SHAHEED UDHAM

SINGH COLLEGE OF
ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY

PROJECT ON COMPUTER
NETWORKING

SUBMITTED TO:
MANISHA CHOWDHRY
Lect. In C.S.
 INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER NETWORKING

e are in an era of information technology where

communication is the necessity of our socio-economic
structure in every sense. The 20th century was the era of
computers and its various applications .With the advent of
21st century the communication became the spinal cord of
human society. Then with the urge of communicating and
transferring data over computers and development of
technology such as satellites, optical fibers, etc came the
term called COMPUTER NETWORKING.

Computer networking is an engineering disciple

concerned with the interconnection of computers with the
help of wire cables or wireless equipments to share,
transfer & communicate data over different level of
distances and systems.
COMPUTER NETWORKING
HISTORY

The story begins in late 1950s.At the height of cold war,

the DoD(Department of Defence) America wanted a
command and control network that could help channelize
the information to long distances that too with high security
and reliability.

ARPANET
The ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network) created by ARPA of the United States
Department of Defense during the Cold War, was the
world's first operational packet switching network, and the
predecessor of the global Internet.

Following figure shows the coverage area of first network

under ARPANET.
Packet switching, now the dominant basis for both data
and voice communication worldwide, was a new and
important concept in data communications. Previously,
data communication was based on the idea of circuit
switching, as in the old typical telephone circuit, where a
dedicated circuit is tied up for the duration of the call and
communication is only possible with the single party on the
other end of the circuit.
With packet switching, a system could use one
communication link to communicate with more than one
machine by disassembling data into datagrams, then
gather these aspackets. Not only could the link be shared
(much as a single post box can be used to post letters to
different destinations), but each packet could be routed
independently of other packets.

IMPORTANT DATES AND EVENTS IN HISTORY OF

NETWORKING:
In 1962 ARPANET project started.
In 1968 the first physical network was setup under ARPA.
On October 29, 1969. the first message ever sent over the
ARPANET (sent over the first host-to-host connection)
occurred at 10:30 PM
The first permanent ARPANET link was established
on November 21, 1969,
E-mail: In 1971, Ray Tomlinson of BBN sent the first
network email
File transfer: By 1973, the File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
specification had been defined and implemented, enabling
file transfers over the ARPANET.
In 1983, the U.S. military portion of the ARPANET was
broken off as a separate network, the MILNET. MILNET
subsequently became the unclassified but military-
only NIPRNET, in parallel with the SECRET-
level SIPRNET and JWICS for TOP SECRET and above.
NIPRNET does have controlled security gateways to the
public Internet. This initially restricted connections
to military sites and universities.
During the 1980s, the connections expanded to more
educational institutions, and even to a growing number of
companies such as Digital Equipment
Corporation and Hewlett-Packard, which were
participating in research projects or providing services to
those who were. Several other branches of the U.S.
government, the National Aeronautics and Space
Agency (NASA), the National Science Foundation (NSF),
and the Department of Energy (DOE) became heavily
involved in Internet research and started development of a
successor to ARPANET. Transition towards the Internet
The term "internet" was adopted in the first RFC published
on the TCP protocol ( Internet Transmission Control
Program, December 1974) as an abbreviation of the
term internetworking and the two terms were used
interchangeably. In general, an internet was any network
using TCP/IP. It was around the time when ARPANET
was interlinked with NSFNet in the late 1980s, that the
term was used as the name of the network, Internet,
[19]
being a large and global TCP/IP network.

Search engines
Even before the World Wide Web, there were search
engines that attempted to organize the Internet. The first
of these was the Archie search engine from McGill
University in 1990, followed in 1991 by WAIS and Gopher.
All three of those systems predated the invention of the
World Wide Web but all continued to index the Web and
the rest of the Internet for several years after the Web
appeared. There are still Gopher servers as of 2006,
although there are a great many more web servers.
As the Web grew, search engines and Web
directories were created to track pages on the Web and
allow people to find things. The first full-text Web search
engine was WebCrawler in 1994. Before WebCrawler,
only Web page titles were searched. Another early search
engine, Lycos, was created in 1993 as a university project,
and was the first to achieve commercial success. During
the late 1990s, both Web directories and Web search
engines were popular—Yahoo! (founded 1995)
and Altavista (founded 1995) were the respective industry
leaders.
By August 2001, the directory model had begun to give
way to search engines, tracking the rise
of Google (founded 1998), which had developed new
approaches to relevancy ranking. Directory features, while
still commonly available, became after-thoughts to search
engines.
History……
NETWORKING HARDWARE

It is now turn to turn our attention to the technical issues

involved in working of the network design. There is no
accepted taxonomy into which all computer networks fit,
but the two dimensions stand out as important:
transmission technology and scale. We will now examine
each of these in turn.

Transmission Technology
Broadly speaking there are two types of transmission
technology that are in widespread use. They are as
follows:
1. Broadcast links.
2. Point to Point links.
Broadcast Networks have a single communication
channel that is shared by all the machines on the network.
Short messages called packets are sent by a machine is
received by all the other machines over the network. An
address field within the packet specifies the intended
recipient. Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the
address field. If the packet is intended for some other
machine, it is just ignored.

