Race and sports

1
Race and sports
Race
Classification
Genetics and differences
Race and genetics
Human genetic variation
Society
Historical concepts
Race
in Brazil
in the United States
Racial inequality in the United States
Racial profiling
Racism
in the U.S.
Scientific Racism
Race and...
Crime in the U.K.Crime in the U.S.
Incarcerationin the U.S.
Race and health
in the United States
Intelligence
History Race and intelligence controversy
Sports
Related topics
Ethnic group
Eugenics
Genetics
Human evolution
Index
Category
v
t
e
[1]
Issues related to race and sports have been examined by scholars for a long time.
[2]
Among these issues are racial
discrimination in sports as well as the observation that there are overrepresentations and underrepresentations of
different races in different sports.
Participation and performance disparities
Views in the United States
Various individuals, including scholars and sportswriter, have commented on the apparent overrepresentations and
underrepresentations of different races in different sports. African Americans accounted for 75% of players in the
National Basketball Association (NBA) near the end of 2008.
[3]
According to the latest National Consortium for
Academics and Sports equality report card, 65% of National Football League players were African Americans.
Race and sports
2
However, in 2008, about 8.5% of Major League Baseball players were African American (who make up about 13%
of the US population), and 29.1% were Hispanic (compared with about 16% of the US population).
NCAA sports have mirrored the trends present in American professional sports. During the 2005-2006 season, black
males comprised 46.9 percent of NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and 58.9 percent of NCAA Division I
basketball. The NCAA statistics are important because there is a strong correlation between percentage of black
athletes within a sport and the revenue generated by that sport. For example, University of North Carolina's
2007-2008 men's basketball team (the team was 59% black relative to the 3.7% black population of the institution as
a whole) generated $17,215,199 in revenue, which comprised 30 percent of the school's athletic revenue for the year.
Given NCAA rules prohibiting the payment of players, some have come to see the structure of NCAA athletics as
exploitative of college athletes. Some believe that since black athletes comprise a high percentage of athletes in high
revenue college sports (FBS football and Division I Men's basketball), they are therefore the biggest losers in this
arrangement. Billy Hawkins argues that "the control over the Black male's body and profiting off its physical
expenditure is in the hands of White males." His position refers to the fact that a very high percentage of Division I
universities are controlled by white administrations, and thus prosper greatly from the free labor produced by the
revenue sports that are heavily populated by black athletes. This claim is substantiated by statistics, such as the fact
that during the 2005-2006 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, games started and minutes played for
black athletes were over double that of their white counterparts, with 68.7 percent of scoring in the tournament
coming from black players.
Graduation rates
Despite the high rate of participation in the NCAA amongst black athletes, the rates of on-court success have not
necessarily translated to the classroom. A racial divide has come to exist in terms of graduation. A University of
Central Florida study of 2011 NCAA Men's Basketball Tournament teams indicated that only 59 percent of black
players graduated, a stark contrast to the 91 percent of white players who completed their undergraduate studies As
poor as the overall numbers are, they can be much more alarming at the individual level. An example of this is the
Kansas State men's basketball program that graduates 100 percent of its white players and only 14 percent of its
black players. The other main NCAA revenue sport, FBS football, has endured similarly glaring graduation
discrepancies between white and black athletes. The 2011-12 TIDES report on bowl-bound FBS teams found that the
average Graduation Success Rate for white football student athletes is 81 percent on bowl-bound teams, while
standing at only 61 percent for black student athletes. Moreover, 26 percent of the bowl-bound schools graduated
less than half of their African-American football student athletes, while not a single school graduated less than half
of its white student athletes.
"Black athletic superiority"
"Black athletic superiority" is the theory that black people possess certain traits that are acquired through genetic
and/or environmental factors that allow them to excel over other races in athletic competition. Whites are more likely
to hold these views; however, some blacks and other racial affiliations do as well.
[4][5]
A 1991 poll in the United
States indicated that half of the respondents agreed with the belief that "blacks have more natural physical ability".
