and focus groups, which will allow for more effective and efficient policies in the coming years. It is widely understood that Australia needs to better engage with Indonesia in this Asian Century, and this project identifies several problems which will need to be overcome to fully engage with our northern neighbour.
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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW The study of the vocational career paths of graduates is interdisciplinary in nature. The first section of this literature review chapter will situate the study within the theoretical framework of language planning theory. The second section of this chapter will locate this study within the existing body of literature pertaining to graduate careers and specifically Indonesian literate Australians. The third and final section discusses language planning policy pertaining to increasing acquisition of Indonesian in Australia. This section will assess various arguments for and against such policy, and describe the policies in place.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK LANGUAGE PLANNING THEORY There is an extensive body of literature and academic debate on language planning theory. The first instance of language planning in scholarly discourse was Millers term Language Engineering in 1950 (Cooper, 1989, p.29). Language planning theory concerns the extent to which language can be structured, acquired and used in accordance with a language plan. Several key buzz words circulated throughout the 1960s and 1970s. In 1952, Hall predicted the development glottopolitics, which was adapted in Nosss Language Development(1967) and Gormans Language Regulation(1973). Language management is another term used by prominent authors such as Spolsky (2009, 2004) but which implies the same definition. Spolsky (2009, 2004) argues that language management better articulated the concept because of direct efforts to manipulate language and because the term management better reflects this nature. Despite continual debate surrounding a common term, language planning is most commonly used, and will be featured throughout this thesis. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 19
Language planning in the field of applied linguistics is subject to various and considerably varied definitions. Cooper is an eminent scholar in the language planning field, and according to his definition: Language planning refers to deliberate efforts to influence the behaviour of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation of their language codes (Cooper, 1989, p.45). Several key areas of language planning are subject to definitional discrepancies. Firstly, the agency, or who is engaging in the planning language is keenly debated. Many notable academics such as Baldauf and Kaplan (1997, p.3), Wright (2004, p.13) and Shohamy (2006,p.43) contend that language can be planned by any organisation or authority, and is not exclusively the role of governments. Conversely, Rubin and Jernudd (1971, p.xvi) and Davis(1994, p.xiii) argue that language planning is the sole responsibility of state authorities, according to the theory. Scholars have traditionally divided language planning discourse into three distinctive categories, as Cooper (1989, pp. 31-34) describes. Firstly, corpus planning is used to understand spelling, scripts and the creation of new vocabulary. Secondly, status planning refers to the importance placed on languages relative to others. This could be represented by extra funding allocations, or other prioritisation given. Lastly, and most relevant to this thesis is acquisition planning. Acquisition planning is used to label language education as a mode of language planning, which directly increases the raw number of users of a target language. Conversely, acquisition planning can also be used decrease the number of users of other languages. Liddicoat (2013, p.2) indicates that language acquisition activities include the development of literacy, the acquisition of new languages and language maintenance programs, which often overlaps with other areas of (language) planning. Education is the main tool used in acquisition language planning policies. Formal language learning institutions are not always guided by government policy, but often are guided by internal policy decisions (McKay, 1993, p.27). Spolsky (2009, p.90) sees educational facilities as the most powerful force in the implementation of language planning policy, whether or not policy is prescribed by a central authority. Active contributors described by Hornberger (1998, p.453) are Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 20
often teachers, educational program developers, and educational resource producers, demonstrating that not only governments can be language planners. Despite government rhetoric, simply solving communication problems is never the sole reason for implementing language planning programs(Bokamba, 1995, p.20). Very often economic, political, religious, security, and cultural reasons are crucial in the adoption of language planning policies by governments. This planning of languages must always be seen within the context of serving the interests of the state within a framework which emphasizes power and competing interests (Tollefson, 1991, p.201). Language planning, according to Cooper (1989, p.34) has always had a distinctly political motive, and solving communication problems is not its sole use. Language planning policy then becomes a tool of government power, which has the ability to promote the interest of one group over another. Furthermore, it is important to articulate the difference between language planning and language policy. Hornberger (2006, p.25) contends that while the exact nature of the relationship between language planning and language policy is unclear, the two concepts are inextricably related. These two concepts are often combined in academic discourse, creating the acronym LPP (Language Planning and Policy). I understand the subtle difference as being that language planning represents direct actions to influence a language, while the general administration of languages falls under the category of language policy. Language planning theory is inextricably linked to the argument of this thesis in that the Australian Government has made explicit attempts to advance the studies of Indonesian language classes in Australia. Both the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools Strategy (NALSAS) and the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools Program (NALSSP) between 1994 and 2012 directed over AU$270 million into Asian studies programs in secondary schools (NALSAS, 2003, Department of Education, 2012). Further funding into the tertiary sector has been evidenced through the Australian Commonwealth Government AsiaBound Grants Program, Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 21
and changes to the Overseas Higher Education Loan Program (OS-HELP) (Doyle, 2013, AEI, 2013). All these programs and schemes aim to increase Asian Literacy in Australia, which will be discussed later in this chapter. These examples all represent language planning policies in action, conforming to the foundations of the language planning theory.
PAST SURVEYS While past surveys included in this section are non-academic in nature, their value as indicators of potential findings are useful. Two surveys have been identified as being similar in scope and application to the study conducted for this thesis. The first is the Graduate Careers Australia Graduate Destination Survey, and the second is the Australia-Indonesia Youth Association Members Survey. A summary of these two surveys is found in this section of the literature review chapter Graduate Careers Australia - Graduate Destination Survey GRADUATE CAREERS AUSTRALIA - GRADUATE DESTINATION SURVEY Graduate Careers Australia (GCA) is an influential organisation, which creates graduate- related publications and is the primary organisation in the field of graduate employment. GCA compiles various research reports based upon university derived data, and one such report is the Beyond Graduation Survey. This survey is sent to graduates three years after the completion of their degree, and is essentially a longitudinal study of higher education graduates in Australia(GCA, 2013a). The Beyond Graduation Survey questions pertaining to whether or not a graduates qualification is important to their main paid job are highly relevant to this study (GCA, 2011). These questions are a self-assessment of participants careers, and in 2011 attracted 11,807 usable responses Australia wide (Carroll, 2012). The results of this GCA survey cannot be directly compared to the results of the survey contained within this thesis, because of the different question styles. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 22
While the GCA survey asks the extent to which graduates degrees relate to their career, this study asks the extent to which participants Indonesian literacy relates to their career, regardless of additional areas of study. Even if an Indonesian language graduate does not use Indonesian in their workplace, their degree may still be relevant to their career. Hence, while the GCA Beyond Graduation Survey is a useful instrument, the data cannot be directly compared with data found by this study. Regardless, the findings of the Beyond Graduation Survey are still very relevant to this study, and will be drawn upon in the findings chapter. Importantly, this survey found that in the society and culture category (in which most Indonesian language students would be located), 73.2% of respondents reported that their qualification is important to their main paid job in 2011. The education category (which would also host Indonesian language graduates) was 93% in the same year. These figures provide an excellent reference point to the general rates of employment for Arts graduates, which can then be loosely compared to the relevant rates for Indonesian language graduates.
AUSTRALIA INDONESIA YOUTH ASSOCIATION - MEMBER SURVEYS Another important data source is the Australia Indonesia Youth Association (AIYA). Established in 2011 it is a youth-led non-government organisation which aims to further the Australia-Indonesia relationship, especially by forging connections between young Australians and Indonesians. The association has chapters in all major Australian cities, and Jakarta. AIYA has completed two member surveys for use in their Department of Foreign Affairs (DFAT) submission papers, in both 2012 and 2013. I am the chapter president of the Victorian branch. These two member surveys were sent to the associations members, and covered many aspects of the Australia-Indonesia relationship, and members perceptions on topical issues. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 23
Included in these papers were questions pertaining to careers and job prospects that are similar to the survey contained within this thesis. There are, however, two key differences. Firstly, the AIYA survey was limited to AIYA members only, who come from a variety of backgrounds. The members need not be Indonesian language graduates, and no age restriction exists. Secondly, the AIYA data is not being released for scholarly interpretation or debate. Publically available data is included in the report alone, which has been analysed and complied solely by AIYA for the purposes of the DFAT report. The AIYA survey aims to highlight youth perspectives in the Australia-Indonesia relationship. The argument of this study will be strengthened by results from the AIYA Annual Members Survey Results Report. It will especially assess various comments made by AIYA members in regards to employment prospects for Indonesian language students (AIYA, 2013a).