“Broadcast network is analogous to someone standing at the end

of a corridor with many rooms off it and shouting “Watson, come
here. I want you.” Although the packet is received(heard) by
many people only Watson responds. The others ignore it.”

Broadcast systems usually allow the possibility for

addressing a packet to all destinations by using a special
code in the address field. When a packet with this code is
transmitted, t is received and processed by every machine
on the network. It is known as Broadcasting. Some
broadcast system also support transmission to subnet of
the machine, known as Multicasting.
Point to Point Networks This type of network consists of
many connections between individual pairs of machines.
To go from the source to the destination, a packet of
information on this type of network may have to first visit
one or more intermediate machines. Often multiple routes,
of different length are possible, so routing algorithms play
an important role in point-to-point networks.
As a general rule (although there are many exceptions),
smaller, geographically localized networks tend to use
broadcasting, whereas larger networks usually are point-
to-point.

Wired Technologies
Twisted-Pair Wire - This is the most widely used medium
for telecommunication. Twisted-pair wires are ordinary
telephone wires which consist of two insulated copper
wires twisted into pairs and are used for both voice and
data transmission. The transmission speed range from 2
million bits per second to 100 million bits per second.

Coaxial Cable – These cables are widely used for cable

television systems, office buildings, and other worksites for
local area networks. Transmission speed range from 200
million to more than 500 million bits per second.

Fiber Optics – These cables consist of one or more thin

filaments of glass fiber wrapped in a protective layer. It
transmits light which can travel over long distance and
higher bandwidths. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by
electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed could go
up to as high as trillions of bits per second. The speed
of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than coaxial
cables and thousands of times faster than twisted-pair
wire.

Wireless Technologies
Terrestrial Microwave – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-
based transmitter and receiver. The equipment look
similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves use low-
gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-
sight. Path between relay stations spaced approx. 30
miles apart. Microwave antennas are usually placed on
top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks.

Communications Satellites – The satellites use microwave

radio as their telecommunications medium which are not
deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are
stationed in space, typically 22,000 miles above the
equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of
receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

Cellular and PCS Systems – Use several radio

communications technologies. The systems are divided to
different geographic area. Each area has low-power
transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls
from one area to the next area.

Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-

frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a
low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANS use
spread spectrum technology to enable communication
between multiple devices in a limited area. Example of
open-standard wireless radio-wave technology is IEEE
802.11b.

Bluetooth – A short range wireless technology. Operate at

approx. 1Mbps with range from 10 to 100 meters.
Bluetooth is an open wireless protocol for data exchange
over short distances.
The Wireless Web – The wireless web refers to the use of
the World Wide Web through equipments like cellular
phones, pagers,PDAs, and other portable communications
devices. The wireless web service offers anytime/
anywhere connection.

Scale

Networks are often classified as Local Area

Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), Metropolitan
Area Network (MAN), Personal Area Network (PAN),
Virtual Private Network (VPN), Campus Area
Network (CAN), Storage Area Network (SAN), etc.
depending on their scale, scope and purpose. Usage, trust
levels and access rights often differ between these types
of network - for example, LANs tend to be designed for
internal use by an organization's internal systems and
employees in individual physical locations (such as a
building), while WANs may connect physically separate
parts of an organization to each other and may include
connections to third parties.
Personal area network
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network
used for communication among computer devices close to
one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a
PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines,
telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game
consoles. Such a PAN may include wired and wireless
connections between devices. The reach of a PAN is
typically at least about 20-30 feet (approximately 6-9
meters), but this is expected to increase with technology
improvements.

Local area network

A local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network
covering a small physical area, like a home, office, or
small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport.
Current wired LANs are most likely to be based
on Ethernet technology, although new standards like ITU-
T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using
existing home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and
power lines.
LAN is restricted in size,which means that the
worst case transmission time is bounded and known in
advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use use
certain kind of designs that would not otherwisw be
possible. Various topologies are possible for broadcast
LANs such as BUS, RING, etc which we will discuss later
under network topologies section.

Campus area network

A campus area network (CAN) is a computer network
made up of an interconnection of local area networks
(LANs) within a limited geographical area. It can be
considered one form of a metropolitan area network,
specific to an academic setting.
In the case of a university campus-based campus area
network, the network is likely to link a variety of campus
buildings including; academic departments, the university
library and student residence halls. A campus area
network is larger than a local area network but smaller
than a wide area network (WAN) (in some cases).
The main aim of a campus area network is to facilitate
students accessing internet and university resources. This
is a network that connects two or more LANs but that is
limited to a specific and contiguous geographical area
such as a college campus, industrial complex, office
building, or a military base. A CAN may be considered a
type of MAN (metropolitan area network), but is generally
limited to a smaller area than a typical MAN.