[6]
Various theories regarding racial differences of black and white people and their possible effect on sports
performance have been put forth since the later part of the nineteenth century by professionals in many different
fields.
[7]
In the United States, attention to the subject faded over the first two decades of the twentieth century as
black athletes were eliminated from white organized sport and segregated to compete among themselves on their
own amateur and professional teams.
[8]
Interest in the subject was renewed after the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los
Angeles and Jesse Owens's record-breaking performances at the 1935 Big Ten Track Championships.
In 1971, African-American sociologist Harry Edwards wrote: "The myth of the black male's racially determined,
inherent physical and athletic superiority over the white male, rivals the myth of black sexual superiority in
antiquity."
Race and sports
3
Only male sprinters have beaten the 100 meter 10-second barrier, nearly all of them being of West African descent.
Namibian (formerly South-West Africa) Frankie Fredericks became the first man of non-West African heritage to
achieve the feat in 1991 and in 2003 Australia's Patrick Johnson (who has Irish and Indigenous Australian heritage)
became the first sub-10-second runner without an African background.
[9][10][11][12]
In 2010, Frenchman Christophe Lemaitre became the first white European under ten seconds (although Poland's
Marian Woronin had unofficially surpassed the barrier with a time of 9.992 seconds in 1984). In 2011, Zimbabwean
Ngonidzashe Makusha became the 76th man to break the barrier, yet only the fourth man not of West African
descent.
[13]
No sprinter from Asia or East and North Africa has officially achieved this feat,
[14]
though Koji Ito of
Japan
[15]
and Zhang Peimeng of China
[16]
have both recorded times of exactly ten seconds.
It is believed that biological factors may be largely responsible for the disproportionate success in sprinting events
enjoyed by athletes of West African descent. Chief among these is a preponderance of natural fast twitch muscle
fibers, which aid in quicker reaction times. Scientists have concluded that elite-level sprinting is virtually impossible
in the absence of the ACTN3 protein, a "speed gene" most common among persons of West African descent that
renders fast twich muscle fibers fast. African American 200 meter and 400 meter world champion Michael Johnson
has suggested that the presence of ACTN3 is at the root of the success of these athletes in sprinting events. Top
sprinters of differing ancestry, such as Christophe Lemaitre, are believed to be exceptions in that they too likely have
the genes favourable for sprinting.
Many Nilotic groups also excel in long and middle distance running. Jon Entine has argued that this sporting
prowess stems from their exceptional running economy. This in turn is a function of slim body morphology and
slender legs,
[17]
a preponderance of slow twitch muscle fibers, a low heart rate gained from living at high-altitude, as
well as a culture of running to school from a young age. A study by Pitsiladis et al. (2006) questioning 404 elite
distance runners from Kenya found that 76% of the international-class respondents hailed from the Kalenjin ethnic
group and that 79% spoke a Nilotic language.
Joseph L. Graves argues that Kenyan athletes from the African Great Lakes region who have done well in long
distance running all have come from high-altitude areas, whereas those from low-altitude areas do not perform
particularly well. He also argues that Koreans and Ecuadorians from high-altitude areas compete well with Kenyans
in long-distance races. This suggests that it is the fact of having trained in a high altitude, combined with possible
local level physiological adaptations to high-altitude environments that is behind the success in long distance
running, not race. Similarly, Graves argues that while it is superficially true that most of the world recordholders in
the 100-metre dash are of West African heritage, they also all have partial genetic heritage from Europe and Native
America, they have also all trained outside of West Africa, and West African nations have not trained any top-level
runners. Graves says these factors make it impossible to say to which degree the success is best attributed to genetic
or to environmental factors.
John Milton Hoberman, a historian and Germanic studies professor at the University of Texas at Austin, has
acknowledged that disparities in certain athletic performances exist. He has asserted that there is no evidence to
confirm the existence of "black athletic superiority".
