U. S.

Departmeht of Agri cul t ure

Soi l Conservation Service
mgi neeri ng Division
B
Technical Release No. 36
Geology
June 1967
GROUND-WATER
RECHARGE
GROUND-WATER RECHARGE
CONTENTS
Scope
Water Rights and Legal Aspects
Hydrogeological Aspects
The Controlling Stratum
Effect of the Water Table
Examples
Cavernous Rocks
Unconsolidated Deposits
Occluded Aquifer
Artesian Aquifers
Semipermeable Substratum
Measures for Ground-Water Recharge
Incidental Recharge
Special Structures for Recharge
Water Spreading
Pits and Shafts
Dams and Diversions
Recharge Wells
Natural Openings
Maintenance of Recharge Structures
Quality of Water for Recharge
Silt; Clay; Debris
Chemical Pollutants; Bacteria; Algae
Dissolved Solids; Precipitates; Ion-exchange
Temperature; Dissolved Gases
Measures for Improving Quality
Evaluation
Cost Allocation and Cost Sharing
Benefits
Induced Damages
The Value of Recharged Water
Case Histories
York Creek Watershed
Lower Running Water Draw Watershed
Recharge Under P. L. 46
Page
1
Selected References
GROUND-WATER RECHARGE
Introduction
Ground pater is an important factor in Soil Conservation Service
operatj,bns. Large amounts of water are being lost by runoff and
evaporaFion in the same areas where ground-water supplies are being
depleTed. Added emphasis is needed on the conservation and use of
exces$ runoff where there are possibilities for increased underground
storage.
Ground-water recharge is but one phase in the management of a ground-
water basin. In some areas, long-term withdrawal exceeds long-term
recharge and water is being flmined.f1 Without proper management to
obtain a sustained yield, artificial recharge becomes a mere stop-gap
measure. It may be possible to manage a ground-water reservoir like
a surface reservoir. That is, water is placed in storage in periods
of excess and withdrawn in periods of shortage.
The SCS has many opportunities, through its existing policies and
programs, to contribute to all phases of ground-water basin management.
Only the artificial recharge phase will be discussed in this Technical
Release.
Scope
Natural recharge may vary from practically none to nearly all of the
runoff from a drainage area. Where water is available, artificial
recharge may be used to supplement that naturally recharged. Recharge
procedures must be tailor-made to fit a given situation. In this
Technical Release, only general procedures and methods will be
discussed. More specific and detailed information on the various
phases of ground-water recharge will be found in the references.
Service policy and guides concerning ground water studies are found
in Fhgineering Memorandum 51, the Watershed Protection Handbook,
Sections 8, 15, 16, and 18 of the National Ehgineering Handbook, and
various guides and memos prepared by the Regional Technical Service
Centers and the States. A list of pertinent technical books, reports
and research studies is given at the end of this Technical Release.
The technical aspects of drilling, testing, sampling, permeability
determinations, ground-water hydrology, hydraulics, and economic
evaluation can be found in the references and will be discussed
only where they have a special application to ground-water recharge.
Water Rights and Legal Aspects
Water r i ght s laws vary great l y from s t at e t o st at e.
In t he eastern half of
the U. S. most water r i ght s ar e based on court decisions or on common law
i n which land ownership i s t he source of t he ri ght . In western U. S. water
r i ght s are based mostly on l egi sl at i ve act s i n which the source of t he r i ght
l i e s i n t he benefi ci al use of the water. Pri or appropriation and s t at e
regulation in the western s t at es are strong fact ors i n t he continued
benefi ci al use of water. Many s t at es have extended t he i r water laws t o
include ground water, springs and wells. These laws may be very r i gi d i n
regard t o pri or appropriation, t he quantity and purpose of water use, the
development of new wells, and t he surface storage of waters.
Local and St at e water laws as they pert ai n t o ground-water recharge, must be
followed. Some of t he fact ors t o consider are:
(1)
Pri or appropriation of surface waters
(2)
diversion of water from streams where a sustained flow i s needed
t o remove waste, debris, or pol l ut ant s
( 3)
recharge of polluted, untreated, or otherwise undesirable water
( 4)
creation of an excessively high water t abl e.
