www.lanzarotecaliente.

com (press control & click here)

April 1993 American Psychologist
Vol. 48, No. 4, 384-392
1992 Award Addresses
Facial Expression and Emotion
Paul !man
Cross-cultural research on facial expression and the developments of methods to measure facial
expression are briefly summarized. What has been learned about emotion from this work on the
face is then elucidated. Four questions about facial expression and emotion are discussed. What
information does an expression typically convey? Can there be emotion without facial
expression? Can there be a facial expression of emotion without emotion? ow do individuals
differ in their facial expressions of emotion?
"n 19#$ %hen 1 &egan to stu'y (acial e)pression,
1
(e% thought there %as much to &e learne'.
*ol'stein +1981, pointe' out that a num&er o( (amous psychologists-.. an' *. Allport,
/runs%i!, 0ull, 1in'2ey, 3aslo%, 4sgoo', 5itchner-'i' only one (acial stu'y, %hich %as not
%hat earne' them their reputations. 0arol' 6chlos&erg %as an e)ception, &ut he %as more
intereste' in ho% to represent the in(ormation 'eri7e' &y those %ho o&ser7e' the (ace than in
e)pression itsel(.
2
5he (ace %as consi'ere' a meager source o( mostly inaccurate, culture-
speci(ic, stereotypical in(ormation +/runer 8 5agiuri, 19$4,. 5hat this contra'icte' %hat e7ery
layman !ne% ma'e it all the more attracti7e. Psychology ha' e)pose' the (alseness o( a (ol!
&elie(, a counterintuiti7e (in'ing.
5he late 6il7an 5om!ins +19#3, %as 7irtually the only contrary 7oice. 0e con7ince' me to
e)ten' my stu'ies o( non7er&al &eha7ior (rom &o'y mo7ement to the (ace, helping me 'esign my
initial cross-cultural stu'ies. 5om!ins also a'7ise' 9arroll "2ar' in the 'esign o( similar stu'ies
at the same time. 0e 'i' not tell either o( us a&out the other, %hich helpe' the science &ecause it
pro7i'e' in'epen'ent replications &ut %as an un%elcome surprise %hen %e learne' that %e ha'
not &een alone in our 'isco7eries.
:e each (oun' high agreement across mem&ers o( 'i7erse :estern an' astern literate
cultures in selecting emotion terms that (it (acial e)pressions. "2ar' +19;1, a''e' e7i'ence that
cross-cultural agreement %as preser7e' (or most emotions %hen su&<ects %ere allo%e' to choose
their 4%n %or's to 'escri&e the (eelings sho%n in the e)pressions. :e +!man 8 .riesen, 19;1,
e)ten'e' the (in'ings to a preliterate culture in Ne% *uinea, %hose mem&ers coul' not ha7e
learne' the meaning o( e)pressions (rom e)posure to me'ia 'epictions o( emotion. :e also
(oun' agreement a&out %hich e)pressions (it %ith 'i((erent social situations, such as the 'eath o(
a chil', a (ight, an' seeing (rien's.
.riesen an' " +!man, 19;2= .riesen, 19;2, also e)ten'e' the (in'ings o( ho% people
interpret e)pressions to the stu'y o( ho% an' %hen people sho% e)pressions. :e (oun' e7i'ence
o( uni7ersality in spontaneous e)pressions an' in e)pressions that %ere 'eli&erately pose'. :e
postulate' display rules-culture-speci(ic prescriptions a&out %ho can sho% %hich emotions, to
%hom, an' %hen-to e)plain ho% cultural 'i((erences may conceal uni7ersals in e)pression, an'
in an e)periment %e sho%e' ho% that coul' occur.
"n the last (i7e years, there ha7e &een a (e% challenges to the e7i'ence o( uni7ersals,
particularly (rom anthropologists +see re7ie% &y 1ut2 8 :hite, 198#,. 5here is, ho%e7er, no
>uantitati7e 'ata to support the claim that e)pressions are culture speci(ic. 5he accounts are more
anec'otal, %ithout control (or the possi&ility o( o&ser7er &ias an' %ithout e7i'ence o(
intero&ser7er relia&ility. 5here ha7e &een recent challenges also (rom psychologists +?. A.
@ussell, personal communication, ?une 1992, %ho stu'y ho% %or's are use' to <u'ge
photographs o( (acial e)pression. 0o%e7er, no one to 'ate has o&taine' strong e7i'ence o( cross-
cultural 'isagreement a&out the interpretation o( (ear, anger, 'isgust, sa'ness, or en<oyment
e)pressions. 5here is no instance in %hich ;AB or more o( the people in one cultural group
<u'ge' a picture as sho%ing one o( these emotions an' a similar percentage o( the people in
another cultural group <u'ge' the same e)pression as sho%ing a 'i((erent one o( these emotions.
+6ee !man, 1989, (or a re7ie% o( the e7i'ence on uni7ersality= see also /ro%n, 1991, (or an
analysis o( the %i'er issues an' arguments a&out uni7ersals o( any !in'.,
5his e7i'ence o( uni7ersality &oth re>uire' an' <usti(ie' nearly a 'eca'e o( %or! to 'e7elop
metho's (or measuring the mo7ements o( the (ace. :e +!man 8 .riesen, 19;#, 19;8,
'e7elope' the .acial Action 9o'ing 6ystem, %hich %as the (irst, an' still is the only, compre-
hensi7e techni>ue (or scoring all 7isually 'istincti7e, o&ser7a&le (acial mo7ements. A (e% years
later, "2ar' +19;9, pu&lishe' his o%n techni>ue (or selecti7ely measuring those (acial mo7ements
that he thought %ere rele7ant to emotion. A num&er o( in7estigators ha7e also measure'
electrical acti7ity in the (acial muscles +see !man, 1982, (or a re7ie% on (acial measurement,.
5he (in'ings on uni7ersality, the 'e7elopment o( metho's to o&<ecti7ely measure the (ace,
an' the many stu'ies o( (acial e)pression that %ere 'one su&se>uently ha7e taught us not <ust
a&out (acial e)pression &ut also a&out emotion. " %ill e)plain nine 'i((erent contri&utions that the
research on (acial e)pression-in particular, the uni7ersals (in'ing-has ma'e to our
un'erstan'ing o( emotion. 5hen " %ill raise (our ma<or >uestions a&out (acial e)pression in
emotion, some o( the possi&le ans%ers, an' 'irections (or research.
1
"n some o( my earliest %riting, " a7oi'e' the term expression an' instea' use' the more a%!%ar' phrase facial
behavior to a7oi' the implication that an inner state is &eing mani(este' e)ternally. " ha7e re7erte' to facial
expression &ecause it is more (elicitous, although it shoul' he clear that in my 7ie% +!man, 19;;, e)pression is a
central (eature o( emotion, not simply an outer mani(estation o( an internal phenomena.
2 6chlos&erg tol' me that to a7oi' &ias he ha' ne7er loo!e' at the (aces he as!e' his su&<ects to <u'ge.
What We Have Learned About Emotion From the Face
1. !tudy emotion. 5he most important e((ect o( the e7i'ence on uni7ersals in (acial e)pression
%as to contri&ute to rea%a!ening interest in emotion. Cormant (or many years, research on
emotion no% is one o( the most rapi'ly gro%ing areas, %ith acti7ity in clinical, 'e7elopmental,
personality, physiological, an' social psychology. 3uch o( the current %or! right(ully 'oes not
(ocus on the (ace, although some in7estigators %ho (ocus on other matters use the (ace as a
mar!er o( %hen an emotion occurs.
