UEE 306 Lecture1

UEE 306
Uu Teorisi
Ahmet AIRMAN
ahmetagirman@erciyes.edu.tr
Erciyes niversitesi
Sivil Havaclk Yksek Okulu
Preliminaries

Lecture 1
UEE306-2013/2014
Overview and Definitions
The Atmospher
Basic Aerodynamics
Subsonic Airflow
The Atmospher
Basic Aerodynamics
Subsonic Airflow
Flight
Ability to hover in as well as navigate through
the air
Not all but some living beings like eagles
besides human-made systems like aircrafts
Overview & Definitions The atmospher Basic Aerodynamics Subsonic Airflow
Primary reqs of an a/c
Wing: Generates a lift force
Fuselage: Accomodates the
payload
payload
Tail surfaces: Adds stability
payload
Control surfaces: Change
direction of flight
payload
Control surfaces: Change
direction of flight
Engines: Make a/c go
forward
The axis system
x, y, z lines
+x, -x, +y, -y, +z, z
directions
A/c flight: combination
of +x, y, z
+x: due to engines
-z: due to weight
+z: due to ?
y: due to ?
The four forces
Stationary a/c: Only weight
force at z direction acts on it

The four forces
In order to fly, a force W at +z
direction needed, which is Lift, L

The four forces
In order to get L, a force moves
a/c at +x direction needed,
which is Trust, T

The four forces
In order to get L, a force moves
a/c at +x direction needed,
which is Trust, T
Due to moving forward at +x
direction, a force at x direction
created, which is Drag, D

Lift vs buoyancy
Lift occurs due to motion
Buoyancy does not occur due to motion
Mass, Force & Weight
Mass
SI Unit: kilogram (kg)
Amount of a material
Can exist witout weight
A measure of effort putting an object in motion or rest

Mass, Force & Weight
Mass
SI Unit: kilogram (kg)
Amount of a material
Can exist witout weight
A measure of effort putting an object in motion or rest
Force & Weight
SI Unit: Newton (N)
Force: Universal reason for any physical change, i.e. in motion, in appereance, etc.
Weight: Gravitational force that objects apply to each other
Force vs mass: = . where = 9,81
2 : gravitational acceleration, m: mass

An aircarft with 60 tonnes of weight needs a minimum of lift:
= . = 600009,81 = 585600
Cannot exist without mass

Center of Gravity (CG)
A location on aircraft through which the
weight of a/c assumed to act
A flying a/c assumed to rotate around its CG
The CG of an a/c should remain in certain
physical limits due to stability and
controllability of the a/c
Work, Power, Energy
Work
o SI Unit: Joule (J)
o A net force does work if
the object moves in the
direction of the force
o Work=Force x Distance,
Nm or J
o Example: when 10 N
force moves a body 2
metres away in the
direction of it the work
done is 20 J
Work, Power, Energy
Work
Nm or J
metres away in the
done is 20 J
Power
o SI Unit: Watt (W)
o The work has been done in
unit time
o Power=ForcexDistance/Time,
Nm/s or J/s or Watt
o Example: when 10 N force
moves a body 2 metres away
in the direction of it in 4
seconds, the power of that
force is 5 W
Work, Power, Energy
Work
Nm or J
metres away in the
done is 20 J
o Imagine that work is the
energy consumed,
precisely the kinetic
energy consumed.
Power
o SI Unit: Watt (W)
o The work has been done in
unit time
o Power=ForcexDistance/Time,
Nm/s or J/s or Watt
o Example: when 10 N force
moves a body 2 metres away
in the direction of it in 4
seconds, the power of that
force is 5 W
Energy
o Ability to do work
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy
o Energy possesed due to motion
o
=
1
2

2

o Example: 1 kg of air with 52 m/s (100 knots) velocity has 1352 J of (kinetic)
energy
Newtons first law of motion & Inertia
The law
o Unless an external force applied,
o a body will rest if it was on rest OR
o will keep its linear movement if was doing so.

Inertia
o Resistance of a body against a change in its motion
o Inertia is measured by mass of the body
o The reason a body needs an external force to
experience a change in motion is inertia.

Newtons second law of motion &
Velocity, Acceleration
The law
o In order to change acceleration of a body, there
needs to be a force proportional to mass of the
body
=
o Velocity: The amount of distance the body takes
in a unit of time. (m/s)
o Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity
(m/s)
Momentum
Which one requires a bigger force to get stopped in 1 sec?