Hydroneolo~ical Aspects
Storage of water within t he ear t h' s crust i s dependent upon geological
processes t hat have produced voids capable of absorbing, transmitting,
storing, and yielding water. Voids are numerous in most eart h materials.
Some are l arge enough t o transmit water freel y, whereas ot hers are so small
t hat surface tension exceeds hydrostatic pressures and t he transmission of
water i s prevented.
Useful ground-water storage capacity i s not measured by t he porosity of t he
reservoi r but rat her by the amount of water t hat t he reservoi r w i l l yi el d by
gravity drainage. This i s commonly termed speci fi c yi el d. It i s t he
difference between porosity and f i e l d moisture capacity. Pot ent i al aqui fers
below t he zone of s oi l moisture are already a t f i e l d capacity.
Therefore,
most of the recharged water ei t her can be recovered or w i l l move t o nat ural
discharge areas.
An aquifer i s defined as a water-bearing formation. In t hi s Technical
Release the term w i l l al so be applied t o pot ent i al water-bearing formations.
An aquiclude i s a formation which w i l l not furni sh an appreciable supply of
water t o wells or springs.
It i s used t o designate a bar r i er t o the movement
of water.
The following conditions i ndi cat e pos s i bi l i t i es f or nat ural or a r t i f i c i a l
B
recharge :
(1)
Formations of sand, gravel, or highly fract ured rocks ei t her
underground or exposed over a l arge area or i n stream channels
(2)
the presence of caverns, fractured or faul t ed zones, or numerous
small cavi t i es i n rock formations ei t her underground or exposed
on the land surface or stream channels
( 3) Karst or sinkhole topography
(4)
the absence of bar r i er s t o t he horizontal or ver t i cal movement
of ground water
( 5 )
feasi bl e l ocat i ons f or t he i nst al l at i on of recharge wells, dams,
diversions, or other recharge st ruct ures.
The above conditions do not necessarily i ndi cat e pos s i bi l i t i es f or benefi ci al
recharge. The water may emerge i n nearby springs or channels, or may recharge
an aquifer t hat i s so deep t hat recovery i s impractical. These conditions
should be studied careful l y t o determine whether recharge i s feasi bl e.
Wide braided streams, broad al l uvi al fans, and gl aci ofl uvi al deposits may
present excellent opportunities f or water spreading. These conditions may
be especially si gni fi cant where water from mountain streams can be spread
and recharged i nt o aquifers t hat extend i nt o areas where t he water can be
recovered f or benefi ci al use.
Geologic report s, ground-water report s, well logs, and descriptions of
st rat i graphi c sections may i ndi cat e t he possi bi l i t y of recharge, storage,
and recovery of ground water. This preliminary information may j ust i f y a
det ai l ed ground-water investigation.
Ground-water recharge may al so be influenced by such things as t he season
of t he year, i nt ensi t y and duration of preci pi t at i on, topography, vegetative
cover, soi l s, land use, evapotransporation, avai l abi l i t y of storage, et c.
The r at es and amounts of recharge may be improved by:
(1)
Increasing opportunity time by regulating t he flow of water over
t he intake area
(2)
desi l t i ng and removing materials or debri s which might seal t he
intake area
( 3)
planting or improving t he growth of deep rooted vegetation, except
phr eat ~phyt es ~i n i nt ermi t t ent spreading areas
(4)
diversions from l e s s t o more sui t abl e intake areas.
The following fact ors must be considered i n sel ect i ng the proper l ocat i on of
s i t e s f or a r t i f i c i a l recharge:
(1)
Water (avai l abi l i t y, source, t urbi di t y, qual i t y, et c . )
(2) surface s oi l s
(3) depth t o aquifer
( 4)
geologic st ruct ure and capacity of the ground-water reservoi r
(5) t he presence of aquicludes
(6) movement of ground water
(7) l ocat i on of withdrawal area
(8) pat t ern of pumping dr af t .
An investigation t o determine t he location, extent, permeability and other
physical charact eri st i cs of the surface and the various underlying s t r a t a i s
needed t o sel ect the s i t e best adapted t o a r t i f i c i a l recharge. The great est
volumes and r at es of recharge ar e possible in t hi ck formations of pervious sands
and gravels or porous and cavernous rocks.