[18]
"East Asian athletic Views"
In the United States, East Asians are stereotyped as being physically and athletically inferior to other races. This has
led to much discrimination in the recruitment process of professional American sports, where Asian American
athletes are highly underrepresented in the majority of professional sports teams (a fact that has been noted by many
sources). Such as the case with professional basketball player Jeremy Lin who believed that one of the reasons why
he wasn't drafted by a NBA team was because of his race. This belief has been reiterated by sports writer Sean
Gregory of Time magazine and NBA commissioner David Stern. In 2012, despite making up 6% of nation's
population Asian American athletes only represented 2% of the NFL, 1.9% of the MLB and less than 1% of the
NBA. Basketball should be a sport that's noted for the fact that it has one of the lowest amounts of Asian athletes
Race and sports
4
being represented despite the fact that the sport's color barrier was broken by an Asian American athlete back in
1947 named Wataru Misaka who was the first American racial minority to play in the NBA.
In American sports, there are and has been a higher representation of Asian American athletes who are of mixed
racial heritage in comparison to those of full racial heritage such as the case with former football player Roman
Gabriel who was the first Asian-American to start as an NFL quarterback. Another fact to note is that majority of
Asian American athletes who are currently drafted/recruited to compete professionally tend to be in sports that
require little to no contact.
Chinese views
In China, the idea that genetic differences affect sports performance is widely accepted. During the 2004 Summer
Olympics, the People's Daily wrote that Chinese are "suited" to sports that require agility and technique, such as
ping-pong, badminton and gymnastics. The newspaper reported that Chinese have "congenital shortcomings" and
"genetic differences" that means they are disadvantaged at purely athletic events. The success of hurdler Liu Xiang
was explained as due to the hurdles event requiring technique, which fits with the stereotype that Chinese are
disciplined and intelligent.
Li Aidong, a researcher with the China Institute of Sports Science, said that sports coaches believe Chinese athletes
could be successful in long jumping, high jumping and speed walking. She doubted Chinese could compete in pure
sprinting, although credible scientific studies are lacking for genetic differences.
[19]
Explanations for participation and performance disparities
Physiological factors
In a 2010 paper published in International Journal of Design & Nature and Ecodynamics, Adrian Bejan, a professor
of mechanical engineering at Duke University, and his colleagues reported that black people have a higher center of
mass (i.e. shorter relative torso) that favors them in running sports and that white people have a lower center of mass
that favors them in swimming. Bejan et al. cite the progression of world record holders in the men's and women's
100 meters "dash", the majority of whom are black, and the men's and women's 100 meters freestyle, the majority of
whom are white. The paper reported that although Asians have lower centers of mass/longer relative torsos like
whites, European whites have an advantage in swimming due to longer overall torsos.
The paper was the third in a series of four papers based on the constructal law of design and evolution in nature. In
the first, Bejan and Marden predicted that all animal locomotion (swimming, running and flying) is ultimately one
design: the bigger should be faster, and should wave their bodies less frequently. In the second paper, Charles and
Bejan reviewed the speed records in running and swimming during the past one hundred years, and showed that the
record speeds are statistically related to athletes' body size (mass, height) according to the same formulas as the
speed-size relations for all animals. The fourth paper in this series compared the modern evolution of short and long
distance running and swimming in terms of body mass (M), height (H), slenderness (S), and winning speed (V). It
noted that the M, H and S trends in short distance running (100 m) are increasing over time, in contrast to the same
trends in long distance running (10,000 m). Conversely, H and V are increasing in both short (100 m freestyle) and
long distance swimming (1,500 m freestyle). However, the speed records ratio running/swimming vis-a-vis short
distance sports is decreasing at approximately the same rate as the speed records ratio running/swimming for long
distance sports. In addition, both swimming and running are ultimately limited by V max speed ceilings that are
governed by the laws of physics; the extant records in both sports are thus close to 1/2 V max.
A 1994 examination of 32 English sport/exercise science textbooks found that seven suggested that there are
biophysical differences due to race that might explain differences in sports performance, one expressed caution with
the idea, and the other 24 did not mention the issue.