ASIAN CENTURY DISCOURSE AND GOVERNMENT POLICY An additional set of materials relevant to this thesis is found in government policy documents on the Asian Century, as well as academic debates in universities and research institutions. The perceived Asian Century has been a topic of academic discourse since the late 1960s. This area of study revolves around the fact that Asia is a growing region in many key indicators. The aim of the debate is to articulate how Australia can position itself to take advantage of this global power shift. Many notable academics and research institutions have weighed into the debate, and this section of the literature review aims to provide an overview of some of the perspectives related to Asian language study in Australia. The first major road map for the future of Asian languages in Australia was the 1994 report entitled Asian Languages and Australias Economic Future, commonly entitled the Rudd Report. This paper was chaired by Kevin Rudd, and outlines the strategic importance placed on Japanese, Mandarin, Korean and Indonesian for Australias economic future. The report finds an intrinsic Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 24
correlation between national linguistic skills and improved economic performance (Rudd, 1994, vi). On the same page, the report emphasises that Australia requires these language skills in order to provide firms with an enhanced physical capacity to communicate with regional markets and that Australia also needs culture skills in order to communicate in a culturally sensitive and therefore effective manner through the systematic study of Asian societies and their considerable political, economic and cultural diversity. These quotes clearly convey the message that Asian language skills are needed in the workforce. The Rudd Report formed the foundation of the establishment of the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools Strategy in 1994. The implementation of this policy cost over A$208 million, and was ceased by the Howard Government in 2002 (NALSAS, 2003). During this time, the program can be seen as relatively successful, as more than 600,000 Australian students were studying one of the four priority languages (Mandarin, Japanese, Korean and Indonesian), and the number of schools which taught Asian languages increased to 53.4%. Furthermore, around 2,500 teachers were either trained or retained to teach these Asian languages, which is a substantial increase from previous years (Henderson, 2008, p.187). Henderson believes that these achievements were considerable, and worked to increase the acquisition rates of Asian languages including Indonesian (Henderson, 2008, p.187). The promotion of Asian language studies, including Indonesian, as a means to foster Australias greater engagement in the Asian region has been the passion of many academics and research institutions, both private and governmental. Prominent Indonesianist Professor David Hills recent report Indonesian Language in Australian Universities: Strategies for a Stronger Future(2012, p.1) is one such paper which states that a healthy working relationship with our northern neighbour *Indonesia+ is vital to both our present and future national interest. Hill cites the fact (p.2) that if current education trends continue, Indonesian will not be taught in Australian universities by 2022. Among Hills many recommendations is that the Commonwealth Government coordinate, advocate for, promote, and stimulate Indonesian language teaching both in the secondary and tertiary Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 25
education systems (p.4). Importantly, Hills paper was funded through the Australian Learning and Teaching Council, under direction of the Australian Commonwealth Government. Further private and publically funded research undertaken by Asialink, based at the University of Melbourne, assesses this need for greater Asian literacy in Australian society. Asialinks 2012 report: Developing an Asia Capable Workforce: A National Strategy, describes Asia Capabilities as a priority for Australia (Asialink, 2012a, p.1). The taskforce responsible for this report was made up of senior business leaders, chaired by the CEO of ANZ (Australia and New Zealand Banking Group) Mike Smith, and highlights the lack of Australian business leaders with Asian language skills or in country knowledge (pp. 10-13) and ways in which organisations can foster Asia capabilities within their corporate structure (pp. 14-21). Asialink also published Our Place in the Asian Century: Southeast Asia as The Third Way, report in 2012, which was written after consultations with prominent academics, politicians and business figures both in Australia and internationally. Crucially to this thesis, recommendation fourteen articulated that both language and non-language teaching relating to ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) Countries must undergo a review and then *be+ revitalise*d+ (p.6). These two reports leave no doubt that increasing Asian Literacy is a priority for a large section of business and academic interests. While many official documents detail Commonwealth Government policy and discourse on Asian Literacy in Australia, it is most explicit and clear in the recent 2012 White Paper, Australia in the Asian Century. In former Prime Minister Julia Gillards foreword, she states that The White Paper calls on all of us to play our part in becoming a more Asia-literate and Asia-capable nation (p.iii). Chapter six, Building Capabilities, includes in section eleven the proposal that every student will have access to at least one priority language (Mandarin, Hindi, Japanese or Indonesian) which they will have access to continuously throughout their years of schooling (p.16). The same chapter also explicitly states that the Commonwealth Government will support universities to increase the number of students who undertake Asian studies and Asian languages as part of their university Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 26
education (p.17). The implementation of this white paper is still in its early stages as of July 2013, but the intention to increase Asia-Literacy has been evidenced through the changes to OS-HELP, which has increased the funding available to students studying in-country in Asia. Specifically, Australian university students intending to study in Asia as part of their degree can access $7,500, $1,250 more than students going to non-Asia destinations, and are also eligible to receive a supplementary $1,000 for pre-departure language study (Assist, 2013). Furthermore, the Commonwealth Government has organised a range of round table discussions between key stakeholders to support the White Papers education objectives (DPM&C, 2013). Of note, the election of the Coalition Government in September 2013, has brought a fresh perspective on Asian Century policy. According to the Liberal Partys August 2013 press release, the new government intends to sponsor 300 undergraduate students per year to study in Asian countries as part of their university studies (Liberal, 2013). This initiative, called the New Colombo Plan will again foster the studies of Asian Languages, including Indonesian, in order to increase the acquisition rates of such languages, and to increase cultural awareness of Asian societies. This is a clear goal of the coalition, as the now foreign minister Julie Bishop stated earlier in 2013: We want it [studying at an Asian university] to be seen as a rite of passage for young Australians so that we can build up a large body of people who have experienced living, working, studying in another country in our region and learning the language, forging friendships, exchanging ideas and then coming back to Australia with skills and perceptions and ideas that will boost our innovation and our productivity (Bishop, 2013b). While academic reaction to this policy is still forthcoming, the media reaction has commented on the bi-partisan support for increased Asian language acquisition, viewing this program as the continuation of Labours AsiaBound program, which shared a very similar scope (Lane, 2013). Not all sectors of society support bolstering Asian language programs and increasing the overall number of students studying Asian languages. Benjamin Herscovitch is a policy analyst for the Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 27
influential Centre for Independent Studies, and is a well-known advocate of the belief that increasing Asia literacy in Australia is unnecessary. Herscovitchs 2012 report Australias Asia Literacy Non- Problem represents the culmination of his research, and argues that calls to expand LOTE programs are unnecessary for two reasons. Firstly, he contends English is a global lingua franca, which is spoken by some two billion people globally (p.7). Secondly, Herscovitch argues that Australia has readymade Asian language and cultural literacy, due to the fact that 2.2 million or 10% of Australias population, in 2011 spoke an Asian language at home (p.9). These two arguments are supported by a variety of academic material. Australian Bureau of Statistics Census data is often cited to examine the usage of Asian languages in Australian society (Hughes, 2012). The point made by Herscovitch is that Australia is home to a variety of native Asian language speakers, which makes training Australians in Asian languages redundant. Scholarly research also abounds which argues that English is an Asian Language, making the study of other Asian languages less relevant. Karchu, for example, contends that English is increasingly being used in formal and educational contexts in many Asian societies, meaning that English should be classified as an Asian language (Kachru, 1998, p.93). Furthermore, many scholars argue that the global dominance of the English language and its variants will continue to be influential for many years into the 21 st Century (Bruthiaux, 2002, p.135, Gaz, 2012, p.125). One final perspective from Salter (2013) is that Asia-literacy discourse is really just Orientalism in disguise, and another version of Australias Asia-anxiety. Salter questions the assumption that there is a need for increased Asia literacy in Australia and advocates a review of the rationale behind investing in Asian literacy (p.17). SUMMARY These three sets of literature in combination, demonstrate the need for a study of Indonesian language graduates, and their careers and engagement with Indonesia post study. I believe that this study is the missing link between previous research and public policy, which will Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 28
help to answer many crucial questions contained within previous literature. I feel there has been a general neglect of the study of past language program graduates. It is my opinion that, before conclusions are drawn regarding Asia century policy, and before vast sums of money are invested in LOTE programs, these generally young, Indonesian literate Australians should be consulted, and their opinions heard. This paper fills a gap in the academic literature, as it illustrates the perspectives and experiences of recent Indonesia language graduates with the aim to inform future Asia Century policy.
Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 29
CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY In order to research the vocational pathways of Indonesian language graduates, this study utilised two methods of research: a survey and focus groups. This methodology section will outline the details of the survey, focus groups, recruitment avenues, ethical considerations and the limitations of the study. All relevant documents are included in the appendices. Quantitative data gathering through the use of an online survey was decided upon due to the geographic spread of intended research participants, whether within Australia, in Indonesia, or throughout the world. This research methodology is popular due to its effectiveness in the field of applied linguistics (Brown, 2004,p. 179). This study was intended to reach as many Indonesian language graduates as possible, and due to their geographical spread throughout Australia and the world, online surveying was the only effective option. This methodology was also chosen due to its simplicity and ease of operation for the participants. Respondents could participate from anywhere globally with an internet connection, and were not overly inconvenienced by their participation, apart from their time. Moreover, modern online survey software, such as SurveyMonkey, provided a solid and professional method of data collection, also including advanced data analysing tools built into the software. SURVEY The survey consisted of 26 questions covering a variety of areas relating to the participants Indonesian language experiences. The background section asked questions pertaining to where the participant completed their study, what year they completed their Indonesian major, whether or not they completed credited classes in Indonesia, and a self-assessment of their language ability upon graduation and currently, as well as the other languages spoken by the participant. The career section included various questions regarding whether or not the participants workplace utilises their knowledge of Indonesian language. The personal section asked participants about how they use Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 30
their Indonesian literacy in their non-professional lives. The participants were also encouraged to provide additional comments through the survey. The survey questions utilised a variety of response types. Questions six and seven, for example, required a self-assessment of Indonesian language proficiency on a five point scale, from beginner to fluent. Other open questions required participants to type their answer, e.g. What is your career? Some questions required participants to note the number of occasions they used Indonesian in certain aspects of their lives, with options ranging from every day to once a year. The majority of the questions used a yes or no answer format, and one question using this format included an unsure box. Not all questions had to be answered in order for the participant to be able to complete the survey. These non-compulsory questions mainly pertained to potentially traceable personal information such as a participants employment or university. All other questions required an answer to complete the survey. An additional comments section was added to the end of the survey, as a tool for participants to clarify their responses, and provide their opinion regarding the study. This section allowed participants to explain their answers to specific questions, and to expand on their feelings and to describe their life as an Indonesian literate graduate. Encouragingly, the survey attracted 139 participants, from a wide variety of universities and a semi-equitable spread of graduation years between 2002 and 2012. Of the 139 responses, 133 completed the entire survey, translating to a response rate of 95.7%. Of the incomplete responses, most discontinued the research during the background section, indicating that those participants may have realised that they did not fit the studys criteria. Participants were advised that the survey would take no longer than fifteen minutes, but it is anticipated that most participants would have needed only five minutes. FOCUS GROUPS Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 31
To supplement the quantitative survey data, qualitative data was gathered through focus group sessions. Five survey participants were interviewed, consisting of two groups of two and one participant alone. The aim of these focus groups were to ask participants about the quality of the survey, to allow the participants to expand on their answer, and to ask them specific questions about Indonesian literacy in Australia. Each focus group took approximately 30 minutes. One session took place in person at Monash University Clayton, and three participants were interviewed utilising the Skype online communication software. While in person focus groups were preferred, many participants were interstate and overseas at the time of the focus groups. The focus groups covered various topics, allowing the participants to direct the conversation. A copy of the ethics approved topic list is attached to the appendix. Participants were initially asked about any problems intrinsically within the survey, followed by questions pertaining to their career and engagement with the Indonesian language post-graduation. Participants were asked about their interest and goals in relation to their Indonesian language skills, and their opinion on Indonesian language policy in Australia. Participants were able to provide their general opinion on the study of Indonesian in Australia, and were given considerable freedom to lead the conversation, within the approved topics. The participants contributed enthusiastically, and were eager to provide in depth personal input into the study. Focus group participation was anonymous, and participants are not identified within this thesis and associated publications. All focus group audio was recorded, and although transcripts are not included in the appendix, useful comments are provided in the findings chapter. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS A low risk human research ethics application was approved by the Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (MUHREC). This application approved the survey and focus group data gathering methods, and the associated explanatory statements, consent forms, and survey Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 32
questions all of which have been included in the appendix of this thesis. This application allowed for a maximum of 100 survey participants, and ten focus group participants. Due to the unexpected popularity of the survey, I submitted an application amendment form, which allowed the maximum survey participant number to increase to 1,000. I did not encounter any unexpected ethical issues in the course of research, and do not feel that undue harm was inflicted on participants. The surveys and focus groups were totally anonymous, and the raw data will be destroyed in one year. All ethics related documentation is included in the appendix. RECRUITMENT AVENUES A variety of avenues were used to recruit research participants. Due to the relatively small number of Indonesian language graduates, and the wide variety of careers or study options Indonesian literate graduates pursue, systematic targeting of participants for recruitment was difficult. Five recruitment avenues were chosen, and formed the basis for advertising the survey. The SurveyMonkey software allows various uniform resource locators (URL) to be created for the one survey. Utilising this feature, each recruitment avenue used a unique URL, so that the researchers could track the origin of each response. Firstly, the most successful of all recruitment avenues was using the Australian Consortium for In-Country Indonesian Studies (ACICIS) various Facebook alumni networks and mailing lists. ACICIS, based at Murdoch University, is the principal provider for university-credited study abroad trips to Indonesia, and has a large alumni network of people who have studied Indonesian in Australian universities. David Hill at ACICIS kindly emailed the details of the study to his entire mailing list, and the details were also posted to ACICISs alumni network Keluarga ACICIS (ACICIS family) Facebook page. This recruitment avenue generated 78 responses. In addition to the ACICIS network, the survey was advertised on various Facebook pages utilised by Indonesian language graduates. The Australia-Indonesia Youth Association and affiliated Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 33
Australia Indonesia Young Professionals also were obliging, and helped to advertise the survey using their Facebook networks. These networks yielded 23 responses. Other online networks were also used to promote the study, including the Indonesia Research Network, and La Trobe Bahasa Indonesia Student Association (BISA). These networks provided some 20 additional responses. The survey was also advertised to personal contacts who were known Indonesian language graduates. They were then asked to forward the details of the study to their classmates and friends who they studied with, or who are known to have majored in Indonesian. It is important to note that the approved survey advertising only was used to recruit personal contacts, and that their participation was wholly voluntary. These contacts added eighteen responses to the pool of data. Finally, the Monashs Indonesian Programs small alumni mailing list was also used to recruit participants. Although, several other universities were contacted in regards to emailing their alumni with the survey details, no surveys were completed using these alumni mailing lists. Despite the use of different URLs to allow the researchers to distinguish between how survey participants were recruited, these URLs were often mixed. For instance, after completing the survey, participants would send the link to their friends, which confused the origins of the survey responses. Ensuring that the ethics approved survey advertising was used also proved problematic. For example, I posted the survey on the AIYA National Facebook page. Without consulting me, the Australia Indonesia Young Professionals reposted the link without using the approved ethics advertising. Due to the instantaneous nature of the internet and online social media, this was often beyond the control of the researchers and I could only email the administrators asking them to use the approved advertising. The final section of the survey included a question for participants to provide their email address if they were willing to participate in focus groups sessions. Email addresses were collected through this avenue, and the participants were subsequently emailed regarding the focus group Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 34