The Controlling Stratum
Unless i nj ect i on wells are used, t he stratum t hat w i l l control the i nf i l t r at i on
r at e must be i dent i fi ed. This usually i s t he l e a s t permeable stratum between
t he aquifer and t he recharge surface. However, thickness i s a fact or. Recharge
r at es w i l l be controlled by t he stratum t hat has t he lowest quotient of permea-
bi l i t y divided by thickness, considering t he head of water applied t o be constant
(see Wenzel, L . K. , 194.2, pp . 56-71) . Identifying t he controlling stratum may
ent ai l some dr i l l i ng, t est i ng and sampling. A few small d r i l l cores may not
reveal the t r ue amount of fract uri ng and jointing i n a rock formation.
After the controlling stratum has been i dent i fi ed and i t s physical propert i es
determined, i t s depth, at t i t ude, ar eal extent, and t he location and elevation
of outcrops must be determined. Not infrequently t he controlling stratum i s
or w i l l be t he sediment deposited in a surface reservoi r.
I f the amount of water t hat w i l l pass through t he controlling stratum i s very
limited, recharge may be possible only through t he use of i nj ect i on wells. The
special problems of injection-well construction and maintenance wi l l be discussed
i n a l a t e r seetion. I f t he cont rol l i ng stratum i s near or a t t he surface it may
be possible t o di srupt it by mechanical means. Treatment of recharge surfaces t o
prevent a decrease i n i nf i l t r at i on r at es with time may be a major item of mainte-
nance in a recharge proj ect .
Effect of the Water Table
When the water t abl e i s near the ground surface, t here w i l l be l i t t l e
opportunity f or recharge. Some water may go i nt o shallow storage, but
when this storage space is f i l l e d, any additional i nf i l t r at i on w i l l
ret urn t o t he stream channel or ot her discharge area.
The effect of a shallow water t abl e may be par t i al l y of f set i f t he
ground-water gradient i s steep. I n an aquifer with good permeability
t hi s w i l l remove t he water rapi dl y from the recharge area.
The following are a few i l l us t r at i ve examples of hydrogeological
si t uat i ons t hat may be conducive t o ground-water recharge.
Cavernous Rocks. - A t ypi cal si t uat i on where recharge t o cavernous
rocks may be feasi bl e i s i l l us t r at ed below:
The need f or recharge i s indicated when springs s t a r t t o go dry, pumping
l i f t s in wells increase or shallower wells go d q . Water withdrawn under
these conditions i s being mined. Ar t i f i ci al recharge may be feasi bl e i f
water i s being l o s t from t he recharge area as runoff. Improving nat ural
openings and im ounding storm runoff f or slower rel ease ar e t he usual
B methods employe . Benefits may be l ocal or regional.
Unconsolidated Deposits. - Thick alluvium
with a deep water t abl e ar e i l l ust r at ed:
or unindurated continental deposits
4
A s i l l us t r at ed, t he water t abl e i s deep within geologic mat eri al s t hat are un-
consolidated and generally permeable. Need f or recharge i s indicated by long-
term increased pumping l i f t s . I f t he surface material i n t h i s si t uat i on i s
slowly permeable, much of t he nat ural r ai nf al l may run off or become impounded
i n depressions t o evaporate. Recharge i s usually possible, i f water i s avai l abl e,
Treatment and maintenance of recharge st ruct ures or water spreading areas w i l l
probably be necessary.
-7-
Occluded Aquifer. - An example of an occluded aquifer i s i l l us t r at ed below:
Land surface
pp
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An impermeable or slowly permeable formation overlying an aquifer reduces or
prevents nat ural recharge l ocal l y.
The need f or recharge i s indicated by
increased pumping l i f t s .
The method of recharge i s through i nj ect i on wells.
It may be possible t o i nt egrat e surface drainage and recharge.
Water qual i t y
may be a problem.
Artesian Aquifers. Under some conditions artesian aquifers, as illustrated
below, may be successfully recharged.