2. Consider both nature and nurture. 5he (in'ings on (acial e)pression also encourage'
some o( those %ho &ecame intereste' to 7ie% emotion as a psycho&iological phenomenon,
in(luence' &y our e7olutionary heritage as %ell as &y our current circumstances. 7en %ithin the
more narro% con(ines o( e)pression, an e)planation o( %hat %as (oun' re>uire' consi'eration o(
the in(luences o( &oth nature an' nurture +!man, 19;2, 19;;, 1992a,. 5%enty-se7en years ago,
%hen the %or! on uni7ersals &egan, psychology %as still (ocuse' nearly e)clusi7ely on %hat is
learne', consi'ering only nurture an' largely ignoring the in(luence o( nature. Although the
(in'ings on uni7ersals in e)pression %ere inconsistent %ith that (rame, they 'i' appeal to another
pre<u'ice then (ashiona&le-to cre'it only that %hich is palpa&ly o&ser7a&le.
3. !earch for emotion-specific physiolo"y. A (ocus on uni7ersals in e)pression %as
inconsistent %ith the then-reigning 7ie% that all that 'i((erentiates one emotion (rom another is
our e)pectations a&out %hat %e shoul' &e (eeling. Cespite (ailures to replicate 6chacter an'
6ingerDs +19#2, e)periment, (la%s in the 'esign o( that stu'y, an' contrary e7i'ence, it %as 7ery
in(luential. All that 'istinguishe' one emotion (rom another, they proclaime', %as cognition
a&out the social setting= physiological acti7ity 7arie' only in the e)tent not in the nature o( the
emotional arousal. /ut once e)pressions %ere (oun' to &e emotion speci(ic, it ma'e sense to
ree)amine the issue o( %hether there might also &e emotion-speci(ic physiological changes.
Although the e7i'ence on uni7ersals in e)pressions coul' not pro7e that these e)pressions
ha7e e7ol7e', those (in'ings, together %ith the o&ser7ation o( similarities in some e)pressions
&et%een humans an' some other primates, certainly increase' the 7ia&ility o( an e7olutionary
perspecti7e on emotion. 6uch a perspecti7e %oul' e)pect that emotion-speci(ic changes in
autonomic physiology %oul' ha7e e7ol7e' to ser7e the >uite-'i((erent a'aptations that are li!ely
in emotions such as (ear an' anger. A ne% generation o( in7estigators are e)amining again the
possi&ility o( emotion-speci(ic autonomic an' central ner7ous system acti7ity. " ha7e &een a
colla&orator in some o( this %or!, in %hich %e use (acial measures to i'enti(y %hen emotions
occur. +.or a re7ie% o( current %or! on the &iology o( emotion, see Ca7i'son 8 9acioppo,
1992.,
4. !pecify the events that precede emotions. 3ost contro7ersial in our stu'y o( emotion-
speci(ic physiological acti7ity %as our 'isco7ery +!man, 1e7enson, 8 .riesen, 1983, that
7oluntarily ma!ing one o( the uni7ersal (acial e)pressions can generate the physiology an' some
o( the su&<ecti7e e)perience o( emotion. 4( course, ma!ing a (ace is not ho% emotions usually
are &rought (orth. motions typically occur in response to an e7ent, usually a social e7ent, real,
remem&ere', anticipate', or imagine'. 5he (in'ings o( &oth uni7ersals an' cultural 'i((erences in
the situations in %hich (acial e)pressions occur (ocuse' attention on the e7ents that call (orth
emotion. 5here is no% cross-cultural 'ata on %hat people report are the antece'ent e7ents (or
speci(ic emotions +/oucher, 1983= 6cherer, 6ummer(iel', 8 :all&ott, 1983,. 4&ser7ational 'ata
on the antece'ents o( emotion are much more limite' &ut are gro%ing in stu'ies o( early
'e7elopment an' in stu'ies o( marital interaction. 3easures o( (acial &eha7ior are a central part
o( those en'ea7ors.
Any close o&ser7er o( emotional e)pression must 'e7elop an account that allo%s (or &oth
commonalities in the e7ents that call (orth an emotion an' the enormous in'i7i'ual 'i((erences in
%hich e7ents call (orth 'i((erent emotions. Not e7ery e7ent calls (orth an emotion, nor 'oes an
e7ent call (orth the same emotion across in'i7i'uals, an' yet there are some common (eatures.
5om!insDs +19#3, proposal that emotional e7ents pro'uce changes in the 'ensity o( neural (iring
that parallel (eatures o( the e7ent has &een regar'e' s!eptically &y neuroscientists. 4ther >uite
'i((erent accounts o( ho% e7ents are appraise' is one o( the most acti7e current areas o( theory
an' research +see 1a2arus, 1991, (or a re7ie%,.
$. #xamine onto"eny. "t %as consistent %ith an e7olutionary account o( uni7ersals in (acial
e)pression to e)pect that emotions might appear much earlier in in(ancy than ha' &een
pre7iously thought. 5he tools (or measuring the (ace pro7i'e' the means (or i'enti(ying %hen
emotions, or at least e)pressions, might &e occurring. 5his is another 7ery acti7e area o( research,
although there is still argument a&out <ust %hen each emotion is (irst e7i'ent +9amras, 3alatesta,
8 "2ar', 1991= "2ar', 0ue&ner, @isser, 3c*innes, 8 Cougherty, 198A= 4ster, 0egley, 8 Nagel,
1992,.
#. #xamine more than verbal behavior. 5he nee' to measure the (ace +an' 7oice, is o&7ious
in in(ancy %hen speech is not a7aila&le. 0o%e7er, in the ol'er chil' an' a'ult it is e>ually
important not to rely only on the more easily o&taine' >uestionnaires, on accounts o( emotion
gi7en %hen an emotion is not (elt, or e7en on %hat people say 'uring an emotional episo'e. 5his
is not to 'iminish the importance o( these sources o( in(ormation &ut e7en %hat people say %hen
they are in the mi'st o( an emotion may not al%ays re7eal %hat they are actually (eeling or
thin!ing, not e7en %hat they are a%are o( (eeling or thin!ing.
3y research on 'eception has sho%n ho% con7incingly people can misrepresent in their
speech the emotions they are (eeling. 7en though many (acial e)pressions are recruite' in a lie,
sometimes there is %hat %e terme' leaka"e in (acial an' 7ocal e)pressions o( conceale' (eelings
+!man, 198$= !man 8 .riesen, 19#9= !man, .riesen, 4D6ulli7an, 1988= !man, .riesen, 8
6cherer, 19;#,. :hen attention is (ocuse' on these o(ten-&rie(, (ragmentary signs o( emotional
e)pression, they can &etray a lie &y contra'icting the emotion the person 7er&ally claims to &e
(eeling.
3ore generally, there is an increasing tren' to use multiple measures o( emotional response,
not only to o&tain &etter relia&ility an' 7ali'ity &ut also to un'erstan' 'iscrepancies among the
'i((erent emotional responses an' to e)amine in'i7i'ual 'i((erences in the e)tent o( coherence
among 'i((erent emotional responses. 7en %hen (ocuse' on e)pression alone, an in7estigator is
con(ronte', i( not o7er%helme', %ith the importance o( in'i7i'ual 'i((erences= this is the last o(
the (our ma<or >uestions a&out the emotion process an' the (ace that " %ill consi'er.
;. Consider emotions as families. Precise measurement o( (acial e)pression suggeste' a
metaphor that may &e use(ul in thin!ing a&out emotion. :e +!man 8 .riesen, 19;8, (oun' not
one e)pression (or each emotion, &ut a 7ariety o( relate' &ut 7isually 'i((erent e)pressions. 5he
#A anger e)pressions, (or e)ample, that %e ha7e i'enti(ie' share certain core con(igurational
properties, %hich 'istinguish them (rom the (amily o( (ear e)pressions, 'isgust e)pressions, an'
so (orth. Variations %ithin a (amily o( (acia1 e)pressions li!ely re(lect the intensity o( the
emotion, %hether the emotion is controlle', %hether it is simulate' or spontaneous, an' the
speci(ics o( the e7ent that pro7o!e' the emotion.