[20]
Race and sports
5
Socioeconomic factors
In Stuck in the Shallow End: Education, Race, and Computing, UCLA researcher Jane Margolis outlines the history
of segregation in swimming in the United States to show how blacks have been affected up to the present day by
inadequate access to swimming facilities and lessons. Margolis asserts that physiological differences between ethnic
groups are relatively minor and says: "In most cases of segregation, stereotypes and belief systems about different
ethnic gender groups' genetic make-up and physical abilities (and inabilities) emerge to rationalize unequal access
and resulting disparities." According to Margolis, views regarding "buoyancy problems" of African Americans are
merely part of folklore which have been passed down from generation to generation. Joan Ferrante, a professor of
sociology at Northern Kentucky University, suggests that geographic location, financial resources, and the influence
of parents, peers, and role models are involved in channeling individuals of certain races towards particular sports
and away from others.
Racial prejudices, discrimination, segregation, and integration
The baseball color line, which included separate Negro league baseball, was one example of racial segregation in the
United States.
In the United States, a form of racial discrimination exists in NBA basketball, as white players received higher
salaries than do blacks related to actual performance. Funk says this may be due to viewer discrimination.
Viewership increases when there is greater participation by white players, which means higher advertising incomes.
This explains much of the salary gap.
[21]
Researchers have looked at other evidence for sports consumer discrimination. One method is comparing the price of
sports memorabilia, such as baseball cards. Another is looking at fan voting for all-star teams. Still another is looking
at willingness to attend sporting events. The evidence is mixed, with some studies finding bias against blacks and
others not. A bias, if it exists, may be diminishing and possibly disappearing, according to a study on fan voting for
baseball all-star teams.
Major League Baseball
Main article: Baseball color line
Debuting with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947, Jackie Robinson was the first black Major League Baseball player of
the modern era.
Blacks in American baseball
Year Major leagues Population Ratio
1945 2% 10% 1:5
1959 17% 11% 3:2
1975 27% 11% 5:2
1995 19% 12% 3:2
[22][23]
The under-representation of blacks in U.S. baseball ended during the early years of the Civil rights movement.
Race and sports
6
National Basketball Association
Main article: National Basketball Association
Although Japanese-American Wataru Misaka broke the National Basketball Association's color barrier in the
194748 season when he played for the New York Knicks, 1950 is recognized as the year the NBA integrated. That
year African-American players joined several teams; they included Chuck Cooper with the Boston Celtics, Nat
"Sweetwater" Clifton with the New York Knicks, and Earl Lloyd with the Washington Capitols.
National Football League
Main article: Black players in American professional football
Black players participated in the National Football League from its inception in 1920; however, there were no
African-American players from 1933 to 1946.
Professional Golfers Association
In 1961, the "Caucasians only" clause was struck from the Professional Golfers' Association of America constitution.
Positions of power: coaching and administration
Referring to quarterbacks, head coaches, and athletic directors, Kenneth L. Shropshire of the Wharton School of the
University of Pennsylvania has described the number of African Americans in "positions of power" as "woefully
low". In 2000, 78% of players in the NBA were black, but only 33% of NBA officials were minorities.
[24]
The lack
of minorities in positions of leadership has been attributed to racial stereotypes as well "old boy networks" and white
administrators networking within their own race. In 2003, the NFL implemented the Rooney Rule, requiring teams
searching for a new head coach to interview at least one minority candidate.
Similar to the discrepancy between participation and leadership of blacks in American professional leagues, NCAA
sports also have had a similarly low percentage of administrators and coaches relative to the number of athletes. For
example, during the 2005-2006 academic year, high revenue NCAA sports (basketball and football) had 51 percent
black student athletes, whereas only 17 percent of head coaches in the same high revenue sports were black Also, in
the same 2005-2006 year, only 5.5 percent of athletic directors at Division I "PWIs" (Primarily White Institutions),
were black. Terry Bowden, a notable white Division I football coach, suggests that the reason many university
presidents will not hire black coaches is "because they are worried about how alumni and donors will react." Bowden
also refers to the "untapped talent" existing within the ranks of assistant coaches in Division I football. The data
backs up this claim, with 26.9 percent of Division I assistant coaches during the 2005-06 year in men's revenue
sports being black, a notably higher percentage than of head coaches. In terms of administrative positions, they have
been concentrated largely in the hands of whites. As recently as 2009, 92.5 percent of university presidents in the
FBS were white, 87.5 percent of athletic directors were white, and 100 percent of the conference commissioners
were white. Despite these statistics, black head coaches have become more prevalent at the FBS level. As of 2012,
there are now 15 black head coaches in FBS football, including now 3 in the SEC, a conference that did not hire its
first black head coach until 2003.