session details. 60 email addresses were collected, resulting in five graduates participating in the various sessions. LIMITATIONS This study and its methodology are subject to various intrinsic limitations. While these limitations do not invalidate the results, they should be considered when assessing the findings. Firstly, the nature of surveys and questionnaires, as compared to other data gathering techniques such as interviews, is problematic due to their tendency to be subject to low return rates, and their rigid, artificial and impersonal characteristics (Brown, 2001, p.75). When surveys are conducted online, these problems magnify, including the inability to follow up on participants answers, and missing data (Cantrell and Lupinacci, 2007, p. 548). Such problems include a lack of control over the test conditions, decreased response rates and problems also arise if the survey is competing for the participants attention (Ahern, 2005, pp.62-63). While online survey methodologies are subject to general limitations, this study also has specific issues. Firstly, due to the anonymity clause of the study, the participants cannot be verified as to whether they are actually Indonesian language graduates. Essentially, anyone who had access to the URL could participate in the study, which is particularly concerning in the instances that the approved advertising, outlining criteria for participation, was not accompanying the URL. The use of social networks for recruitment means that the survey link was most probably seen by thousands of people. Since the target participant group is so small, all efforts were made not to recruit too broadly. While 139 participants is a considerable amount of respondents considering Indonesian enrolment numbers at universities, it is much smaller than other existing data pertaining to graduates and their career paths, which generally have thousands of respondents. Secondly, the recruitment process creates bias in the results. The extensive use of ACICIS networks and AIYA networks arguable recruits graduates who are still active within Indonesian Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 35
studies/professional communities. Almost all respondents who used the ACICIS URL have spent at least a semester studying in Indonesia, setting them apart from the average Indonesian language graduate who might not necessarily have studied overseas. This in-country experience is unique and rare among graduates, meaning their interest and enthusiasm in Indonesia could be said to be higher than graduates who have not spent time in Indonesia. Also, AIYA networks are primarily used by students and graduates who want to further their engagement with Indonesia and Indonesia related issues. As such, targeting Indonesian language graduates who have disassociated themselves with the discipline/community is difficult, and means that the results will be bias toward more engaged graduates. Furthermore, these students may have completed a double degree, also majoring in a discipline outside language studies. The participants motivations for studying Indonesian are beyond the scope of this study. Due to the fact that these graduates committed three years to the study of Indonesian, and how they were recruited, it can be argued that these graduates intend for their studies to be useful in their lives, rather than a graduate who for instance took Indonesian to finish a science degree and never intended for it to lead anywhere. Thirdly, several problems were identified within the survey itself. The survey was designed for graduates who are currently working, not students, as their career paths were to be assessed. Respondents who were undertaking post-graduate study at the time of the survey were asked to consider their full time studies as their career, but the questions often did not translate into answerable questions about their studies. Such as: Was your Indonesian Language knowledge a factor in your recruitment? This question is near impossible for a student to answer. Despite this problem, higher degree students are not the primary concern of the study. In addition to the problems students faced, the distinction between questions three and four was not clear. More information as to the definitions of in-country and intensive in-country were needed. Furthermore, question 22 contained two errors, making the results unusable. Due to this error, question 22 was skipped by 19 respondents. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 36
The focus groups sessions ran smoothly, and elicited useful data. The online session was subject to infrequent internet connection problems, which made the respondents hard to comprehend at various points. Some potential focus group participants were unable to establish a connection, and were then unable to participate further. CONCLUDING REMARKS The implemented methodology was successful and elicited useful data. Despite various shortcomings, the survey, complemented by the focus groups were thorough, and provided participants the opportunity to provide their perspective on the issues being studied. The considerable uptake of the study, 139 participants, indicates that Indonesian language graduates want their opinions and experiences to be heard. This study also contrasts with the previous surveys in terms of its academic underpinnings.
Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 37
CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION As previously established, this thesis assesses Australian language planning policies, and discourse on the Asian century, from the perspective and experiences of the Indonesian literate graduates. Despite the fact that they are the prime target in these policies, their views have rarely been heard. Their experiences should inform any changes in policy in the future. RESPONDENTS BACKGROUND The first section of the survey included various background questions, which were then used to filter responses in the more complex analysis. This section of the survey was also useful in terms of qualifying participants for the survey. Specifically, should someone who did not qualify mistakenly click the link to the survey on a social media site, the first few questions such as What year did you complete you Indonesian language major? would allow them to realise they did not meet the criteria, and discontinue the survey. To recapitulate, a total of 139 responses were started, and 133 were completed. The survey was completed by graduates from sixteen Australian universities, with the largest number of participants from Monash University (21 participants), The University of Sydney (14 participants), University of Western Australia (11 participants) and the Australian National University (11 participants). Smaller numbers of graduates were recruited from, the University of Tasmania (3 participants), the University of Adelaide (2 participants) and the University of the Sunshine Coast (2 participants). The only state/territory not represented is the Northern Territory. Several participants completed their studies at universities which did not offer Indonesian language classes, so they were allocated to the university which they completed their Indonesian study. This spread of university representation is a positive sign for this research project as it allows the results to be generalised at the national level. Given the relatively low numbers of Indonesian language graduates in Australia, the data sample size is considerable. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 38
The second background question, which asks participants which year they graduated from their Indonesian studies degree corresponded well to the targeted research group. At the outset of this study, I had been concerned that recent graduates would be heavily overrepresented, and that recruiting Indonesian language graduates from between 2002 and 2009 would be difficult. This proved not to be the case, and although the study was more popular among more recent graduates, 52.8% of respondents graduated between 2002 and 2009. Some 25.4% of research respondents graduated in 2012, followed by 12.3% and 9.4% in 2011 and 2010 respectively. 1 The results benefit from a broad range of graduation years, which further validates the findings. The proceeding questions asked participants whether they had participated in in-country or intensive in-country study. 81.2% stated they had completed in-country language studies, and a further 65.1% stated they had participated in an intensive in-country study program. These results cannot be generalised for several reasons. Firstly, due to the high number (78 participants) of responses from the ACICIS mailing list, this number might be unrepresentative of Indonesian studies graduates generally. One can assume that the vast majority of ACICIS mailing list members will be ACICIS alumni, who have completed in-country study. Furthermore, the difference between in- country and intensive in-country programs was not articulated clearly in the survey, and this could have led to confusion. Regardless, I can state that around 81.2% of survey respondents have spent time in-country which contributed to their degree. The final background questions allow a deeper understand of who participated in this study. 50% of participants began their tertiary Indonesian studies while already at an intermediate level, equivalent to year 12 language study, 37.7% began from scratch, and the 2.2% at a proficient level. Participants were subsequently asked to rate their Indonesian language skills on a sliding scale from beginner to fluent in terms of their speaking, listening, writing and reading skills. The most popular choice across all four disciplines, with an average of 45.8% was in-between intermediate
1 These figures do not add up to 100% due to the fact that not every respondent completed the question. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 39
and fluent. The next question asked participants to rate their current Indonesian language skills, and the most popular choice again was in between intermediate and fluent, but at a much smaller margin, only 33.5%. Instead, the fluent choice rose from 21.53% to 28.25%, but the choice between beginner and intermediate rose from 5.13% to 10.58%. Overall, Indonesian language proficiency marginally dropped among the entire group from the moment of their graduation, to when they participated in the survey. This statistic is striking as it indicates that these graduates are unlikely to be using their Indonesian language skills regularly, leading to a drop in proficiency. The final question of this survey section asked participants about their facility in a third language. According to Griffith University, bilinguals form only 19% of the Australian population, and reliable data is not yet available to measure rates of trilingualism (Griffith, 2013). This study found that 41.01% of Indonesian language graduates surveyed speak at least a third language. The most popular additional languages were Spanish (13 respondents), French (12 respondents) and German (10 respondents). Indonesian dialects spoken were Javanese, Sundanese and Balinese. These background questions are useful firstly to understand more about the survey participants. A variety of factors can affect how language studies influence ones life post study, such as in-country study, and facility in other languages. Secondly, the responses to these questions will be used to filter the data, which will allow a closer look at the relevant statistics.