3
?ust as it is use(ul to thin! o( e)pressions as 9onstituting (amilies, " ha7e propose' +!man,
l992a, that %e consi'er each emotion as constituting a (amily o( relate' a((ecti7e states, %hich
share commonalities in their e)pression, physiological acti7ity, an' in the types o( appraisal that
call them (orth. 5hese share' characteristics %ithin an emotion (amily shoul' 'istinguish one
emotion (amily (rom another. 5he anger (amily, (or e)ample, %oul' inclu'e 7ariations in
intensity stretching (rom annoyance to rage. "t shoul' also inclu'e 'i((erent (orms o( anger, such
as resentment, %hich is the !in' o( anger in %hich there is a sense o( grie7ance= in'ignation an'
outrage, %hich are anger a&out the mistreatment o( someone= 7engeance, the anger that retaliates
against a mis'ee' &y another= &erser!, anger that appears to others to &e an uncontrolle'
response inappropriate to any pro7ocation= an' so on.
5he characteristics share' &y all mem&ers o( an emotion (amily constitute the theme (or that
emotion an' are most li!ely to re(lect the contri&ution o( nature. 5he 'i((erent mem&ers o( the
(amily are 7ariations aroun' that theme, re(lecting more the in(luence o( nurture an' the
particulars o( the occasion %hen the emotion occurs. 4ur common language o( emotion %or's
may inclu'e many or (e% 'escriptions rele7ant to any o( the emotion (amilies. "n nglish, %e
ha7e many terms (or anger, some speci(ying ho% the person is &eha7ing +e.g., argumentati7e,
testy, hu((y, sul!y, spite(ul,, some that are metaphors +(e' up, pisse' o((,, an' some re(erring to
changes in physiology +hot, &ristling,. +6ee 5om!ins, 1981, (or a 'escription o( ho% language
may incorporate 'i((erent aspects o( an emotion.,
5hose stu'ying the le)icon o( emotion +6ha7er, 6ch%art2, Eirson, 8 4D9onnor, 198;, ha7e
propose' a similar (rame%or!, although not using the term family " &elie7e the 'e(initi7e
e7i'ence on %hat constitutes a (amily, an' in particular the 'elineation o( the theme (or each
(amily, %ill come not (rom the stu'y o( emotion %or's &ut (rom closer e)amination o( appraisal
processes, motor responses, an' ultimately %hat is re7eale' &y stu'ies o( emotion-speci(ic
acti7ity in the central ner7ous system.
8. Consider emotions to be discrete states. 5he research on (acial e)pressions has also
sho%n the utility o( concei7ing o( emotions as separate 'iscrete states, such as (ear, anger, an'
'isgust, rather than simply as positi7e 7ersus negati7e states or e7en more simply as 'i((ering
only in respect to arousal. Although some current emotion researchers continue the early
+:oo'%orth 8 6chlos&erg, 19$4, conceptuali2ation o( emotions in terms o( a (e% 'imensions,
that approach has not pro7en as use(ul in stu'ies that measure (acial &eha7ior in early
'e7elopment or social interaction or in many o( the stu'ies o( physiological changes in emotion.
9. Consider expression in determinin" how many emotions there are. "( our 'e(inition o(
emotion %ere to re>uire a 'istincti7e e)pression so that conspeci(ics can !no% instantly (rom a
glance ho% a person is (eeling, then %e nee' loo! only to the e7i'ence on ho% many emotions
ha7e 'istincti7e e)pressions to 'etermine the num&er o( emotions. Cistincti7e uni7ersal
e)pressions ha7e &een i'enti(ie' (or anger, (ear, 'isgust, sa'ness, an' en<oyment. 7en a''ing
contempt, surprise, an' interest, a&out %hich the e7i'ence is (ar less certain, the list o( emotions
that ha7e a uni7ersal (acial e)pression is (ar shorter than the num&er o( emotions most theorists
ha7e propose', (ar smaller in'ee' than the 7arious %or's (or emotion. 0o% are %e to 'eal %ith
this 'iscrepancyF
Perhaps there are emotions that ha7e 'istincti7e 7ocal e)pressions &ut no (acial e)pressions=
ho%e7er, none ha7e &een unco7ere' so (ar. *rouping emotions into (amilies may pro7i'e a
&etter (it &et%een the list o( emotions that ha7e an e)pression an' the num&er o( emotions
propose' &y 7arious theorists. Another part o( the ans%er is suggeste' &y our (in'ings that a
num&er o( positi7e emotions-amusement, relie(, pri'e, sensory pleasure, e)hilaration-share
&ut one (acial e)pression, a particular (orm o( smiling +!man, l992&,. 4ne coul' argue that
these are all mem&ers o( one emotion (amily, &ut " e)pect that research on appraisal an'
physiology %ill sho% they are 'istincti7e states that share a signal.
5he e7i'ence may re>uire that %e postulate emotions that 'o not ha7e a 'istincti7e uni7ersal
signal-no 'istincti7e (acial, 7ocal, or &o'ily action that pro7i'es in(ormation to those %ho
o&ser7e it. " %ill return to this %hen " 'iscuss the >uestion o( %hether there can &e emotions
%ithout e)pression. 5here is a prior >uestion, ho%e7er. 3y 'iscussion so (ar has assume' that
the in(ormation con7eye' &y an e)pression is &est capture' &y %or's such as anger or (ear, &ut is
that %hat most people typically 'eri7e %hen they see a uni7ersal (acial e)pressionF
3
"t is the core e)pressions that ha7e &een stu'ie' in the cross-cultural <u'gment stu'ies o( (acial pictures. :e 'o not
!no% ho% many o( the other e)pressions (or each emotion %oul' &e <u'ge' in a similar (ashion across cultures.
What Information oes an Expression !"picall" #onve"$
:e !no% 7irtually nothing a&out the type o( in(ormation people typically 'eri7e (rom a (acial
e)pression %hen they see the e)pression in situ, accompanie' as it usually is &y speech, gestural,
an' postural &eha7iors, an' %hen the person o&ser7ing the (ace has the usual array o( e)pec-
tations a&out %hat may &e most li!ely to occur in that situation. 5he stu'ies that 'etermine' the
in(ormation o&ser7ers o&tain (rom (acial e)pressions %hen they are seen 4ut o( conte)t-
'isem&o'ie'-ans%ers the >uestion o( %hat the (ace can signal, not %hat in(ormation it typically
does signal.
9onsi'er the messages that might &e con7eye' &y the e)pression sho%n in .igure 1, a
photograph that " too! 2$ years ago o( a mem&er o( a preliterate, 7isually isolate' culture in
Papua, Ne% *uinea. 5he message con7eye' may &e a&out an antece'ent e7ent that le' to the
e)pression, (or e)ample, Gsomeone must ha7e insulte' her.H 4r the in(erence 'ra%n may &e
a&out %hat the person is (eeling or thin!ing at that moment= (or e)ample, Gshe must (eel 7ery
tenseH or Gshe must &e planning ho% to get re7enge.H 5he o&ser7er may interpret the e)pression
in terms o( %hat the person is li!ely to 'o ne)t, such as GsheDs going to hit me.H 6till another
possi&le message %oul' re(er to an emotional state, using a metaphor such as Gshe is &oiling.H
4r, the message coul' &e an emotion %or', either a speci(ic one, such as Gshe is ma',H or a more
general one, such as Gshe 'oesnDt (eel goo'.H +6ee !man, 19;;, (or a more complete account o(
the 'i((erent messages pro7i'e' &y an e)pression.,
Fi%ure 1
6cene o( VillagersD @esponse to on 4utsi'er in the 0ighlan's o( Ne% *uinea, 19#;
$ote. .rom Face of %an& 'niversal #xpression in a $ew (uinea )illa"e +p. 34, plate 1;, &y Paul !man, 198A,
Ne% Ior!J *arlan'. 9opyright 198A &y Paul !man. @eprinte' &y permission.