The need for recharge is indicated when wells stop flowing and require
pumping with increasingly greater lifts. Recharge is possible only
through wells and the rate will be limited by the permeability of the
aquifer and the amount of head that can be applied. Unless the aquifer
is extremely permeable, recharge at a distant outcrop of the aquifer will
not be effective,
Semipermeable Substratum. - The common situation where recharge is controlled
by a semipermeable substratum is illustrated below:
Semipermeable formation
Water table
As illustrated the rate of recharge is limited by seepage through the semi-
permeable formation unless recharge wells are used.
Recharge will have reached
its maximum rate when return flow appears as seepage at the outcrop of this
controlling stratum. An approximation of the rate of recharge can be determined
as follows:
Q = kAI
where Q = maximm rate of recharge if adequate supply of
water is available ( ft .3/day)
k = permeability of the controlling stratum (ft . 3/ft. 2/day)
A = n? = an approximation of the area of the upper surface
of the controlling stratum over which the recharge water
will be applied (ft .2)
n = 3.14
r = the linear distance from the center of the recharge area
to the outcrop of the controlling stratum (ft.)
I = h/k = effective gradient of the recharge water (dimensionless)
h = approximately e ual to the thickness of the controlling
stratum, plus 1 3 3 the depth of the top of the controlling
stratum below the surface (ft. )
R = thickness of the controlling stratum (ft.)
All items must be in compatible units.
Measures for Ground Water Recharge
Ground-water recharge may result from land treatment measures or from
structural measures planned for recharge or other purposes. Terraces,
diversions and stock ponds, the application of irrigation water, canal
leakage, and disposal of drainage water may aid recharge. However,
recharge will seldom be considered as a purpose of these measures.
Incidental Recharge from Structural Measures
Seepage from reservoirs and from channels in which flow is prolonged by
structural measures is the most common source of incidental recharge.
Incidental recharge may take place from the sediment pools of reservoirs,
especially in the first few years after construction. Borrowing materials
during construction may expose strata which are more permeable than the
original surface soils. On the other hand, sedimentation in the reservoir
may decrease permeability and thereby gradually decrease the rate of recharge.
Seepage from a reservoir does not necessarily recharge an underlying aquifer.
It may be intercepted by an impermeable stratum and be returned to the stream
channel downstream from the dam. This in itself may be a benefit. The pro-
longation of streamflow may make water available for beneficial use over a
longer period of time.
Where suitable conditions exist, measures might be designed to put large amounts
of water underground without appreciable added costs. It may be possible to
locate a dam to impound water over caverns, sinkbles, or open fault zones.
Sites may be selected where the controlled outflow from structures can enter
openings in or near the channel downstream. Diversions or channels may be
constructed where they will conduct water into natural openings, pits,
quarries, or other recharge areas.
rn
Special Structures f or Recharge
Several types of st ruct ural measures f or ground water recharge may be
planned ei t her as multiple purpose st ruct ures or sol el y f or recharge.
Water Spreading. - Areas of deep sands, gravels, or cobbles ar e t he
most favorable f or recharge by water-spreading. The systems used ar e
usually si mi l ar t o those ;sed- f or i r r i gat i on or wild-flooding . They
usually can be cl assi fi ed under one of t he following methods:
(1)
A ser i es of small basins f or impounding water throughout t he
intake area
(2)
a ser i es of shallow, flat-bottomed furrows or ditches, closely
spaced, and on a low grade, t o spread water throughout t he intake
area
(3)
flooding l evel areas, or constructing dikes t o hold t he flooded
waters on sl i ght l y sloping intake areas.
A combination of two or more of these methods may be used depending upon
t he topography. The surface should be disturbed as l i t t l e as possible
where flooding i s used. The water should be a s clean as possible,
especially where basins or flooding are used. I nf i l t r at i on r at es may
be improved by deep-rooted vegetation or by a surface cover of vegetative
debri s t hat i s permitted t o decompose under al t ernat i ng wet and dry conditions.