INDONESIAN LANGUAGE IN THE WORKPLACE After an analysis of the survey participants educational backgrounds, the survey turned to study the respondents current occupation. In a similar style to the Australian census, this study sought to identify the participants career at the time of the study, whether it was full-time working, volunteering or continuing academic study. Participants who were continuing their studies were easily filtered out for the results which pertain to Indonesian language usage in the workplace. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 40
Responses from questions 11 and 12 (figure 1) found that 57.9% of the graduates surveyed are currently working full time. It also uncovered that many graduates have moved onto post- graduate study, which represents a further 30.8%. The survey also encountered several graduates who are both working professionally and studying part time, volunteering, unemployed, and several could not be determined from their response. Of the participants who are working, the primary Working Studying Volunteering Working professionally and studying Unemployed Undeterminable Employment Status Figure 1. Survey participants employment status at time of the survey. Data synthesized from both questions 11 and 12. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 41
occupations were teaching, public service, with several other occupations represented including, engineering, interpreting, reporting, lawyers, academia, consulting, and even one locomotive operator. Limited data is available regarding graduate careers post study, and the most reliable source is Graduate Careers Australia (GCA). Their recent 2013 Where Grads Go report uncovers some curious statistics regarding the participants of this study. According to the GCA report, 39.7% of language and literature students (this broad group of students includes disciplines such as sociology, languages, anthropology, linguistics) who graduated from a bachelors degree in 2012 continued onto to further study in 2013 (GCA, 2013b). Upon filtering the data, to include only participants who graduated in 2012, it is shown that 60.6% (30 respondents) are currently undertaking further study as of April/May 2013. This figure of 60.6% for Indonesian language graduates is considerably higher than any discipline as outlined in the GCA report, of which the highest is Biology graduates at 50.1%. So why are so many graduates, who have already committed three years to studying Indonesian deciding to further their studies rather than join the workforce? As understood in Chapter One, Australian language planning policy for Asian languages extends from primary schools to the tertiary level, meaning that the participants of this study are at the top academic echelon of this spectrum. Additionally, the presence of four unemployed graduates who possess priority language skills means that the study found a 3% unemployment rate, well below the national unemployment average at 5.7% for August 2013 (Statistics, 2013). These statistics pertaining to employment status is the first of many indicators which demonstrate that Indonesian language graduates often encounter difficulties finding employment which requires their language abilities (yet they do not seem to encounter difficulty finding employment). The analysis of Indonesian language usage post study by these graduates is most apparent when considering Indonesian language use in the workplace. To analyse this aspect of the data, the responses from respondents currently in the workforce was isolated, which leaves a total of 77 Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 42
completed surveys. After analysis of these responses alone, certain useful points can be made. The survey data finds that participants who know more languages are more employable, and it was found that from the graduates who are currently working, 48.05% of them have facility in at least a third language. This is just over 7% higher than the multi-lingual rate for the respondent group as a whole, meaning that respondents who spoke three or more languages had a higher employment rate. The most crucial aspect to this survey and to the contention of this thesis is an analysis of the rate of respondents who use Indonesian language in their workplace. GCA, in collaboration with universities Australia-wide release a report entitled Beyond Graduation 2011: The Report of the Beyond Graduation Survey in 2012, based on the 2011 figures (Carroll, 2012). This report has been published in 2009, 2010 and 2011, but has not been continued since. While the GCA study, and my survey have slightly differing scopes, the results can definitely be broadly compared and studied. Figure two graphs the data from both the 2008 and 2011 surveys, pertaining to the question which asks whether the respondents qualification is important to their main paid job. The GCA results cannot be directly compared to my survey because this thesis survey asks about Indonesian specifically, which may only be one discipline studied at university. Note that this data only applies to respondents who were in full time employment as of 2011. Indonesian language studies falls into Figure 2: Qualification important to main paid job, bachelor graduates in full-time employment, by broad field of education, GCA Report, 2011 (%). Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 43
the bracket of Society and Culture, which can then be used as a comparison with Indonesian language students. So how do Indonesian language graduates compare with the GCA data?
Question 13 is the simplest question in the survey, and reads: Do you use Indonesian in your workplace? This question is most relatable to the graduate Careers Australia question: Is your qualification important to your main paid job? This data in figure three has filtered out respondents who graduated in 2012 and 2011 in order to track their careers from a longitudinal perspective. I have not been able to find any such type of study devoted only to language students, which makes analysis of the results difficult. Nevertheless, taking an average of the 2011 results from the GCA Beyond Graduation survey, we find that 76.62% of graduates are employed in a job which relates to their field of study. The Society and Culture rate is lower at 73.2%, and as figure three illustrates, only 54.1% of Indonesian language graduates who are working and graduated between 2002 and 2011 use Indonesian in their workplace. While difficult to compare, this figure is well below the GCA rate for Society and Culture students, which demonstrates the difficulties that Indonesian language graduates experience in finding work which requires their Indonesian language skills. Figure 3: Question 13: Do you use Indonesian in your workplace. Includes only participants who are working, and who graduated between 2002 and 2010. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 44
Upon closer consideration of those survey respondents who are currently working, which is 77 out of the 139 respondents, other useful data is available. It is found in figure four and five that language proficiency has dropped in all but one category from the time respondents graduated to when they participated in this survey. The only category in which proficiency improved is listening, but speaking, reading and writing all suffered a decline overall. The data provided is an average of the sliding scale (1 meaning beginner and 5 meaning fluent). This overall decline is significant and can be attributed to the fact that not many of these graduates are able to find work which requires their Indonesian language proficiency, and as a result, Indonesian language skills have dropped. The fact that listening skills have improved could possibly be the result of the ease of access of Indonesian language television and movies in Australia. Nevertheless, an overall drop in Indonesian language competency matters, as it indicates that even in this Asian Century, the graduates surveyed have not been able to maintain their Indonesian language fluency post-graduation. Moreover, the proportion of working Indonesian language graduates who feel their workplace engages with Indonesia and Indonesian related issues was not high. Only 48% of respondents who are currently working felt that their workplace engages with Indonesia and Figure 4: Questions 6, Please rate your Indonesian language skills upon graduation, Results shown for participants who are currently working only. Figure 5: Question 7, Please rate your current Indonesian Language Skills, Results shown for participants who are currently working only. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 45
Figure 6: Question 16, Do you feel your cultural knowledge of Indonesia is useful in your career? Results shown for participants who are currently working only. Indonesian related issues. As yet, it is unknown how this figure relates to other language graduates. Furthermore, 44% of these respondents had travelled to Indonesia for work related purposes. This figure of 44% is high, and could be explained by the fact that participants may have previously worked a job which required travel to Indonesia. The data gleaned by Question 16 (figure 6) demonstrates that many Indonesian language graduates feel that their cultural knowledge of Indonesia is useful in their career. The results for this question are a departure from the previously presented data. I find this result of 74% of respondents (as per figure 6) who believe their cultural knowledge of Indonesia is useful at work to be very high when compared to other results for respondents who are working. It is indicated by these results that while one might not use the Indonesian language at work, the knowledge gained through such language and culture studies can be useful in the workplace. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 46
Figure 7: Question 17, Do you feel your Indonesian language knowledge was a factor in your recruitment? Results shown for respondents who are working only. Figure 7 illustrates whether or not the Indonesian language graduates surveyed believe that their second language competency was a factor in their recruitment. This result of 53% I understand is low, as I had previously heard anecdotal evidence which suggested that the study of Indonesian is an attractive skill to demonstrate, even if the occupation does not require it for daily operations. Despite this, 53% is in line with the rates of working respondents who use Indonesian in their workplace (Figure 3). Importantly, many participants would not know for sure whether their Indonesian language competency was a factor in their recruitment, and further study could assess the attractiveness of Indonesian language competency in the recruitment process. The final working specific data which will be presented pertains to Figure 8: Question 20: How often do you currently speak Indonesian? Results shown for respondents who are working only. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 47
Indonesian language usage, by those who are currently employed. Both figures 8 and 9 demonstrate the respondents language usage, in two specific domains. The data in figure 8 shows that while only around 50% of respondents use Indonesian language at work, almost 65% speak Indonesian at least weekly, indicates that they rely on their Indonesian language skills in other domains. This data allows us to conclude that even if Indonesian is not used in the workplace it is often influential in respondents personal lives. Furthermore, this data reveals that just over 84% of respondents use their Indonesian at least monthly, demonstrating that respondents are keen to retain their language skills, even if it is not needed in their current career. Figure 9 furthers this idea, and illustrates that Indonesian language media, whether it is print, TV, radio or online is a popular way to use, advance or retain Indonesian language skills. This data exposes the willingness and enthusiasm of Indonesian language graduates to maintain their Indonesian literacy through the use of Indonesian media. Further study could determine whether this phenomenon is exclusive for Indonesian language graduates, or whether it is widely evident amongst all language graduates. It must be mentioned again that it is difficult to directly compare this data to existing data pertaining to other disciplines. I am yet to find a comparable survey, which makes data analysis troublesome, yet allows intelligent speculation on what might be happening. Nevertheless, when this data is being compared to discourse and policy surrounding this Asian Century, policy makers should be concerned, as Indonesian usage rates are low, especially in the workplace. INDONESIAN LANGUAGE GRADUATES AS A WHOLE Figure 9: Question 21: How often do you consume Indonesian language media? Results shown for respondents who are working only. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 48
This section of the thesis will assess the final questions of the survey, using the entire group of respondents, whether they are furthering their studies, or working professionally. These questions pertain to their level of immersion in Indonesian related activities and experiences since graduation. The results from Question 19 as contained in Figure 10 allowed the respondents to judge their experience regarding careers post study in the Indonesian field. As figure 10 makes evident, a majority of Indonesian language graduates did not feel that careers which valued their Indonesian language knowledge were readily available upon graduation. This result is based on over 130 survey responses from graduates Australia-wide. As data concerning other language graduates and the extent to which they believed that careers which valued their language ability were available upon graduation is not available, drawing concrete conclusions is difficult. Despite that, I conclude that this is a troubling sign for the health of Indonesian language programs, and troubling also for Figure 11: Question 25, Do you feel that your Indonesian language and cultural studies have been important in your personal lives since graduation? All respondents included. Figure 10: Question 19, Upon graduation, did you feel that careers which valued your Indonesian language knowledge were readily available? All respondents included. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 49
government bodies attempting to implement language planning policies which aim to increase the acquisition rates of Indonesian. It is my belief that the high rate of unsure responses is due to many students moving directly from undergraduate study to post-graduate study. As such, many of these graduates would not have actively searched for employment, and hence would tick unsure. Regardless, the fact that over 55% chose the no option is in stark contrast to Commonwealth Government discourse explicitly expressing the dire need for Asian language graduates in the Australian workforce, as analysed in Chapter One. The final three questions of this survey asked participants very general questions regarding being an Indonesian language graduate in Australia. Figure 11 illustrates the enormous impact studying Indonesian language has had on the vast majority of research participants. I conclude that the overwhelming response to this question demonstrates the commitment these respondents have dedicated to the Indonesian language, and their passion for the discipline.