" e)pect that %e coul' (in' &etter-than-chance agreement %ithin a cultural group a&out each
o( these emotion-relate' messages-antece'ents, simultaneous &eha7iors, metaphors, an'
conse>uent e7ents-<ust as %e ha7e (oun' agreement a&out speci(ic emotion terms. 1a!o((
+198;, (oun' similar emotion metaphors in nglish an' 0ungarian, &ut they only e)amine'
anger. 5he >uestion remains as to ho% much cross-cultural agreement there might &e a&out each
type o( message (or each emotion. "t is also not !no%n %hich type o( message participants in a
social interaction typically 'eri7e an' %hether this 7aries %ith the social conte)t in %hich the
e)pression occurs, the 'emographic characteristics o( the e)presser an' the o&ser7er, or the
personality o( these in'i7i'uals.
"( a language has no %or's (or an emotion, as has &een reporte' &y some anthropologists
+1ut2 8 A&u-1ugho', 199A,, it 'oes not mean that the emotion 'oes not occur in that culture,
only that it is not represente' &y single terms in the le)icon. 1e7y +1984, argue' that although
the 5ahitians ha7e no %or' (or sadness* he sa% sa' e)pressions in people %ho ha' e)perience' a
loss. Kn(ortunately, 1e7y 'i' not 'etermine %hether the 5ahitians %oul' ha7e selecte' a sa'
e)pression i( he ha' as!e' them to i'enti(y %hich (ace %as that o( a person %ho ha' e)perience'
some loss, such as their chil' 'ying. 6uch stu'ies ha7e not &een 'one in any o( the language
groups that, reporte'ly, 'o not ha7e single terms (or some emotions.
:e 'o not !no% ho% salient (acial e)pressions are %hen they contra'ict %hat a person is
saying or %hat the o&ser7ers &elie7e to &e normati7e in a particular situation. 4ne coul' e>ually
%ell argue that e)pressions %ill &e ignore', o7er%helme' &y other sources o( in(ormation, or <ust
the opposite, that e)pressions %ill stan' out &ecause o( contrast note%orthy in such
circumstances. Pro&a&ly &oth %ill &e (oun' to occur, 'epen'ing on the emotion, the situation,
an' the characteristics o( the o&ser7er an' the e)presser.
#an !here &e Emotion Without Facial Expression$
G9an there &e emotion %ithout (acial e)pressionH is really t%o >uestions. .irst, consi'ering <ust
those emotions (or %hich uni7ersal e)pressions ha7e &een i'enti(ie', +e.g., (ear an' anger,, 'o
those emotions occur %ithout any sem&lance o( the e)pressionF An' secon', are there still other
emotions that ha7e no 'istincti7e e)pression, at all, e7erF " thin! the ans%er to &oth >uestions is
yes, &ut the e7i'ence is (ragmentary.
" %ill &egin %ith the (irst >uestion. 5here is e7i'ence that people may sho% no change in
7isi&le (acial acti7ity e7en though they report (eeling emotions an' mani(est changes in
autonomic ner7ous system acti7ity. "n these stu'ies those people 'o mani(est su&7isi&le,
patterne' changes in (acial acti7ity as measure' %ith electromyography +3*= see 5assinary 8
9acioppo, 1992, (or a re7ie%,. 5hat research 'i' not 'etermine, ho%e7er, %hether there might &e
people %ho sho% no (acial acti7ity at all, 7isi&ly or non7isi&ly, %hen there is su&<ecti7e or
physiological e7i'ence o( emotion. 5he e)istence o( such people %oul' contra'ict 5om!insDs
+19#3, proposal that (acial acti7ity is al%ays part o( an emotion, e7en %hen its appearance is
inhi&ite'. " %ill return to this matter later %hen " 'iscuss the >uestion o( ho% in'i7i'uals 'i((er in
their (acial e)pressions.
Luite apart (rom the possi&ility that some in'i7i'uals are not (acially acti7e, there may &e
%ays o( calling (orth emotion that are less li!ely to generate a (acial e)pression. " suspect that
(acial e)pressions are most li!ely to occur %hen someone sees or hears a 'ynamic +mo7ing,
e7ent an' the &eginning o( the e7ent is mar!e' rather than 7ery slo% an' gra'ual. 5ypically, the
e7ents that call (orth emotion are interpersonal actions, although the actions o( other animals, or
natural e7ents such as thun'er, can also call (orth emotions %ith (ull e)pression. "t is not. "
&elie7e, simply a matter o( the intensity o( the emotional arousal. " am presuming that our
e)pressions e7ol7e' in conte)ts in %hich action %as percei7e' through our senses. A sym&olic
representation o( such actions, or a (ro2en 'epiction o( them in a photograph, shoul' &e less
li!ely to call (orth an e)pression, unless the intensity is 7ery high or the person is 7ery prone to a
particular emotion.
4
9onsistent %ith this reasoning, %e +!man, 1992&= !man et al., 1983,
(oun' a lo%er inci'ence o( (acial e)pressions (ar less %hen %e as!e' people to remem&er an'
reli7e a past emotional e7ent than %hen people respon'e' to short motion picture (ilms.
$
Also, "
ha7e rarely seen much (acial e)pression %hen " e)amine' 7i'eotapes o( people %ho %ere
respon'ing to the sli'es 'e7elope' &y /uc!, 6a7in, 3iller, an' 9aul +19;2, to elicit emotion.
" turn no% to the secon' >uestion-%hether there are emotions that ne7er, un'er any
circumstances, ha7e a uni>ue (acial e)pression. 5o ans%er this >uestion, " must (irst e)pan'
consi'eration o( %hat constitutes an e)pression. 3ost research has stu'ie' the in(ormation
con7eye' &y acti7ity o( <ust the (acial muscles, %ith no other &o'ily acti7ity inclu'e'.
4ccasionally, hea' mo7ement-'o%n, &ac!, (or%ar', or to the si'e-has &een inclu'e' in
e)pressions o( sa'ness, (ear, interest, or 'isgust. " suspect that those hea' mo7ements alone
%oul' not communicate those emotions. 5hey shoul' a'' to the in(ormation, increasing
agreement among those %ho o&ser7e the &eha7ior, (or those particular (acial e)pressions. 5he
han's can also &e a''e' into the picture. 5he clenche' (ist contri&utes in(ormation compati&le
%ith a (acial e)pression o( anger. 5he han' co7ering part o( a sa' e)pression might change that
signal into shame, %hereas the han' co7ering part o( an en<oyment e)pression changes that
signal into coyness.
5here may also &e other mo'alities o( e)pressions (or emotions that ha7e no 'istincti7e
(acial e)pression. 5he 7oice, posture, or &o'ily action o( some !in' may &e the only source o(
the emotion message. 5he 7oice gains attention (rom someone %ho is not alrea'y 7isually
atten'ing to the e)presser. Although this shoul' &e a'7antageous (or in(ant-careta!er
interactions, it %oul' &e a 'isa'7antage in stal!ing prey or a7oi'ing pre'ators, inasmuch as the
7ocal signal re7eals the e)presserDs location. Although it is possi&le that there are 7ocal
e)pressions (or emotions that ha7e no (acial e)pression, " agree %ith 5om!ins +19#3, that each o(
the emotions that has a (acial e)pression also has a 7ocal e)pression. ((orts to 'isguise
emotional communication might &e more or less success(ul on one mo'ality or another +c(.
!man, 4D6ulli7an. .riesen, 8 6cherer, 1991,.
:hat " an' others ha7e (ocuse' on can &e calle' the momentary (acial e)pressions, &ecause
the in(ormation they con7ey a&out an emotion can &e capture' in an instant. 5ypically, such
e)pressions last a (e% secon's, hut a single (rame. A snapshot ta!en at any point %hen the
e)pression is at its ape) can easily con7ey the emotion message. "t is the morphology, the
momentary con(iguration pro'uce' &y the contraction o( a particular set o( (acial muscles, that
pro7i'es the in(ormation a&out %hether it is anger, (ear, 'isgust, sa'ness, surprise, or en<oyment.