I f t he water i s applied f or long continuous periods, experiments have shown
t hat a decrease in r at e of intake r es ul t s l argel y from micro-organism
act i vi t y within t he s oi l . Spreading of waters containing l arge quant i t i es
of f i ne sediment w i l l cause a rapid decrease in i nf i l t r at i on r at e and may
overshadow any ef f ect of micro-organism act i vi t y. I ni t i a l i nf i l t r at i on
r at es may sometimes be recovered by i nt errupt i ng spreading operations and
permitting t he s oi l t o dry t o or near t he wi l t i ng point.
Pi t s and Shafts. - Pi t s or shaf t s excavated i nt o deep gravel beds or
fractured cavernous or pervious rocks w i l l great l y increase i nf i l t r at i on.
Abandoned gravel pi t s , quarri es or mines may be used and ar e part i cul arl y
effect i ve i f they extend i nt o t he aquifer or i nt o cavernous rock formations.
Measures may be i nst al l ed t o remove or reduce the amount of debris, clay,
silt, and other pol l ut ant s where necessary.
.
Dams and Diversions. - Incidental recharge, whereby l arge volumes of recharge
mav be accom~lished a t no ext ra cost , has previously been discussed. In
adi i t i on, &l, inexpensive dams may be very effect i ve i n impounding
streamflow long enough t o l e t it enter l arge openings in or near t he
channel. Such st ruct ures in favorable l ocat i ons may recharge much of the
runoff. Diversions up t o several miles in length may be constructed t o
di r ect storm runoff i nt o sinkholes or other l arge openings. The flood
reducing ef f ect s of these measures might be si gni fi cant and should be
-
considered.
Recharge Wells. - Where s oi l s or subst rat a of very low permeability exi st
between t he surface and the water t abl e, wells or shaft s penetrating t he
s t r a t a are the only means of recharge. They also may be i nst al l ed t o
increase the volume of recharge in connection with other recharge measures.
In some cases, wells t hat normally ar e pumped during t he growing season ar e
used f or recharge during ot her seasons.
Recharge wells, often referred t o as i nj ect i on wells have been i n use in
almost every par t of t he U. S. in connection with i r r i gat i on, heat pumps
and s a l t water i nt rusi on control.
One effect i ve system f or recharge consi st s of dr i l l i ng i nj ect i on wells i nt o
t he aquifer downstream from a dam. Water i s then conducted from t he pri nci pal
spillway t o the wells. The release r at e or the number of wells ar e varied t o
control t he r at e and amount of recharge.
In areas of cavernous limestones and sypsum, recharge wells may be placed
upstream from a floodwater retarding or ot her st ruct ure. The intake should
be well below t he cr es t of t he pri nci pal spillway elevation, but several f eet
above the bottom t o ai d i n desi l t i ng. Recharge w i l l take place automatically
when the water reaches t he elevation of t he well i nl et . The well intake should
be provided with an effect i ve t r ash guard.
Besides the thickness and capacity of t he aquifer, the qual i t y of t he i nj ect ed
water i s extremely important when wells ar e used. Suspended sol i ds, biological
and chemical impurities, dissolved a i r and gases, turbulence, and temperature
of both t he aquifer and the i nj ect ed water w i l l have an ef f ect on t he l i f e and
effi ci ency of a well. These are most important in aqui fers with moderately
permeable granular materials. They may have l i t t l e ef f ect on t he recharge
r at es of wells i n aqui fers made up of gravels, cobbles, or cavernous rock,
except where t he water contains excessive amounts of debri s or s oi l materials.
Wells f or draining cropland have been used i n many par t s of t he U. S. This
r es ul t s in ground-water recharge. Wells dr i l l ed i n t he playa lakes i n t he
High Pl ai ns of Texas, and i n lakes and swamps in t he northern Great Plains,
have been effect i ve f or only about two years due t o the rapid r at e of plugging
t he aquifer with sediment. The i nst al l at i on of rock and gravel f i l t e r s extends
t hei r l i f e about two years. The most recent i nst al l at i ons place a fl oat i ng
intake in the center of the lake. The water goes through a f i l t er i ng and
desi l t i ng process, excess a i r i s removed, and it i s then pumped i nt o t he
aquifer. By reversing the pump 1/2 t o 1 hour each day, a l arge amount of
si l t and clay i s removed so t hat recharge can be continued. Although t hi s
procedure i s effect i ve, it i s expensive, and does not guarantee against t he
eventual plugging of t he aquifer near t he well.