Race and sports
7
Segregated seating
In 1960, the Houston Oilers implemented a policy at Jeppesen Stadium to segregate the black fans from the white
fans.
[25]
Clem Daniels, Art Powell, Bo Roberson, and Fred Williamson of the Oakland Raiders refused to play in a
stadium that had segregated seating. The 1963 game against the New York Jets was relocated to a different
stadium.
[26]
Mascot controversies
Main article: Native American mascot controversy
The use of Native American names and imagery for sports mascots is an issue of ongoing discussion and controversy
in American sports, as some Native American representatives have objected to such use without explicit negotiation
and permission.
[27]
Promoting racial harmony and breaking stereotypes
According to William Jeynes, a professor of education at California State University, Long Beach, the gathering at
the first Thanksgiving in the United States was an attempt to create racial harmony through games and sporting
contests that included running, shooting and wrestling. Huping Ling, a professor of history at Truman State
University, has asserted that the participation of Chinese students in sports helped break local stereotypes in the St.
Louis area during the 1920s.
Portrayals in film
The US-set films Hoosiers and Rudy have been described as memorializing the "golden age of sports" as a time of
white prevalence and dominance,
[28]
while Glory Road showed a white coach helping to dissolve the color barrier in
college basketball.
Invictus deals with the subject of the Rugby World Cup in post-apartheid South Africa.
Australia
Main article: List of Indigenous Australian sportspeople
Inequality in sport for the Aboriginal Australians exists due to material barriers.
[29]
A 2007 report by the Australian
Human Rights Commission suggested that fear of "racial vilification" was partly responsible for the
under-representation of Aboriginal and other ethnic groups in Australian sports.
[30]
South Africa
In South Africa, black representation on the cricket and rugby national sports teams is ensured via the introduction of
quotas.
[31]
United States
Discussions of race and sports in the United States, where the two subjects have always been intertwined in
American history, have focused to a great extent on African Americans.
[32]
Depending on the type of sport and
performance level, African Americans are reported to be over- or under-represented. African Americans compose the
highest percentage of the minority groups active at the professional level, but are among those who show the lowest
participation overall.
Race and sports
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References
General
Carrington, Ben; McDonald, Ian, eds. (2001). 'Race', Sport, and British Society
[33]
. Routledge.
ISBN9780415246309.
Duncan, Margaret Carlisle; Jamieson, Katherine M. (2009). "Sociology of Physical Activity"
[34]
. In Hoffman,
Shirl J. Introduction to Kinesiology: Studying Physical Activity
[35]
(3rd ed.). Human Kinetics. pp.200203.
ISBN9780736076135. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
Franks, Joel S. (2000). Crossing Sidelines, Crossing Cultures: Sport and Asian Pacific American
[36]
. University
Press of America, Inc. ISBN9780761815921.
Gems, Gerald R.; Pfister, Gertrud (2009). "Sport and race"
[37]
. Understanding American Sport: In Culture and
Society
[38]
. Routledge. pp.228249. ISBN9780415443654. Retrieved April 13, 2011.
Giulianotti, Richard (2005). "'Race', Ethnicity and Intolerance in Sport"
[39]
. Sport: A Critical Sociology
[40]
.
Polity Press. pp.6279. ISBN9780745625461. Retrieved April 13, 2011.