5he 'ynamics o( the mo7ement also contains a''itional in(ormation a&out the strength o( the
emotion an' %hether it is genuine, although that in(ormation is also signale' morphologically.
5here may &e another type o( e)pression that is e)ten'e' in time, 'uring %hich a se>uence
o( actions pro7i'es the signal. Eeltner +1992, (oun' preliminary e7i'ence that em&arrassment
may entail the (ollo%ing se>uence sho%n o7er a (i7e-secon' perio'J ga2e 'o%n, smile, hea' turn
or (ace touch, an' then lip press. 5heoretically, an e)ten'e' e)pression coul' &e compose' o(
<ust momentary (acial muscular actions, occurring in a rapi' se>uence, con7eying an emotion
message 'i((erent (rom %hat is con7eye' &y each separate e)pression in the se>uence. 0o%e7er,
no one has i'enti(ie' such an e)pression.
Although " am allo%ing (or the possi&ility that e)ten'e' e)pressions may occur, " am not
con7ince' that any %ill &e (oun' that are uni(orm in their se>uence an' that con7ey %ith high
agreement the same emotion message to o&ser7ers across cultures. 9ertainly, an e)ten'e'
e)pression is much less e((icient than a momentary e)pression, re>uiring longer transmission
time. .or urgent situations, such as 'ealing %ith pre'ators, ri7als, or prey, or %hen a careta!er
must respon' >uic!ly to a pro&lematic change in an in(antDs state, one %oul' e)pect that a
momentary e)pression %oul' ha7e e7ol7e'. /ut this reasoning may &e e)pecting too much
or'erliness in nature.
6o (ar, " ha7e only consi'ere' instances in %hich the emotion has a 'istincti7e e)pression,
allo%ing the o&ser7er to 'eri7e in(ormation a&out %hich emotion it is (rom the e)pression itsel(,
%ithout nee'ing any !no%le'ge a&out the conte)t in %hich the e)pression is sho%n. arlier, "
mentione' an e)ception, citing our (in'ings that suggest that all o( the positi7e emotions
+amusement, sensory pleasure, pri'e, etc., share a single e)pression, a particular type o( smile
+!man, Ca7i'son, 8 .riesen, 199A,. An o&ser7er 'istinguishes %hich o( these positi7e
emotions is e7i'ent, not so much (rom the e)pression itsel( +although the timing an' intensity o(
the e)pression may pro7i'e some clues,, as (rom the conte)t, (rom !no%le'ge o( %hat emotion
is li!ely in a gi7en situation (or a gi7en person.
"t seems li!ely that there is another such group o( emotions that share a single e)pression
that " %ill call the unhappiness emotions-'isappointment, sa'ness o7er loss, remorse, shame,
an' guilt. " ha7e preliminary e7i'ence that these emotions share an e)pression in %hich the inner
corners o( the eye&ro%s are raise', the chee!s are slightly raise', an' the lip corners are pulle'
'o%n%ar'. Cistinguishing among the unhappiness emotions 'epen's on conte)tual !no%le'ge
more than on the e)pression itsel(. As %ith the positi7e emotions, one coul' argue that these
unhappy states are not separate emotions sharing a single (acial e)pression &ut instea' shoul' &e
consi'ere' as 'i((erent mem&ers o( the same emotion (amily. " e)pect that research on appraisal
an' physiology %oul' sho% that they are 'istinct emotions &ut that %or! remains to &e 'one.
.inally, there is the possi&ility that there are emotions that ha7e no signal-neither a
momentary nor an e)ten'e' e)pression= not a (acial, 7ocal, or &o'ily e)pression= neither a share'
signal nor a 'istincti7e signal. 5hese %oul' &e emotions that %hen e)perience' pro7i'e no
in(ormation to o&ser7ers a&out any aspect o( the personDs emotional e)perience. 7en then,
o&ser7ers may correctly in(er the emotion (rom past actions or e)pectations a&out %hat is
appropriate in a gi7en situation.
5he sine >ua non (or emotion shoul' not &e a uni>ue pan-cultural signal. "nstea', " &elie7e
it is more sensi&le to esta&lish t%o other criteria (or %hen %e shoul' consi'er a change in state to
&e an emotion. 5oo&y an' 9osmi'es +199A, tol' us that emotions impose Gon the present %orl'
an interpretati7e lan'scape 'eri7e' (rom the co7ariant structure o( the past.H motions, they sai',
'eal %ith recurrent Ga'apti7e situationsM,N M(Nighting, (alling in lo7e, escaping pre'ators,
con(ronting se)ual in(i'elity, an' so on, each Mo( %hichN recurre' innumera&le times in e7o-
lutionary history.H +pp. 4A;-4A8,. 5his is 7ery similar to 1a2arusDs +1991, (elicitous comment that
Gemotions contain the %is'om o( the agesH +p. 82A,.
:hat 'istinguishes emotions (rom other psychological phenomena is that our appraisal o( a
current e7ent is in(luence' &y our ancestral past. "t is not <ust our ontogenetic history &ut our
phylogenetic history that ma!es an emotion more rea'ily calle' (orth in one circumstance than in
another, an' yet ontogeny has an enormous e((ect +3ine!a, Ca7i'son, 9oo!, 8 Eeir, 1984,.
Although this 7ie% has %on some acceptance +6tein 8 4atley, 1992,, no one has 'escri&e' <ust
%hat it is a&out our ancestral past that in(luences our current appraisal or the mechanism &y
%hich it occurs. "nstea', a num&er o( theorists ha7e propose' 'i((erent mo'els o( ho% the
appraisal process operates +see re7ie% &y lls%orth, 1991,.
5he secon' criterion (or consi'ering a change in state to &e an emotion %ill come (rom
%or! yet to &e 'one on the &iology o( emotion. Ksing the ne%, more precise proce'ures (or
measuring &rain acti7ity, " e)pect that patterns o( central ner7ous system acti7ity %ill &e
i'enti(ie' that are uni>ue to the emotions.
Although " am a'mitting the possi&ility o( nonsignal emotions-%hich is a change in my
pre7ious position-" note that there is not yet any 'e(initi7e e7i'ence that such 'o e)ist. "t
remains an empirical matter to esta&lish %hether there are in'ee' emotions %ithout signals that
share most other characteristics %ith the signal emotions. Allo%ing (or e)ten'e' an' momentary
e)pressions (or 7ocal, &o'ily, as %ell as (acial e)pressions, an' (or emotions that share a signal
an' are then (urther 'istinguishe' on the &asis o( conte)tual !no%le'ge, as %ell as emotions that
ha7e a 'istincti7e signal, ma!es the list o( the li!ely signal emotions not 7ery short. "t pro&a&ly
inclu'es amusement, anger, contentment, contempt, 'isgust, 'isappointment, em&arrassment,
e)citement, (ear, guilt, pri'e, relie(, sa'ness, sensory pleasure, shame, an' surprise. "( each o(
these is consi'ere' a (amily o( relate' states, then %e ha7e a 7ery large set o( emotions, one that
coul' inclu'e most o( the emotions that most emotion theorists ha7e consi'ere'. 5he
'iscrepancies, " &elie7e, are 'ue to the (ailure &y some to 'istinguish emotions (rom either moo's
+e.g., anger (rom irrita&ility,, emotional traits +e.g., anger (rom the mani(estations o( a hostile
character,, or a((ecti7e 'isor'ers +e.g., sa'ness (rom 'epression,. +6ee !man, 1984, 1992a,
1992c, (or a 'iscussion o( the &oun'aries o( emotion.,
4
@. ?. Ca7i'son +personal communication, ?uly 1992, (oun' that pho&ics sho% 'isgust or (ear e)pressions in response to a still
photograph o( a sna!e, %hereas nonpho&ics typically 'o not.