Natural Openings. - In cavernous limestone and gypsum areas nat ural openings
i n or near the stream channel may be used i n l i e u of recharge wells. Recharge
water may be conducted t o these openings or backed over them i n t he same way
as with recharge wells.
Some nat ur al openings need l i t t l e o r no improvement o r prot ect i on t o
r e t a i n t h e i r ef f ect i veness while ot her s should be improved, prot ect ed,
and maintained. Openings t ha t need development should be cleaned out
and provided with an ef f ect i ve t r a s h guard. Provision should be made
f o r t he removal of sediment from t he recharge water i f necessary. There
ar e many cases where animal burrows or t he hollow sound of walking over
a spot have l e d t o t he discovery of l ar ge openings which may be used f o r
recharge. I f si gni f i cant , t he amount of induced recharge t o l ar ge nat ur al
openings should be computed in order t o determine a reduction i n flooding
or a reduced s i ze of downstream channel improvement.
Maintenance of Recharge St r uct ur es
Some types of recharge st r uct ur es r equi r e frequent at t ent i on t o maintain
t he i r ef f i ci ency. This i s especi al l y t r ue of i nj ect i on wells and t o some
ext ent of p i t s or shaf t s where chemical treatment and t he cont r ol of
sediment bact er i a, algae, and a i r entrainment ar e involved. Other
st r uct ur es may need only occasional at t ent i on t o remove debr i s, di ver t
contaminants or pol l ut ant s, and t o make mechanical r epai r s.
Maintenance general l y includes:
(1)
Removing t r a s h and r epai r i ng debr i s guards
(2)
maintaining f i l t r a t i o n , f l occul at i on o r ot her water treatment
f a c i l i t i e s
( 3)
backflushing recharge wells, with o r without t he use of
det ergent s, t o removed introduced f i ne sediment from t he
aqui f er
( 4)
normal s t r uct ur al and mechanical maintenance.
Qual i t y of Water f o r Recharge
The water used f o r recharge must be of sui t abl e qual i t y f or ul t i mat e
recovery and use f o r i t s intended purpose. Any water proposed f o r
recharge should be t es t ed by a qual i f i ed l aborat ory.
S i l t ; Clay: Debris
S i l t and cl ay introduced i nt o a well w i l l lodge i n t he gravel pack
around t he well o r a t t he i nt er f ace between t he gr avel pack and t he
aqui f er and mat er i al l y r et ar d t he movement of water. It may even
penet rat e t he aqui f er mat eri al i t s e l f and reduce permeability of
t he mat eri al surrounding t he wel l .
Accumulations of organic matter and other debris may reduce the rate of
recharge or seal even large openings. The quality of ground water may be
affected during the decaying process. However, organic debris entering
a limestone aquifer may be beneficial. The decaying process gives off
carbon dioxide which increases the ability of the water to dissolve
limestone and thereby enlarge the voids in the aquifer.
Chemical Pollutants; Bacteria: Alpae
Pollution must be avoided in recharging ground water. Sources of pollution
'include storm sewers, untreated sewage, waste products, detergents, pesticides,
herbicides, toxic and noxious substances, fertilizers, saline water, and heat.
Organic wastes may either contain harmful bacteria or may promote their growth.
In a recharge well, bacteria and algae may clog the well screen or the aquifer
or both. The decay of organic materials may produce excess nitrates or other
toxic by-products. Water from areas where large quantities of pesticides or
herbicides have been applied or manufactured should not be used for recharge
without careful study.
The danger that public water supplies may become polluted as a result of the
movement of bacteria and chemicals with underground waters is a matter of
great concern to health authorities. Recent laboratory and field investiga-
tions have been made of the travel of pollution from direct recharge into
underground formations and of waste-water reclamation in relation to ground-
water pollution. These show that a definite hazard exists when polluted water
is injected directly into the aquifer by means of wells or is recharged through
large openings. A lesser hazard exists with surface spreading methods which
permit aeration to reduce pollution. Migration of chemical pollutants was
found to be greater than bacterial pollutants.