Hoberman, John Milton (1997). Darwin's Athletes: How Sport Has Damaged Black America and Preserved the
Myth of Race
[41]
. Mariner Books. ISBN9780395822920.
Leonard, David J. (2006). ""Is This Heaven?": White Sporting Masculinities and the Hollywood Imagination"
[42]
. In King, C. Richard; Leonard, David J. Visual Economies of/in Motion: Sport and Film
[43]
. Peter Lang
Publishing. pp.165194. ISBN9780820478524. Retrieved April 21, 2011.
Lomax, Michael E., ed. (2008). Sports and the Racial Divide: African American and Latino Experience in an Era
of Change
[44]
. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN9781604730142. Retrieved April 6,
2011.
Sheldon, Jane P.; Toby Epstein Jayaratne; Elizabeth M. Petty (September 2007). "White Americans Genetic
Explanations for a Perceived Race Difference in Athleticism: The Relation to Prejudice toward and Stereotyping
of Blacks"
[45]
. Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of Sports Psychology 9 (3): 3156. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
Shropshire, Kenneth L. (1996). In Black and White: Race and Sports in America
[46]
. New York University Press.
ISBN9780814780374. Retrieved April 4, 2011.
Wiggins, David Kenneth (1997). "Great Speed but Little Stamina: The Historical Debate over Black Athletic
Superiority"
[47]
. Glory Bound: Black Athletes in a White America
[48]
(First ed.). Syracuse, New York: Syracuse
University Press. ISBN9780815627340. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
Specific
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Race& action=edit
[2] [2] Lomax 2008, p. ix.
[3] 2008_RGRC.indd (http:/ / www. ncasports. org/ Articles/ 2008_RGRC. pdf)
[4] [4] Sheldon 2007, p. 33.
[5] [5] Wiggins 1997, p.197.
[6] [6] Hoberman 1997, p. 146
[7] [7] Wiggins 1997, p. 177.
[8] [8] Wiggins 1997, p. 179.
[9] Will Swanton and David Sygall, (2007-07-15). Holy Grails (http:/ / www. smh. com. au/ news/ sport/ aussie-sports-biggest-hurdles/ 2007/ 07/
14/ 1183833851449. html?page=2). Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved on 2009-06-18. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5hgFsnl0S)
2009-06-20.
[10] The above source fails to mention that Namibian Frankie Fredericks was the first runner of non-West African descent to break the barrier.
[11] Athlete Profiles - Patrick Johnson (http:/ / www.athletics. com. au/ fanzone/ athleteprofiles/ patrick_johnson). Athletics Australia. Retrieved
2009-06-19. Archived (http:/ / www.webcitation. org/ 5hgXNeXll) 2009-06-20.
[12] Jad Adrian (July 2011). Christophe Lemaitre 100m 9.92s +2.0 (Video) - Officially the Fastest White Man in History (http:/ / www.
adriansprints.com/ 2011/ 07/ christophe-lemaitre-100m-992s-20. html). www.adriansprints.com. Retrieved 2011-07-31
[13] "9"98 pour Lemaitre" (http:/ / www.lefigaro.fr/ flash-sport/ 2010/ 07/ 09/ 97003-20100709FILSPO00604-9-98-pour-lemaitre. php), Le
Figaro, 07-09-2010
[14] Barling, Kurt (2000-09-04). Runaway success in the sports arena is never simply a question of race (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/
opinion/ commentators/ runaway-success-in-the-sports-arena-is-never-simply-a-question-of-race-701120. html). The Independent. Retrieved
Race and sports
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on 2009-06-18.
[15] (http:/ / www. iaaf. org/ athletes/ japan/ koji-ito-7875), IAAF, 12-08-2013
[16] (http:/ / www. iaaf. org/ competitions/ iaaf-world-championships/ 14th-iaaf-world-championships-4873/ results/ men/ 100-metres/
semi-final/ result), IAAF, 11-08-2013
[17] [17] Bengt Saltin: The Kenya project - Final report. New Studies In Athletics, vol. 2, pp. 15-24
[18] [18] Hoberman 1997, p. xiv
[19] "LETTER FROM ASIA; Racial 'Handicaps' and a Great Sprint Forward" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=9F05E7DA1630F93BA3575AC0A9629C8B63), Jim Yardley, The New York Times, September 8, 2004.