$
"t may simply &e that reli7ing emotions 'oes not pro'uce as intense a response= %e ha7e collecte', &ut ha7e not yet analy2e',
'ata that coul' 'etermine %hether that is so.
#an !here &e a Facial Expression of Emotion Without Emotion$
9ertainly, people can (a&ricate e)pressions +!man, 198$, 1992&, %hen they 'o not (eel any
emotion. "n a (alse e)pression, a (ace is ma'e to mislea' the o&ser7er into thin!ing an emotion is
(elt %hen it is not. 5here is some e7i'ence to suggest that (alse e)pressions can &e 'istinguishe'
(rom genuine e)pressions &y the a&sence o( certain (acial muscular actions, %hich %e +!man,
@oper, + 0ager, 198A, (oun' most people cannot per(orm 7oluntarily.
5he e7i'ence on 'istinguishing (alse (rom genuine e)pressions is so (ar limite' to
en<oyment. 5he 19th-century .rench neuroanatomist Cuchenne 'e /ologne +18#2O199A,
suggeste' that the muscle or&iting the eye ,orbicularis oculi- %oul' &e a&sent (rom 7oluntary
smiles &ut present %hen en<oyment %as (elt. 5his is one o( the muscular actions that %e +!man
et al., 198A, (oun' most people cannot per(orm 7oluntarily.
#
5here ha7e &een more than a 'o2en
stu'ies in the last 'eca'e that ha7e supporte' CuchenneDs o&ser7ation +summari2e' in !man,
Ca7i'son, 8 .riesen, 199A,.
Anger, (ear, an' sa'ness (acial e)pressions also contain one or more muscular actions that
most people cannot per(orm 'eli&erately, in a''ition to muscular actions that are easy (or
e7eryone to ma!e. " ha7e 'escri&e' +!man, 198$, ho% the a&sence o( these 'i((icult-to-ma!e
muscular mo7ements, %hich " ha7e terme' the reliable muscles, might 'istinguish the (alse (rom
the genuine emotional e)pression (or these emotions, <ust as it has &een possi&le to 'o (or
en<oyment. 5he research to con(irm this has not yet &een 'one. +Note that there are no 'i((icult-
to-ma!e muscular mo7ements in either 'isgust or surprise (acial e)pressions.,
Although (alse e)pressions are inten'e' to mislea' another person into thin!ing an
emotion is (elt %hen it is not, referential e)pressions are not inten'e' to 'ecei7e. @e(erential
e)pressions are inten'e' to communicate that the emotion re(erre' to is not &eing (elt at the
moment o( e)pression. 5hese e)pressions most o(ten occur %hen people tal! a&out past or
(uture emotional e)periences, 'escri&ing (eelings not no% &eing (elt. "n such accounts,
sometimes the emotion re(erre' to is sho%n &y a re(erential e)pression= it may &e the only
re(erence to the emotion, %ithout any 7er&al la&el.
5he relia&le muscles shoul' not &e e7i'ent in re(erential e)pressions. Although a
re(erential e)pression must resem&le su((iciently an actual emotional e)pression (or an
o&ser7er to !no% %hich emotion is &eing re(erre' to, it must 'i((er su((iciently (or the o&ser7er
to !no% that the emotion is not (elt at the moment o( e)pression. 5his can &e accomplishe' &y
one o( a num&er o( trans(ormations. 5he 'uration o( the e)pression may &e 7ery &rie( or 7ery
long or its onset or o((set may &e more a&rupt than natural. 5he scope o( the e)pression may &e
e)aggerate', (ar e)cee'ing in intensity %hat %oul' &e appropriate (or the gi7en conte)t. 5he
e)pression may sho% <ust one part o( the usual 'isplay, (or e)ample, the hori2ontal stretching
o( the lips or the raise' upper eyeli' in a re(erential (ear e)pression.
%ock expressions are a particular type o( re(erential e)pression, %hich state that the person
(eels the opposite o( the emotion sho%n. "t is a (acial e>ui7alent o( the current teenage
con7ersational gam&it o( saying something (ollo%e' &y a Gnot.H )aggeration in time or scope
is use' to con7ey the negation in the moc! e)pression. .or e)ample, %hen 'escri&ing a
situation that %as (oun' to &e not at all amusing, the e)presser may sho% an e)aggerate' smile,
perhaps also laughing in a 'eli&erately (alse (ashion, un'erlining the point that en<oyment %as
not e)perience'.
5here is another reason %hy the relia&le muscles shoul' &e a&sent (rom re(erential e)pressions,
in a''ition to the nee' (or such e)pressions to appear su((iciently 'i((erent so the o&ser7er !no%s
the emotion is not &eing (elt. "( the relia&le e)pression %ere to closely resem&le the entire
muscular con(iguration that has &een (oun' to &e uni7ersal (or an emotion, then the actual
emotion may &e generate', in %hich case it %ill no longer &e a (a&rication. " ma!e this
suggestion on the &asis o( a num&er o( stu'ies in %hich %e ha7e (oun' that 'eli&erately per-
(orming the entire muscular con(iguration (or an emotion generates the physiology an' o(ten the
su&<ecti7e e)perience o( emotion +summari2e' in !man, l992&,.
;
5his may &e one o( the
reasons %hy sometimes %hen people gi7e an account o( an emotional e)perience they une)-
pecte'ly &egin to ree)perience the emotion.
#
Although Cuchenne +18#2O199A, treate' orbicularis oculi as a single muscle, to &e more e)act, there are t%o parts
o( this muscle that can act in'epen'entlyJ the me'ial an' lateral portions. 3ost people can 'eli&erately contract the
me'ial portion &ut not the lateral portion, an' it is the lateral portion that is most o(ten a&sent in (alse smiles.
;
Although those %ho &elie7e that (acial (ee'&ac! plays a role in 'etermining emotional e)perience ha7e interprete'
our (in'ings as supporting their 7ie%, " 'o not thin! that it is sensory (ee'&ac! (rom the (ace that pro'uces the
changes in physiology or su&<ecti7e e)perience. "nstea', " thin! this is the result o( 'irect connections among
'i((erent &rain areas +see !man, l992&,.
How o Individuals iffer In !heir Facial Expressions of Emotion$
" ha7e mentione' one possi&le 'i((erence in ho% in'i7i'uals 'i((er in their (acial e)pressions o(
emotion %hen " 'iscusse' the >uestion Gcan there &e emotion %ithout (acial e)pression.H 5here
may &e in'i7i'uals %ho consistently 'o not sho% any patterne' (acial acti7ity, 7isi&ly or
su&7isi&ly, %hen there is su&<ecti7e an' physiological e7i'ence o( emotion. :e 'o not actually
!no% i( those %ho 'o not sho% 7isi&le e)pressions also (ail to sho% patterne' 3* acti7ity. :e
also 'o not !no% i( the (ailure to sho% (acial acti7ity is a sta&le in'i7i'ual characteristic or i( it is
totally conte)t 'epen'ent. "( there are in'i7i'uals %ho consistently 'o not sho% (acial
e)pressions %hen there is other e7i'ence that they are e)periencing emotion, %e 'o not !no%
%hether such people are also 7ocally inacti7e or %hether there is a 'isconnection &et%een their
su&<ecti7e reports an' the occurrence o( physiological changes.
5here are t%o (urther >uestions a&out (acially inacti7e people, >uestions that also pertain to
other aspects o( in'i7i'ual 'i((erences in (acial e)pression that " %ill raise. 5he (irst is the matter
o( specificity. "s this 'i((erence mani(est (or all emotions, <ust among positi7e or <ust among
negati7e emotions, or might there &e people %ho are (acially inacti7e (or anger &ut acti7e (or
(ear, 'isgust, an' sa'nessF 5he secon' is the matter o( threshold. "s this a 'i((erence in (acial
e)pressi7eness or is that itsel( a pro'uct o( a higher threshol' (or calling (orth the emotionF
9oncei7a&ly, there might &e people %ho ha7e a lo%er threshol' (or su&<ecti7e e)perience or
physiological changes than they 'o (or (acial e)pression.