Figure 12 shows the results for question 26, which asks whether the respondents feel they have the proper opportunities to utilise their Indonesian language skills in Australia. This is a very broad and general question, and I believe the results should also be interpreted in that sense. Never-the-less, the data demonstrates that almost 67% of respondents do not feel that they have the proper Figure 12: Question 26, In general, do you feel you have the proper opportunities to use your Indonesian language and cultural knowledge in Australia? All respondents included. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 50
opportunities to use their language and cultural knowledge in Australia. Again, this result is in stark contrast to government policy and discourse towards the study of the Indonesian language.
The final survey result which will be presented pertains to Question 27, and is represented in Figure 13. Again, this question is very general by nature, and was included in order to gauge the sentiment of the graduates, and to poll their thoughts surrounding Indonesian literacy in Australia. The data clearly demonstrates the desires for Indonesian language graduates to increase their engagement with their language of study. This result illustrates the enthusiasm of Indonesian language graduates to immerse themselves in the Indonesian language. I understand that this is a key result in this survey, and demonstrates the passion Indonesian language students feel for their discipline of choice. The question then leads to how this passion can be harnessed and used positively. Regardless of any career aspects of respective graduate experiences, there is a sense of positivity surrounding the study and continued engagement with the Indonesian field.
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS IN SURVEY The final section of this survey invited participants to make any comments regarding this area of inquiry. Twelve comments in total were received, several pertaining to the career prospects of Indonesian language graduates. Figure 13: Question 27, Do you want to increase your engagement with Indonesian language and culture? All respondents included. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 51
Positivity was conveyed through these comments. For example, one respondent noted that: Whilst I have not pursued a career that currently utilises my Indonesian skills, I feel that the process of learning another language and culture makes me a better and more tolerant manager of people from other cultures/backgrounds, especially Asian backgrounds, which is very pertinent in banking/finance. Further, the fact that I studied Indonesian always comes up in job interviews as it is on my resume, and I have always felt it was a positive factor in recruitment. Finally, whilst I am not currently posted overseas, in the future, there is certainly potential for me to work for my employer (or similar other Australian banks) in Indonesia, and I think I would be well placed to gain such a role if I desire it, due to my language experience. This comment is furthered by another respondent who mentioned that: I have been working in Indonesia for the last year and I am very lucky to have this opportunity, increased links between Indonesia and Australia benefits both countries. These two examples are the most positive of the twelve, and show that Indonesian language skills are sought after in the workplace. Further positivity was gleaned through one respondent who noted that: While I am in a job that values my Indonesian language skills (and understanding of the country), and there are other government jobs like this, the opportunities in the private sector aren't so obvious. There are undoubtedly examples of Indonesian language graduates who are satisfied by their careers post-graduation, and the above are several examples of such individuals. Interestingly, the first comment makes mention that their Indonesian language knowledge was a highly regarded during the application process, despite Indonesian language not being a prerequisite for the specific career. Crucial to this study, the respondent makes clear that language and culture study not only teaches language skills, but also inter-cultural tolerance skills, which are sought after in many Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 52
workplaces. This comment is a reminder that securing a job which utilises specific language skills is not the sole reason for language studies, and that many other attributes gained through such studies (such as cultural tolerance) are just as vital. Contrary to this positivity, this comments section of the survey encountered respondents who are not at all pleased by their career experience post-graduation, and their comments are sharply negative. One respondent commented that: I graduated with a high GPA [Grade Point Average 2 ], near fluent in Indonesian and have been unemployed for 8 months after graduating. It seems extremely difficult to find ANY decent work in Queensland at the moment and near impossible to find work relevant to an Indonesian major. The negativity continued through another respondent who noted that: I currently feel fully engaged with my Indonesian studies because I have chosen to pursue an academic career in Indonesian studies; however, my choice of this career path was strongly influenced by the fact that there did not seem to be any other viable career paths that would value my Indonesian studies skills or allow me to continue developing them. One final respondent provided the most striking criticism of the survey. They contest that: Without seeming too cynical, I find the entire "Asian Century" hype incredibly misleading and, to be quite frank, a heaped pile of government spin. Even government organisations still fail to appreciate people with proper Indonesian language competency and in-country experience. If they truly appreciated it, I wouldn't be teaching Indonesian, but rather using my language skills in a far more important setting. Importantly, this study does not seek to undermine the teaching of Indonesian as a meaningful career path for language graduates. Despite that, the last respondent feels that their
2 Indicator of academic achievement. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 53
skills would be more useful outside the classroom, and strikingly criticizes the Asian Century policy as outlined in the 2012 Australia in the Asian Century White Paper. I believe that these final three comments demonstrate a discontent with their experiences in the labour market since graduation. They feel disillusioned by the reality of their career prospects, as they see it. The teaching of Asian languages in Australia is fore-shadowed by a discourse of necessity, and this qualitative data illustrates the disillusionment when such career expectations are not met. This negativity matters because it undermines Asia Century policy, and indicates that Indonesian literacy in Australia is not a skill required in the workforce. An example of negativity regarding the employment outcomes of Indonesian literate Australians is also found within the Australia-Indonesia Youth Association Members Survey. One AIYA member noted wrote: I believe there needs to be more emphasis placed on developing the Australia-Indonesia relationship in ways other than education. Although there are obviously benefits for Indonesians coming to study in Australia- there are near to no benefits of Australians learning the Indonesian language if there is no way to use it for a career outside of education(AIYA, 2013a, p.15). This comment in the AIYA report indicates that the issue of applying Indonesian language skills into the workforce is not unique to this thesis. These statements allowed the research participants a voice to mention any issues they desired. However, these statements are limited in their context, meaning the background story to the exhibited positivity or negativity is unknown. It is unknown the extent to which these respondents tried to find work which requires their Indonesian language ability, and how long they searched. The statement, there did not seem to be any other viable career paths would suggest that this respond may not have fully explored the opportunities available. The final part of this chapter details focus group sessions, and seeks to provide profiles of these graduates, in the aim to better understand the experiences of graduates after their studies. FOCUS GROUP SESSIONS Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 54
A total of five people participated in the focus group sessions. The total number was capped at ten participants, but due to problems inherent with online communication tools such as Skype, only five were able to take part. One graduate only finished their studies the previous year, and has continued to study, and the other participants graduated several years ago, meaning they could make a valuable contribution to the study. The participants were of varying careers/employment statuses, including a current honours student, one Indonesian language teacher, one environmental scientist currently volunteering in Indonesia, one manager at a multi-national firm, and one participant who has experience working in Indonesia and is currently completing a Diploma of Education in order to teach Indonesian. One theme which was crucial during the focus group sessions was the acknowledgement that Australian governments, both at the Commonwealth and State level are actively trying to increase the acquisition rates of Indonesian in Australian youth. As reflected in the literature review of Australian language planning policy, one participant commented that the government is really trying to push the study of Asian languages. While not all participants were knowledgeable on the specifics on current and past language planning policies, it was acknowledged that such policies exist. Another reoccurring theme which surfaced was the belief that Australian employers did not value Indonesian language skills, dismissing such skills as impractical. One participant told the group their experience that employers found Indonesian language skills cool, but simply not practical. The focus group also uncovered thoughts pertaining to the usefulness of Indonesian within Indonesia. Several participants had worked in Indonesian since graduation, and they mentioned the widespread usage of English in Indonesian workplaces. One participant worked for a prominent English language newspaper in Jakarta for two and a half years, and stated that their Indonesian language was not being used as much as initially desired considering they were living in Indonesia. Another participant mentioned that one of the challenges is that so many people speak English. This thought is furthered by the common belief that many expatriate staff working in Indonesia do Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 55