Dissolved Solids; Precipitates; Ion-exchange
The kind and amount of dissolved solids in water vary considerably from place
to place and from one period of time to another. They depend upon the time
and amount of precipitation, the chemical changes that take place in the soil
and rocks, and availability of soluble substances.
Solubility of oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, ammonia and other gases
in water varies with physical and biological environment and changes with
temperature and pressure. Presence of dissolved oxygen affects the habitat
of aerobic bacteria which influence the decomposition of organic matter.
The
solubility of calcium carbonate varies with the carbon dioxide content of the
water. The corrosive and electrolytic characteristics of the water will
influence the selection of steel or other kinds of metals used for screens,
pumps, pipes, and fittings to be used in wells.
Serious i ncr ust at i ons by chemical act i on may occur in metal-cased wells,
par t i cul ar l y where t he per f or at i ons a r e above t he normal water t a bl e and
exposed t o t he a i r . Perforat i ng only below t he lowest el evat i on of
water t abl e i s a p a r t i a l remedy. The amount of i ncr ust at i on w i l l vary
with t he chemical qual i t y of water.
Chemical and mineral wastes from mining and i ndus t r i al ar eas of t en ar e
t oxi c t o pl ant s and animals. Waters t h a t contain a high concentration
of sodium salts cause i nf i l t r a t i on problems. Reactions between chemicals
in recharge water and chemicals i n t he ground water o r t he mineral makeup
of t he aqui fer may i n some cases produce pr eci pi t at es o r an exchange of
i ons. These conditions could reduce t he r a t e of recharge o r t he qual i t y
of t he water.
Temperature; Dissolved Gases
The s ol ubi l i t y of a i r i n water i s st rongl y influenced by temperature, a s
i l l us t r a t e d below:
Temperature Dissolved a i r a t 1 atmos. pr es. ,
volume of air/volume of water
Surface waters ( t he normal water used f o r recharge excepting i ndus t r i al
ef f l uent s) ar e normally sat urat ed with a i r a t t h e i r given temperature
and pressure. This would mean t ha t an i nj ect i on well pumping 500 gal l ons
per minute of water a t 20 o r 30 C i nt o an aqui f er where t he temperature
might be r ai sed by 100 C, could pot ent i al l y r el ease over 500 cubic f e e t
of f r e e a i r i nt o t he aqui f er dai l y. While some of t he a i r might escape,
most w i l l take t he form of t i ny bubbles which f i l l t he aqui f er i nt e r s t i c e s
and gr eat l y reduce water i nt ake. This i s especi al l y t r ue of f i ne grained
aqui f er s. To avoid t h i s problem, i nj ect ed water should have a temperature
s l i ght l y higher than t he temperature of t he aqui f er . On t he ot her hand,
some nat ur al ground waters contain much dissolved gas which might be f r eed
i f t he i nj ect ed water i s too war m.
Measures f o r Improving Qual i t y
Debris guards, des i l t i ng basins, o r both should be i ns t a l l e d t o remove
brush, leaves, junk, sediment or ot her undesirable mat er i al from recharge
water. These measures w i l l provide a t hr eef ol d benef i t of avoiding con-
tamination of t he underground water, keeping t he i nt ake ar eas open, and
preventing clogging t he aqui f er .
Flocculants may be used t o hasten t he removal of si l t and clay. The use of
pol yel ect rol yt i c fl occul at i ng agents has received much at t ent i on recently
and t he l a t e s t information available on t hei r use and cost should be obtained
i f t he need f or fl occul at i on i s indicated.
4
Purifying chemicals may be used t o t r e a t the water t hat may be recovered f or
human use. These treatments usually ar e too expensive f or water which w i l l
not be used f or human consumption. Aeration may reduce some chemical and
bact eri al contaminants, but it may permit an increase i n t he growth of algae.
Chlorination of the recharge water, ei t her continuously or i n slugs, w i l l
reduce t he growth of soi l - or aquifer-clogging micro-organisms.
Ebalua t ion
Ground-water recharge i s included under "Water Management Measuresn a s defined
i n t he Watershed Protection Handbook. Benefits may be ei t her agri cul t ural
(ground water used f or i r r i gat i on, stockwater, or domestic farm water supply)
or non-agricultural (ground water used f or municipal or i ndust r i al water supply
or recreat i on).