Anyone %ho measures (acial e)pression is impresse' %ith the enormous in'i7i'ual
'i((erences in the intensity o( muscular actions sho%n in (acial e)pressions. No one yet !no%s
%hether such 'i((erences are sta&le personal characteristics or %hether they are emotion speci(ic
or general to all emotional e)pressions. .urthermore, the e7i'ence is neither consistent nor
a&un'ant +in terms o( speci(ic emotions, a&out ho% 7ariations in the magnitu'e o( (acial
responses are relate' to 7ariations in the intensity o( su&<ecti7e e)perience an' physiological
change. Although in'i7i'ual 'i((erences in the intensity o( muscular contractions might &e
attri&ute' to threshol', it is %orth noting that %hen the pro7ocation (or the-startle response %as
as e)treme as 13$ 'eci&els o( noise, %hich is the limit &eyon' %hich there is 'anger o( hearing
impairment, %e still (oun' large in'i7i'ual 'i((erences in the magnitu'e o( the startle (acial
response +!man, .riesen, 8 6imons, 198$,. :e are currently chec!ing my hunch that the in-
tensity o( the startle (acial response %ill pre'ict in'i7i'ual 'i((erences in the intensity o( negati7e
emotional e)pressions.
"t appears that there are also large in'i7i'ual 'i((erences in a num&er o( aspects o( the timing
o( (acial e)pression. 1atency, the time &et%een antece'ent e7ent an' emotional e)pression,
appears to 'i((er among in'i7i'uals. 6imilarly, the amount o( time it ta!es (or an emotional
e)pression to 'ecay may also 'i((er. 4nce again, %e 'o not !no% %hether these 'i((erences are
sta&le %ithin in'i7i'uals or i( they are, %hether they are emotion speci(ic or more general. 5here
are %or's to 'escri&e people %ho ha7e short latencies (or anger +hothea', short (use', an' to
'escri&e those %hose emotions appear to last longer than usual +sul!er,. /ut %e 'o not !no%
%hether such 'i((erences in emotional e)perience are re(lecte' in (acial e)pression.
5om!ins an' 3c9arter +19#4, suggeste' that in'i7i'uals 'i((er also in their ha&itual Ga((ect-
a&out-a((ect.H 6ome people may &e a(rai' o( their anger= others may &e 'isguste' %ith
themsel7es (or &eing angry= others may &e 'isappointe' in themsel7es (or &eing angry. 5here
may &e similar 7ariations in the ha&itual a((ect a&out (eeling a(rai', or a&out (eeling sa', an' so
(orth. "( this is so, either (acial &len's or se>uences o( (acial e)pression might re7eal such sta&le
a((ect-a&out-a((ect. Again, the research has not &een 'one.
#onclusion
:hen " &egan my stu'y o( (acial e)pressions, " thought there %as <ust one >uestion to &e
ans%ere'-are they uni7ersal or culture speci(ic. " (oun' more than one ans%er= 'i((erent aspects
o( e)pression are &oth uni7ersal an' culture speci(ic. 3ore important, pursuit o( that one
>uestion has continue' to raise many ne% an' challenging >uestions a&out e)pression an'
emotion, >uestions " coul' not imagine 2; years ago. "n that sense, the research on the (ace an'
emotion has <ust &egun.
#ditors note. Articles &ase' on APA a%ar' a''resses that appear in the .merican /sycholo"ist are scholarly articles &y
'istinguishe' contri&utors to the (iel'. As such, they are gi7en special consi'eration in the .merican /sycholo"istDs e'itorial
selection process.
5his article %as originally presente' as part o( a Cistinguishe' 6cienti(ic 9ontri&utions a%ar' a''ress at the 1AAth Annual
9on7ention o( the American Psychological Association in :ashington, C9, in August 1992.
.uthor0s note. 5his article has &ene(ite' (rom the many help(ul suggestions an' criticisms " recei7e' on an earlier 'ra(t (rom
1in'a A. 9amras. @ichar' ?. Ca7i'son, 3ar! *. .ran!, Cacher ?. Eeltner, @ichar' 6. 1a2arus, Ca7i' @. 3atsumoto, 0arriet
4ster, ri!a 1. @osen&erg, an' Elaus @. 6cherer. 5he research reporte' here %as supporte' &y grants (rom the A'7ance'
@esearch Pro<ects Agency +A.46@ 1229-#;, an' the National "nstitute o( 3ental 0ealth +30" 19;#, 3038#91, 304" 2AA, an'
30A#A92 M@esearch 6cientist A%ar'N,.
9orrespon'ence concerning this article shoul' &e a''resse' to Paul !man, 0uman "nteraction 1a&oratory, Kni7ersity o(
9ali(ornia, 4A1 Parnassus A7enue, 6an .rancisco, 9A 94143.
'EFE'E(#E)
/oucher, ?. C. +1983,. Antece'ents to emotions across cultures. "n 0. 6. "r7ine 8 ?. :. /erry +'s.,, uman
assessment and cultural factors +pp. 4A;-42A,. Ne% Ior!J Plenum Press.
/ro%n, C. . +1991,. uman universals. Ne% Ior!J 3c*ra% 0ill.
/runer, ". 6., 8 5agiuri, @. +19$4,. 5he perception o( people. "n *. 1in'2ey +'.,, andbook of social psycholo"y
+Vol. 2, pp. #34-#$4,. @ea'ing, 3AJ A''ison-:esley.
/uc!, @., 6a7in, V. ?., 3iller, @. ., 8 9aul, : .. +19;2,. 9ommunication o( a((ect through (acial e)pressions in
humans. 1ournal of /ersonality and !ocial /sycholo"y. 23* 3#2-3;1.
9amras, 1. A., 3alatesta, 9., 8 l2ar', 9. +1991,. 5he 'e7elopment o( (acial e)pressions in in(ancy. "n @. .el'man 8
/. @ime +'s.,, Fundamentals of nonverbal behavior +pp. ;3-1A$,. 9am&ri'ge, nglan'J 9am&ri'ge Kni7ersity
Press.
Ca7i'son, @. ?., 8 9acioppo, ?. 5. +'s.,. +1992,. 6pecial sectionJ 6ymposium on emotion. /sycholo"ical !cience*
3,4-.
Cuchenne 'e /ologne, /. +199A,. 5he mechanism of human facial expression or an electro-physiolo"ical analysis of
the expression of the emotions +A. 9uth&ertson, 5rans.,. Ne% Ior!J 9am&ri'ge Kni7ersity Press. +4riginal %or!
pu&lishe' 18#2,
!man, P. +19;2,. Kni7ersals an' cultural 'i((erences in (acial e)pressions o( emotion. "n ?. 9ole +'.,, $ebraska
symposium on motivation* 4674 +pp. 2A;-283,. 1incolnJ Kni7ersity o( Ne&ras!a Press.
!man, P. +19;;,. /iological an' cultural contri&utions to &o'y an' (acial mo7ement. "n ?. /lac!ing +'.,,
.nthropolo"y of the body +pp. 34-84,. 6an Ciego, 9AJ Aca'emic Press.
!man, P. +198A,. Face of man& 'niversal expression in a $ew (uinea villa"e. Ne% Ior!J *arlan'.
!man, P. +1982,. 3etho's (or measuring (acial action. "n E. @. 6cherer 8 P. !man +'s.,, andbook of methods
in nonverbal behavior research +pp. 4$-13$,. Ne% Ior!J 9am&ri'ge Kni7ersity Press.
!man, P. +1984,. )pression an' the nature o( emotion. "n E. 6cherer 8 P. !man +'s.,, .pproaches to emotion
+pp. 319-344,. 0ills'ale, N?J rl&aum.
!man, P. +198$,. 5ellin" lies& Clues to deceit in the marketplace* marria"e* and politics. Ne% Ior!J Norton.