not have knowledge of Indonesian. One participant mentioned that a lot of the time its *careers for expatriate staff in Indonesia] skills based, so the fact that you know your science, engineering or consulting is a lot more important than whether or not you can speak the local language. That comment was furthered by the experience of one participant who noted that the large multi- national company for which they work simply sends translators with Australian staff travelling overseas, if they have to deal with non-English speakers. The idea of combining Indonesian studies with another discipline was returned to by one participant, who felt that this is a key way to become employed in an Indonesia-related career. That participant commented that for friends who combined language with teaching, journalism or communication, they found it a lot easier to find jobs that combined the two. This theory could also be supported by the Graduate Careers Australia data which illustrates that other such disciplines have a much higher rate of graduates finding work which is important to their main area of study. Nevertheless, it was a popular idea among research participants, who had firsthand experience of this phenomenon. The most important aspect of this study though was the career experiences of these graduates after their studies. The first aspect discussed was opportunities after graduation available to Indonesian language graduates. Much negative sentiment was garnered through this question as many participants recalled their experiences in finding employment which valued their Indonesian language skills. One participant made it clear that they felt that in the ten years since graduation only bits and pieces came along *employment utilizing Indonesian language skills+, but theres nothing thats ever full-time or on-going. This thought was furthered by other statements, including: There are a few who find a way into Indonesia, but generally, I think a lot of people have a hard time finding something which leads them back*to Indonesia+. That same participant also mentioned that many graduates are disenchanted with Indonesian and where it can take people. Another participant mentioned that it is rare to have full time work in Indonesia, and that many of their fellow students who graduated at the same time are not using their language skills at all. A related thread to the debate is how available Indonesia-related careers are to such graduates. One Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 56
participant said that at the time it was easier to pursue opportunities in-front of me, meaning non- Indonesia related. This was furthered by the dismissive comment from another respondent that Theres just nothing out there *Indonesian-related careers+ maybe there is and we all just cant find it *but+ its hard. Another common theme throughout the focus group sessions is a desire to increase engagement with Indonesian language through their future career. While many respondents had encountered frustration and difficulty in finding a career which utilized their Indonesian language skills, none had given up their search for the right position. This had led many to engage in further study and additional experience through volunteer programs for others. Nevertheless, all respondents demonstrated a willingness to continue to apply their Indonesian language skills in a career. For several that meant completing a Diploma of Education, with the aim of teaching Indonesian, and for others it meant keeping up to date with Indonesia related careers which become available. This result confirmed the survey findings as per figure 13, pertaining to increased engagement with Indonesian. Despite this positivity, several participants knew fellow Indonesian language graduates who have completely ceased their engagement with the Indonesian language, and even one who regretted their decision in frustration because of difficulties in finding employment. Importantly, all focus group participants were asked about their experience in filling out the survey, and none experienced difficulty in answering the questions. They all expressed the belief that the survey was simply to complete, unbiased and did not take an overly long time to fill out. These results are validated by the very low incompletion rate, which validates the survey as an effective research tool. IMPLICATIONS FOR LANGUAGE PLANNING THEORY Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 57
This study of Indonesian language graduates in Australia has elicited useful data indicating how the Indonesian language is used, and not used, in the Australian workplace, but what are the implications for Language Planning Theory? The study of Language Planning Theory has an extensive history of scholarly debate and interpretation. Language planning theory is useful in explaining the nature of Australian language policy. This thesis has demonstrated that the Australian Government has been successful in planning the Indonesian language, as demonstrated by the 1994 NALSAS example. But how does Language Planning Theory explain the negative outcomes of language which has been planned badly? How does Language Planning Theory relate to ill-informed language planning policies, which can be argued are based on alarmist and racist anxieties? Language Planning Theory would be more useful if it could explain outcomes of ambitious language planning policies which are not as successful as anticipated. Usefulness would also be improved if Language Planning Theory could explain phenomena whereby specialist language skills are difficult to apply in the workforce, or when language policies which are based upon speculative and ill-conceived reasoning, which create resentment in the targets which are subjected to the policy. Language Planning Theory was decided as the perspective to analyse the career paths of Indonesian language graduates, as the theory is useful to explain the phenomena of language planning. Language Planning Theory is subject to intrinsic limitations. These limitations inhibit further testing of Language Planning Theory against the data created by this survey. The implications of language planning policies need to be examined at the grass-roots level, which would inform future expansion of Language Planning Theory. More research must be conducted at the grass-roots level which can analyse how language planning policy affects individuals, including their employability. Further theories can then be created and tested, including theories relating to applying second language skills, and theories relating to the relationship between language skills and Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 58
employability. Essentially, Language Planning Theory can inform the context, but more research must be conducted before it can inform my results.
Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 59
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This thesis has critically analysed Australian language planning policy directed towards the study of Indonesian language, in order to illustrate the career paths of Indonesian language graduates, and the extent to which their language studies are useful in their workplace. The first section of the first chapter of this thesis examined the relevant literature pertaining to Language Planning Theory. This theory is useful in providing a perspective on Australian language policy, such as the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools Strategy, and the current Reverse Colombo Plan. The existence and success of the 1994 NALSAS policy conforms with the academic definition of Language Planning Theory, and demonstrates that government policy can affect the extent to which language can be structured, acquired and used in accordance with a language plan. The examples fore-mentioned illustrate that language planning is taking place within Australia, and Language Planning Theory allows an academic perspective to analyse the phenomena. As the results chapter signalled, Language Planning Theory can inform the context for the policy, but cannot yet be used to analyse the survey and focus group data. Examples of language planning policy were subsequently presented, and academic discourse surrounding the planning of Asian languages was discussed. Several key language policies were presented, including the 1994 Rudd Report, which resulted in the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools Strategy, and the new Reverse Colombo Plan, which has replaced the Labour AsiaBound grant system. Only recently, the current Minister for Foreign Affairs Julie Bishop committed A$100 million over five years to implement the new Reverse Colombo Plan, which will see Australian students being sent to Asia to learn Asian languages, and Indonesia will be the pilot country (Bishop, 2013a). As this thesis has shown, such language graduates exist and are not being utilised, yet these policies are designed to create more Indonesian literate Australians. I conclude that without critically analysing the career paths of existing Indonesian language graduates in Australia, dramatically increasing their numbers through language planning policy is counterproductive. As this thesis has demonstrated, influential Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 60
scholars are debating the need for such increased second language literacy, and a variety of arguments exist which support and which undercut increased Indonesian literacy in Australia. This research paper also assessed past surveys pertaining to graduate pathways, and members of the Australia-Indonesia Youth Association. I argue that none of the existing data relating to graduate pathways is sufficient enough to analyse the performance of past language planning policies. The Graduate Careers Australia reports do not provide discipline specific data which could be useful for analysing the career paths for Indonesian language graduates. In this sense, this thesis fills the gap in academic literature by providing in-depth information on Indonesian language graduates. This research project was guided by a specific methodology, which was outlined in Chapter Two. The main data gathering method of this research project was the survey. The survey was completed by a total of 139 Indonesian language majors, from Australian universities, who graduated in the last ten years. The survey was conducted online, using the SurveyMonkey program, which provided a professional platform for conducting the survey. The survey included various questions pertaining to participants Indonesian language usage, especially in the context of their workplace. An important part of this study was the option for participants to make any comments regarding the topics in question. These responses provided a valuable and anonymous insight into the perspectives on Indonesian language graduates, and their experiences in finding employment post-study. The focus group sessions also allowed me to probe further into the experiences of individual Indonesian language graduates after the completion of their studies, and affording the opportunity to discuss specific aspects of their answers. This methodology was subject to various limitations, including the bias created in the recruitment avenues, and the lack of control over online surveys. The way participants were Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 61