10 kg of body with 3 m/s velocity vs 5 kg of body with 3 m/s velocity

10 kg of body with 5 m/s velocity vs 10 kg of body with 3 m/s velocity

1 tonnes of body with 1 m/s velocity vs 15 kg of body with 100 m/s velocity?

o Momentum: the amount of motion a body posseses:
=, kg-m/s
o Velocity: The amount of distance the body takes in a unit of time. (m/s)
o Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity (m/s)
Newtons third law of motion
Every action has an equal and opposite reaction
UEE306-2013/2014
The Atmospher
Basic Aerodynamics
Subsonic Airflow
The atmosphere and air
Envelope of the Earth
Has a mass and weight
Has an undetermined shape
Most important parameter is air density
If air density over airfoil decreases, then mass flow per
second decreases thus for the required lift force, speed
should increase
Air is compressible
Air flows from high pressure region to low pressure region
Air has a viscosity which is relatively very small
Static Pressure

SI Unit: N/m, symbol: p
1 N/m = 1 Pa, 100 Pa = 1 hPa = 1
milibar
1013,25 milibar = 1.01325 bar = 1 atm
Result of weight of atmosphere
For a given altitude, all locations of
a/c have same static pressure
Static pressure decrases
exponentially by increase of altitude
Static pressure is always in precense
upon aircaft
Temperature

SI Unit: C or K
1 K = -273 C
Between 0 to 36000 ft,
decreases almost linearly by
increase of altitude as 6,4 C
for every 1000 meter
After 36000 ft, it is constant
at -56 C for a while
Air Density

SI Unit: kg/m, symbol: ro ()
Depends on temperature, static pressure and humidity
Ideal gas formula:
=
or
=

where M: molar mass in kg/mol

then
=

where =m/M, density of dry air;
: Spesific dry air constant

hence

= constant
Air Density

Ideal gas formula:
=
or
=


then
=


hence

= constant
Note: When altitude increases;

Air Density

Ideal gas formula:
=
or
=


then
=


hence

= constant

Air Density

Ideal gas formula:
=
or
=


then
=


hence

= constant

International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA)

Sea level values:
Temperature (
0
): 15 C
Static Air Pressure (
0
): 1013,25 hPa or 1 atm
Dry air density (
0
): 1,225 kg/m
Temperature change is
2 C for each 1000 ft or
6,4 C for each 1000 m untill 36000 ft
Relative air density (
/
0
) decreases: For
example, at 40000 ft altitude relative air
density is 0,25

Dynamic Air Pressure

Kinetic energy of incompressible air in unit volume, symbol is q
Kinetic energy of air with mass m:
=
1
2
2
;
J or Nm
Kinetic energy of air in unit volume:
(
= (
1
2
2
)/;
Nm/m=N/m=F/A=pPressure

=
1
2
2
, N/m
Example: An aircrafts flies with 100 m/s velocity at sea level. Then the dynamic
pressure over the body is
=
1
2
2
=
1
2
1,225100
2
= 61,25
If you know the total surface A the dynamic pressure applies, then the total
force the a/c under will be
=
Measurement of Dynamic Air Pressure
Overview & Definitions The Atmospher Basic Aerodynamics Subsonic Airflow

Pitot tube receives the total pressure:
+
1
2
2

Static port receives only the static pressure
Air Speed Indicator (ASI) substracts the static pressure from the total:
=

then
=
2(

Problem: ASI is calibrated to sea level conditions:
=
0
= for all altitudes
Air speed you read from ASI at altitudes other then sea level is not REAL air spead and so called Indicated Air
Speed (IAS)
Good news: The speed change you read from ASI is accurate at all altitudes! If you see from ASI you twiced
your speed, then a/c really twiced its speed.
Indicated Air Speed (IAS)

The speed you directly read from ASI.
Assume that
you are at a non-sea-level altitude
with air density
,
then dynamic pressure at that altitude be
,
and sea level air density be
0
.
The aircraft should have a true air speed or TAS.
Then, the dynamic pressure can be expressed as
=
1
2
2
=
1
2
2

Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)

The air speed when position or pressure errors
eliminated from IAS at low speed flights (<320m/s)
Sometimes you cannot read true pressure levels at
pitot tube and static port due to:
Positions of pitot tube and static vents on aircraft
Effects of flaps and landing gears, or even a/c, etc.
Manevours and angle of attact
Incorrect alignment of pitot tube according to air stream
After elimination of pressure or positin errors we get
CAS
CAS=IAS

Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)

The air speed when position and compressibility errors
eliminated from IAS at high speed flights (>320m/s)

If a/c flies at high speeds, then compressibility effects are
the case
The dynamic pressure ASI measures (
) is not the actual

but a higher value:
= (1 +
2
4
+
4
40
+

6
1600
+) >

After elimination of pressure and compressibility errors we
get EAS
EAS=IAS

True Air Speed (TAS)

The air speed when position and compressibility errors eliminated and sea-level
calibration fixed
Assume that
you are at a non-sea-level altitude
with air density
,
then dynamic pressure at that altitude be
,
and sea level air density be
0

You read EAS from ASI at that altitude
After elimination of pressure and compressibility errors we get EAS

TAS=(IAS
) = ()

or
=
1
2
2
=
1
2
2

thus
= / , where =
/
0

EAS=TAS only at sea levels since = 1 at sea level.
Remember: at 40000 ft = 0,25. That implies
if at sea level you read EAS=100 knots, TAS is 100 knots
if at 40000 ft you read EAS=100 knots, TAS is 200 knots!
Speed of Sound (a)

Sound is a mechanical wave emiting through air spherically
Speed of sound is function of temperature:

=

When air temperature is low, then sound is slow
Mach number is a simple ratio of

=

Critical Mach number, (
), is the number before an a/c

reaches speed of sound; at some areas of the a/c, air speed
reaches the speed of sound.
How to Fix These Errors?
Read the notes
UEE306-2013/2014
The Atmospher
Basic Aerodynamics
Subsonic Airflow
The Principle of Continuity

From a given cross area (A), at a given velocity (v), with air density , mass of air
flowing at a unit of time is constant at all cross areas of the system:
1
=
2
2
= = (
)
Bernoulli's Theorem

An ideal incompressible fluid with zero viscosity satisfies the following:
+
1
2
2
=
=
Streamlines and the Streamtube

Streamline : the path traced by a particle of air in a steady airflow
Streamlines cannot cross
Close together streamlines: increased velocity
Diverging streamlines: decelerating airflow and resultant increasing pressure
Converging streamlines: accelerating airflow, with resultant decreasing
pressure
Streamtube: an imaginary tube made of streamlines
No flow into or out of the streamtube through the
"walls", only a flow along the tube
UEE306-2013/2014
The Atmospher
Basic Aerodynamics
Subsonic Airflow
Wing Geometry

Wing Geometry

Airfoil: A shape capable of producing lift with relatively high efficiency
Chord Line: A straight line joining the centers of curvature of the leading and
trailing edges of an aerofoil
Chord: The distance between the leading and trailing edges measured along
the chord line
Angle of Incidence: The angle between the chord line and the horizontal
datum of the aircraft
Mean Line or Camber Line: A line joining the leading and trailing edges of an
aerofoil, equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces
Maximum Camber: The maximum distance of the mean line from the chord
line.
Thickness/Chord ratio: The maximum thickness or depth of an aerofoil section
expressed as a percentage of the chord, with its location as a percentages of
the chord aft of the leading edge
Leading edge radius: The radius of curvature of the leading edge
Air Flow Terminology

Total Reaction: The resultant of all the aerodynamic forces acting on the aero
foil section
Centre of Pressure (CP): The point on the chord line, through which Lift is
considered to act
Lift: The aerodynamic force which acts at 90o,to the Relative Air Flow.
Drag: The aerodynamic force which acts parallel to and in the same direction
as the Relative Air Flow (or opposite to the aircraft flight path)
Angle of Attack ( or alpha) (can also be referred to as Aerodynamic
Incidence): The angle between the chord line and the Relative Air Flow
Air Flow around an Airfoil

Influence of Dynamic Pressure

"If the static pressure on one side of a body is reduced more than on the other
side, a pressure differential will exist

"If the dynamic pressure is increased, the pressure differential will increase

"If the dynamic pressure (lAS) is increased, the upward force will increase"

Influence of Angle of Attack

How to create an airfoil?
(For geeks)
End of

Lecture 1
UEE306-2013/2014

UEE 306 Lecture1

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UEE 306

2 : gravitational acceleration, m: mass

: Spesific dry air constant

: Spesific dry air constant

: Spesific dry air constant

: Spesific dry air constant

) is not the actual

), is the number before an a/c

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