Metropolitan area network

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that
connects two or more local area networks or campus area
networks together but does not extend beyond the
boundaries of the immediate town/city. Routers, switches
and hubs are connected to create a metropolitan area
network.
 Wide area network
A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that
covers a broad area (i.e. any network whose
communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or
national boundaries [1]). Less formally, a WAN is a
network that uses routers and public communications
links. Contrast with personal area networks (PANs), local
area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or
metropolitan area networks (MANs), which are usually
limited to a room, building, campus or specific
metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively. The largest
and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet. A
WAN is a data communications network that covers a
relatively broad geographic area (i.e. one city to another
and one country to another country) and that often uses
transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such
as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally
function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference
model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and
the network layer.

Global area network

A global area networks (GAN) (see also IEEE 802.20)
specification is in development by several groups, and
there is no common definition. In general, however, a GAN
is a model for supporting mobile communications across
an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage
areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is
"handing off" the user communications from one local
coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this
involves a succession of terrestrial WIRELESS local area
networks (WLAN).
Virtual private network
A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in
which some of the links between nodes are carried by
open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network
(e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data
link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be
tunneled through the larger network when this is the case.
One common application is secure communications
through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have
explicit security features, such as authentication or content
encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate
the traffic of different user communities over an underlying
network with strong security features.
A VPN allows computer users to appear to be editing from
an IP address location other than the one which connects
the actual computer to the Internet.

fig: VPN
Routing
Routing (routeing) is the process of selecting paths in a
network along which to send network traffic. Routing is
performed for many kinds of networks, including
the telephone network, electronic data networks (such as
the Internet), and transportation networks. This article is
concerned primarily with routing in electronic data
networks using packet switching technology. In packet
switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the
transit of logically addressed packets from their source
toward their ultimate destination through
intermediate nodes; typically hardware devices
called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches.

Peer To Peer Network

A peer-to-peer, commonly abbreviated to P2P, distributed
network architecture is composed of participants that
make a portion of their resources (such as processing
power, disk storage or network bandwidth) directly
available to other network participants, without the need
for central coordination instances (such as servers or
stable hosts).[1] Peers are both suppliers and consumers of
resources, in contrast to the traditional client-server model
where only servers supply, and clients consume.
 fig: Peer To Peer Network.

Internetwork
An Internetwork is the connection of two or more distinct
computer networks or network segments via a common
routing technology. The result is called an internetwork
(often shortened to internet). Two or more networks or
network segments connect using devices that operate at
layer 3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference
Model, such as a router. Any interconnection among or
between public, private, commercial, industrial, or
governmental networks may also be defined as an
internetwork.
In modern practice, interconnected networks use the
Internet Protocol. There are at least three variants of
internetworks, depending on who administers and who
participates in them:
Intranet
Extranet

Internet
Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods
of several hundred documented, and often standardized,
protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and
an addressing system (IP Addresses) administered by
the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority andaddress
registries

Network topology
Network Topology is the physical interconnections of the
elements (links,nodes, etc.) of a computer network.[1]
[2]
A local area network (LAN) is one example of a network
that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical
topology. Any given node in the LAN has one or more
links to one or more other nodes in the network and the
mapping of these links and nodes in a graph results in a
geometrical shape that may be used to describe the
physical topology of the network

Fig: Network Topologies

NETWORK SOFTWARE

Protocol
In computing, a protocol is a set of rules which is used by
computers to communicate with each other across a
network. A protocol is a convention or standard that
controls or enables the connection, communication,
and data transfer between computing endpoints. In its
simplest form, a protocol can be defined as the rules
governing the syntax, semantics, and synchronization of
communication. Protocols may be implemented by
hardware, software, or a combination of the two. At the
lowest level, a protocol defines the behavior of a hardware
connection.

The Operating systems are built on different protocol

levels. The purpose of each layer is to offer certain service
to the layer above it, and thus act as a virtual
machine.This concept is familiar throughout computer
science.The fundamental idea is that a particular piece of
software(protocol) provides a particular service to the user
hiding the internal system and algorithms involved.The
stack of one layer over another is known as Operating
system Layers.
 Fig: OS Layers

The interaction between the layers is termed as interface.

Reference Models In Networking

The requirement of use of a common platform of
networking protocols for smooth interconnection of
computer systems and data transfer lead us to follow
some reference model standard.
Two types of models used are OSI model developed on
proposal of ISO (International Standard Org.) and TCP/IP
model which is most widely used and accepted developed
by Cerf and Kahn in 1974.

GLOSSARY OF NETWORKING
Subnet A subnetwork, or subnet, is a logically visible, distinctly
addressed part of a single Internet Protocol network. The process
of subnetting is the division of acomputer network into groups of
computers that have a common, designated IP address routing prefix.

Client client is an application or system that accesses a remote service

on another computer system, known as a server, by way of anetwork

Server A server is a computer program that delivers a service to clients.

The server and client programs are usually, but not necessarily, running on
different computers communicating over a network.

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

Packet It is a package of data broken into bits and bytes by protocol
layers for easy transfer in network.