recruited was heavily biased towards graduates who are still active in the Australia-Indonesia relationship. Realistically, I did not have control over the test conditions, or the survey participants. I cannot be sure whether all the respondents actually did complete a major in Indonesian language studies. I believe the rates of this occurring to be very, but none-the-less, it is a consideration when analysing the data. It must be noted also that it is difficult to make concrete conclusions based on the data provided. There is no benchmark, or previous research to suggest that for a language planning policy to be a success, 50% or 70% or more language graduates should be using the target language in their workplace. Without such a benchmark or target, there is no way to justify a language program. If the outcome of a particular policy is that an extra 1,000 Australians speak Indonesian, is that a success if only say 70% use the language weekly after their studies, and only 50% of those use it in their workplace? I conclude that the goalposts must be shifted from looking solely at how many additional speakers are created, to how the language is used by the subjects of said language planning policy. Clear employment outcomes must be set by the creators of language planning policy and monitored for such policies to proceed. Having stated that, we must look at the raw data gleaned from this survey to make concluding remarks. As a general group of Indonesian language graduates, just fewer than 47% of the total participant group use Indonesian in their workplace (this figure includes students, hence their studies are considered their workplace). This figure is low when considering the previous, current and planned policies surrounding the increased acquisition of Indonesian in Australia. Sending 10,000 Australian students to Asia yearly (many of whom will go to Indonesia), without addressing the current negativity surrounding Indonesia-related career opportunities, will further deepen the problem of Indonesia-related employment. Policy must be directed towards increasing the usefulness and modes of application of Asian languages in Australian society, rather than simply increasing the numbers of overall Asian literate Australians. Such a policy could be used to set up Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 62
internships and or employment opportunities to allow existing Indonesian literate Australians to contribute positively to the Australian economy. Surely if the opportunities exist to apply the Indonesian language in careers in Australia, increased rates of acquisition will rise in response. The current policy is backwards in application: rather than training Australians in Indonesian language in anticipation of the creation of career opportunities, these opportunities should be highlighted and advertised, which will demonstrate to the public as a whole the value in learning Asian languages. I predict that only when Australians are shown evidence of the opportunities and the need for more Indonesian literate Australians in the workforce, will take up the option to study Indonesian. As the application of Indonesian language skills in the Australian workforce is so difficult, enrolments in Indonesian language programs will dwindle in response for years to come. As a broad conclusion, this thesis has highlighted one key difficulty in the application of Asian Century policy: applying Indonesian language skills in the workplace. The Australian education system cannot simply teach Australians Indonesian, and expect it to be instantaneously useful in furthering the interests of both Australia, and the individual. A more complex approach must be undertaken, which ensures that there is a natural progression from school or university, into the workforce. This paper has highlighted the problems in the progression of Indonesian language graduates in finding work which values their specialised linguistic ability. Proper monitoring and critical assessment must take place in order for these expensive language planning policies to continue. I hope that this research paper has created a significant contribution to scholarly discourse surrounding the study of Indonesian language and its application in the workforce. This paper represents an early attempt to map the career paths of Indonesian language graduates, in order to judge the merits of increased Indonesian language acquisition in Australia. This study intends to highlight the perspectives of the graduates themselves, as a means of giving a voice to those targeted by language policy. I have indicated a sense of negativity, and a general feeling that Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 63
recognition of Indonesian language skills in the workplace in Australia can be difficult to achieve. This is not the fault of any one agency or institution, but must form a consideration in future language planning in the Indonesian context. I believe that more detailed research should be conducted on the topic of Asian language usage in the Australian workplace, in collaboration with government departments and Australian businesses operating in Asia. This study can be seen as the first of many research projects, which assess the progression of language graduates into the workforce. Future research must include the four priority languages: Mandarin, Hindi, Japanese and Indonesian, which will allow comparison between the languages. Future research could include studying high school graduates, or university graduates, and assessing how their second language competency has impacted on their employment outcomes, and how these outcomes have benefited the Australian economy. Future research could take various forms, but the study of Asian language usage in Australia is as yet an underdeveloped field of academic inquiry. Another theoretical framework which could be applied for further research in the area of language planning policy is human capital theory. Human Capital theory suggests that individuals and society derive economic benefits from investments in people (Sweetland, 1996, p.341). This theory could be the basis of a study which clearly measures knowledge of Asian languages as compared to economic indicators such as wages and employability. The understanding that language knowledge can be measured as human capital would provide an excellent perspective for future research. I have no doubt that Indonesia will grow in the future to play a vital part in the prosperity and security of Australia. Indonesia is growing at a rapid rate, and a healthy and mutually beneficial relationship between the two countries is vital to securing healthy economic conditions. Now is an important time for Australians to learn about our northern neighbour, and many Australians have already undertaken academic programs focused on building up their knowledge of Indonesia, and consequently are committed to finding work in the Indonesia-related area. I am an advocate for Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 64
deepening Australians awareness and understanding of Indonesias language, yet as this project has shown, many stumbling blocks remain. This study is both timely and important as the nation prepares for our future in the Asian region. Policy implemented now will affect Australias standings in future decades, which is why clear analysis of current policy is drastically needed. Returning to the now former Prime Minister Julia Gillards quote in the introduction of this thesis, do Asia Century policies, which aim to increases the acquisition rates of Indonesian in Australian society, create a country of winners? I would argue that increased funding into Australian society and industry to take advantage of the opportunities that Asia presents will benefit many sectors of society. However, in terms of those Australians who have already become Indonesian literate in Indonesian, it is argued that they are not yet winners in this Asian Century.
Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 65
RECOMMENDATION ONE, CURRENT AND PROSPECTIVE INDONESIAN LANGUAGE STUDENTS Consistently reoccurring throughout the results has been the theory that students who studied Indonesian language as an addition to a degree in another field which has high employment rates already, are more employable that language students who study language alone. For instance, the assertion that an Indonesian literate engineer will be more employable than someone who studied a combination of languages alone is applicable in this context. It is my belief after conducting this research that if a graduate has grounding in a discipline such as consulting or law etc, that those skills are able to be transferred into the Indonesian context with the applicable language competency. The Rudd Report underscores this, by identifying the need for the next generation of Australians to integrate languages/cultures skills with other professional and occupational skills of the workforce rather than simply producing specialist linguists(Rudd, 1994, p.vii). Access to Indonesian language classes for students not enrolled in an Arts degree could help to improve this issue. Recommendation: Indonesian language and studies units must be better integrated and accessible in degrees outside the Arts discipline at universities. RECOMMENDATION TWO, FOR GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS As advocated by the Australia-Indonesia Youth Association, in which I am very involved, a national accreditation system could be introduced, whereby Indonesian language skills (or other Asian language skills) and in-country experience are formally recognised, and given weight in recruitment processes (AIYA, 2013b, p.19). This would ensure that Australians who have Asia- relevant capabilities are being employed in careers which enable them to apply their skills, and in order to culturally sensitively represent their company or government. If the government is determined to implement language planning policy which prioritises the study of Indonesian, surely its natural that those Indonesian language skills once attained are formally recognised in recruitment processes for their departments. Indonesian Literacy in Australia, Samuel Bashfield, ATS4462 66
Recommendation: An Asia-Capable Accreditation System should be introduced into the Commonwealth and State public sector and Australian businesses operating in Asia. RECOMMENDATION THREE, POLICY MAKERS AND ACADEMIA This thesis has demonstrated the reality that rates of Indonesian language usage in the workplace by Indonesian language graduates are currently low. This thesis has also demonstrated that Indonesian language graduates are finding it difficult to apply their linguistic ability in their careers. Never-the-less, language planning policy is continuing to be implemented, and public funds spent on increasing the acquisition rates of Indonesian are not under review. It is my opinion that further research must be conducted, which identifies the link between economic benefits and Asian language acquisition, in the Australian Asian Century context. This study has focused solely on Indonesian, but a similar study should be conducted on the three remaining priority languages: Mandarin, Japanese and Hindi. It is my belief that tangible evidence must be presented which links economic benefits, including workplace language usage, with Asian language acquisition, before such language planning policy continues. It is simply improper and unreasonable to publically advertise to the public and private sector need for Indonesian language skills, without clear evidence that such a need exists. I advocate for a larger study, with a narrowly defined scope could link these two concepts, using a similar methodology, specifically in the Australian contemporary context. Recommendation: Further research should be conducted which analyses links between Asian language competency and careers in the Australian public service and Australian businesses operating in Asia.
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APPENDICES 1. Survey Data Summary 2. Ethics Approval 3. Explanatory Statements 4. Sample Focus Group Permission Form
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