+Paper&ac! e'., /er!eley /oo!s, Ne% Ior!, 198#,
!man, P. +1989,. 5he argument an' e7i'ence a&out uni7ersals in (acial e)pressions o( emotion. "n 0. :agner 8 A.
3anstea' +'s.,. andbook of social psychophysiolo"y +pp. 143-1#4,. 9hichester, nglan'J :iley.
!man, P. +" 992a,. An argument (or &asic emotions. Co"nition and #motion. 8* 1#9-2AA.
!man, P. +" 992&,. .acial e)pression o( emotionJ Ne% (in'ings, ne% >uestions. /sycholo"ical !cience* 3* 34-38.
!man, P. +" 992c,. 9oundaries of emotion. 3anuscript in preparation. !man, P., Ca7i'son, @. ?.* 8 .riesen. :. V.
+199A,. 5he Cuchenne smileJ motional e)pression an' &rain physiology "". 1ournal of /ersonality and !ocial
/sycholo"y :;* 342-3$3.
!man. P., 8 .riesen, :. V. +19#9,. Non7er&al lea!age an' clues to 'eception. /sychiatry 32* 88-lA$.
!man, P., 8 .riesen, :. V. +19;1,. 9onstants across cultures in the (ace an' emotion. 1ournal of /ersonality and
!ocial /sycholo"y 47* 124-129,
!man, P., 8 .riesen, :. V. +19;#,. 3easuring (acial mo7ement. #nvironmental /sycholo"y and $onverbal
9ehavior. 4,4-* $#-;$.
!man, P., 8 .riesen. :. V. +19;8,. Facial action codin" system& . technique for the measurement of facial
movement. Palo Alto, 9AJ 9onsulting Psychologists Press.
!man, P., .riesen, :. V., 8 4D6ulli7an, 3. +1988,. 6miles %hen lying. 1ournal of /ersonality and !ocial
/sycholo"y* :<* 414-42A.
!man, P., .riesen, :. V., 8 6cherer, E. +19;#,. /o'y mo7ement an' 7oice pitch in 'ecepti7e interaction.
!emiotica* 48,4-* 23-2;.
!man, P., .riesen. :. V., 8 6imons, @. 9. +198$,. "s the startle reaction an emotionF 1ournal of /ersonality and
!ocial /sycholo"y <6* 141#-142#.
!man, P., 1e7enson, @. :, 8 .riesen, :.V. +1983,. Autonomic ner7ous system acti7ity 'istinguishes &et%een
emotions. !cience* 224* 12A8-121A.
!man. P., 4D6ulli7an. 3., .riesen, :. V., 8 6cherer, E. @. +1991,. .ace, 7oice an' &o'y in 'etecting 'eception.
1ournal of $onverbal 9ehavior.
!man. P., @oper. *., 8 0ager, ?. 9. +198A,. Celi&erate (acial mo7ement. Child =evelopment. :4* 88#-891.
lls%orth. P. +1991,, 6ome implications o( cogniti7e theories o( emotion. "n E. ". 6trongman +'.,. >nternational
review of studies on emotion +pp. 143-1#1,. Ne% Ior!J :iley.
.riesen, :. V. +19;2,. Cultural differences in facial expressions in a social situation& .n experimental test of the
concept of display rules. Knpu&lishe' 'octoral 'issertation, Kni7ersity o( 9ali(ornia, 6an .rancisco.
*ol'stein, A. 9. +1981,. /eha7ioral scientistsD (ascination %ith (aces. 1ournal of $onverbal 9ehavior* 7* 223-2$$.
"2ar', 9. +19;1,. 5he face of emotion* Ne% Ior!J Appleton-9entury 9ra(ts.
"2ar', 9. . +19;9,. 5he maximally discriminative facial movement codin" system ,%.?-. Knpu&lishe' manuscript.
+A7aila&le (rom "nstructional @esource 9enter, Kni7ersity o( Cela%are. Ne%ar!. C,
"2ar', 9., 0ue&ner, @., @isser, C., 3c*innes, *., 8 Cougherty. 1. +198A,. 5he young in(antDs a&ility to pro'uce
'iscrete emotion e)pressions. =evelopmental /sycholo"y 48* 132-14A.
Eeltner. C. +1992,. Facial si"ns of embarrassment. 3anuscript in preparation.
1a!o((, 4. +198;,. Women* fire* and dan"erous thin"s& What cate"ories reveal about the mind. 9hicagoJ Kni7ersity
o( 9hicago Press.
1a2arus, @. 6. +1991,. Progress on a cogniti7e-moti7ational-relational theory o( emotion. .merican /sycholo"ist*
4#, 819-834.
1e7y, @. ". +1984,. 5he emotion in comparati7e perspecti7e. "n E. @. 6cherer 8 P. !man +'s.,, .pproaches to
emotion +pp. 39;-412,. 0ills'ale, N?J rl&aum.
1ut2. 9., 8 A&u-1ugho', 1. +199A,. @an"ua"e and the politics of emotion. 9am&ri'ge. nglan'J 9am&ri'ge
Kni7ersity Press.
1ut2, 9., 8 :hite. *. 3. +198#,. 5he anthropology o( emotions. .nnual Aeview of .nthropolo"y 4:* 4A$-43#.
3ine!a, 6., Ca7i'son, 3., 9oo!. 3., 8 Eeir. @. +1984,. 4&ser7ational con'itioning o( sna!e (ear in @hesus
mon!eys. 1ournal of .bnormal /sycholo"y. 63. 3$$-3;2.
4ster, 0., 0egley, C., 8 Nagel, 1. +1992,. A'ult <u'gment an' (ine-graine' analysis o( in(ant (acial e)pressionsJ
5esting the 7ali'ity o( a priori co'ing (ormulas. =evelopmental /sycholo"y& 2;* 111$-1131.
6chacter. 6., 8 6inger. ?. . +19#2,. Pain, (ear, an' anger in hypertensi7es an' normatensi7esJ A psychophysiological
stu'y. /sychosomatic %edicine* 86* 3;9-399.
6cherer, E. @., 6ummer(iel', :. /., 8 :all&ott, 0. *. +1983,. 9ross-national research on antece'ents an'
components o( emotionJ A progress report. !ocial !cience >nformation* 22* 3$$-38$.
6ha7er, P., 6ch%art2, ?., Eirson, C., 8 4D9onnor, 9. +198;,. motion !no%le'geJ .urther e)ploration o( a prototype
approach. 1ournal of /ersonality and !ocial /sycholo"y* :2* 1A#1-1A8#.
6tein. N. 1., 8 4atley, E. +1992,. /asic emotionsJ 5heory an' measurement. Co"nition and #motion* 8* 1#1-1#8.
5assinary, 1. *., 8 9acioppo, ?. 5. +1992,. Kno&ser7a&le (acial actions an' emotion. /sycholo"ical !cience* 3* 28-
33.
5om!ins, 6. 6. +19#3,. .ffect* ima"ery consciousness& )ol. 2. 5he ne"ative affects. Ne% Ior!J 6pringer Verlag.
5om!ins, 6. 6. +1981,. 5he >uest (or primary moti7esJ /iography an' auto&iography o( an i'ea. 1ournal of
/ersonality and !ocial /sycholo"y* <4* 3A#-329.
5om!ins, 6.6., 8 3c9arter, @. +19#4,. :hat an' %here are the primary a((ectsF 6ome e7i'ence (or a theory.
/erception %otor !kills* 18* 119-1$8.
5oo&y, ?. 8 9osmi'es, 1. +199A,. 5he past e)plains the presentJ motion a'aptations an' the structure o( ancestral
en7ironment. #tholo"y and !ociobiolo"y* 44* 3;$-424.
:oo'%orth, @. 6., 8 6chlos&erg, 0. +19$4,. #xperimental psycholo"y +@e7. e'.,. Ne% Ior!J 0alt.