[20] "The presentation of human biological diversity in sport and exercise science textbooks: the example of "race."" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/
articles/ mi_hb6401/ is_n1_v17/ ai_n28638110/ ), Christopher J. Hallinan, Journal of Sport Behavior, March 1994
[21] http:/ / findarticles.com/ p/ articles/ mi_hb5814/ is_4_39/ ai_n28875951/
[22] USA Today (http:/ / usatoday30. usatoday. com/ sports/ baseball/ story/ 2012-04-15/ baseball-jackie-robinson/ 54302108/ 1)
[23] Information Please Almanac (http:/ / www.infoplease. com/ ipa/ A0922246. html)
[24] [24] Duncan 2009, p. 200.
[25] [25] Lomax 2008, p. xii.
[26] [26] Lomax 2008, p. xiv.
[27] [27] Duncan 2009, p. 202.
[28] [28] King 2006, p.189
[29] [29] Giulianotti 2005, p.69-70.
[30] http:/ / www.foxsports. com. au/ breaking-news/ racism-common-in-australian-sport/ story-e6frf33c-1111114656872#. UNn95bYj7cs
[31] [31] Giulianotti 2005, p.69.
[32] [32] Gems 2009, p. 238.
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[37] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tz_PfWiqGMkC& lpg=PA1& pg=PT238#v=onepage& q& f=false
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[39] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-fGmwe2AVWIC& lpg=PR1& pg=PA69#v=onepage& q& f=false
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[42] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SCGkEXVqIM4C& lpg=PP1& pg=PA165#v=onepage& q& f=false
[43] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SCGkEXVqIM4C& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_atb#v=onepage& q& f=false
[44] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9uahvEkPKvkC& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q& f=false
[45] http:/ / www.athleticinsight. com/ Vol9Iss3/ RacePDF.pdf
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[47] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kBkG1nO6-e8C& lpg=PP1& pg=PA177#v=onepage& q& f=false
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f=false
External links
Kamiya, Gary. " The Black Edge (http:/ / www. salon. com/ books/ feature/ 2000/ 01/ 28/ taboo/ print. html)." 28
January 2000. Salon.com.
Malik, Kenan. " Why Black Will Beat White at the Olympics (http:/ / www. kenanmalik. com/ essays/ olympics.
html)." 18 September 2000.
Articles, commentaries, and reviews by Jon Entine and others (http:/ / www. jonentine. com/ taboo. html)
Article Sources and Contributors
10
Article Sources and Contributors
Race and sports Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=619060423 Contributors: Andajara120000, Andkore, Applez2Applez, Bejnar, Bidgee, CassiveBrewster, Chiton magnificus,
Chris the speller, Christopher Connor, Drmies, Ecadre, Ed Poor, Eeekster, Epicgenius, FonsScientiae, Geraldshields11, Giraffedata, GoingBatty, GregorB, Hut 8.5, IceBrotherhood, Jarble, Jaxvid,
John of Reading, Jonesey95, Jordanpietkewicz, Jschnur, Keithbob, Larrymcp, LilHelpa, Location, MacRusgail, Mahahahaneapneap, Makyen, Malcolma, Mathsci, Maunus, Medicineman84,
Metadox, Miradre, Moxfyre, Mre env, Nathaniel Nimrod, Nippler998, Parkwells, Proscript, Quackdock, Rekjlhoya, Rettetast, Rjwilmsi, Robofish, Runjonrun, Seaphoto, Sillyfolkboy, Smyth,
Sonia, Soupforone, Spencer, Svlberg, Tassedethe, Tbhotch, Teatab7, Therexbanner, Tide rolls, Velella, Volunteer Marek, White 720, WillieBoydFamLov, Winnerwinneralways123, Woohookitty,
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License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
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