Cost Allocation and Cost Sharing
The Watershed Protection Handbook s t at es t he pol i ci es on cost al l ocat i on and
cost-sharing and t hei r application t o t he benefits from ground-water recharge.
The cost s of measures i nst al l ed sol el y t o increase ground water should be
allocated t o ground-water recharge. If t he recovered water w i l l be used f or
both agri cul t ural and non-agricultural purposes, t he portion used f or each
must be determined. Only st ruct ural measures f or recharging agri cul t ural
water may be cost-shared. I f recharge i s i nci dent al t o the planned st r uct ur al
measures, no cost estimates are needed.
Benefits
Benefits from the recharge of ground-water reservoi rs may accrue i nci dent al l y
from a measure i nst al l ed f or other purposes or may r es ul t from measures in-
s t al l ed f or this purpose. To determine benefits, the amount of water recharged,
t he, uni t value of t he water, and t he cost of procuring water from other sources
must be known.
I n some cases, benefi t s from recharge ar e di r ect and i dent i fi abl e and can be
speci fi cal l y evaluated. In other cases t he benefi t s may not be easi l y i dent i fi ed.
Any i ndi rect benefi t s should be described and evaluated i n t er ns of t hei r i nci dent al
or enhancement values. Following ar e several types of benefi t s from ground-water
recharge :
(1)
Storing water in underground reservoi rs which may be recovered f or
benefi ci al use
(2)
rai si ng t he water t abl e to increase water supply from shallow wells,
t o reduce pumping cost s in wells, and t o maintain water l evel s
decreasing runoff, thereby di rect l y reducing damages from
flooding, erosion, and sedimentation
creating fresh water bar r i er s against t he intrusion of s a l t
water along coast al areas, or against t he intrusion of
undesirable water in inland areas
recharging good qual i t y water t o di l ut e undesirable under-
ground water or t o a s s i s t in flushing undesirable water
from cavernous or very porous aqui fers
increasing t he flow of springs f or agri cul t ural water supplies
and f or the aest het i c or commercial value of springs f or
recreation, parks, resort s, and water sport s
increasing streamflow t o supply water f or agri cul t ural purposes,
wi l dl i fe, recreation, and t o a s s i s t i n removal of pol l ut ant s or
undesirable debri s
maintaining a high water t abl e i n marsh areas t o insure permanent
pools or marshes f or t he breeding or rest i ng places f or waterfowl,
f i s h, and other aquatic animals
replenishing ground-water supplies t o prevent or reduce t he r at e
of land subsidence or the weakening of foundations of st ruct ures,
pipelines, canals, et c. , resul t i ng from t he excessive withdrawal
of water.
Induced Damapes
Damages caused by ground water may be i dent i fi ed, but t he portion of t he
damages created by recharge may not always be easi l y ascertained. Agri-
cul t ural damages should be determined including i nt erferi ng with drainage,
recharging polluted or poor qual i t y water, and creating high water t abl e
conditions t hat may damage crops or agri cul t ural works of improvement.
Non-agricultural damages should be i dent i fi ed al so. These might include t he
rai si ng of water t abl es or increasing pore pressures i n eart h mat eri al s.
This i n t urn may cause wet basements, i neffect i ve f i l t e r f i el ds and sept i c
tanks, unstable foundations, eart h sl i des, or af f ect water qual i t y f or non-
agri cul t ural purposes.
The following conditions may be caused or increased by ground-water recharge
and may be ei t her agri cul t ural or non-agricultural:
(1)
Mass movements such as slumps, sl i des, or eart h flows commonly
cause damage, especially t o roads, rai l roads, buildings, and
agri cul t ural works of improvement. Field inspection, interviews
with persons responsible f or repai r and maintenance, review of
records, and study of aer i al photographs usually wi l l furni sh a
basi s f or determining damages. It w i l l be necessary t o determine
t he influence, i f any, of ground-water conditions on t he development
of mass movements.
Ground-water problems may be associated with seasonal high water t abl es
or fl uct uat i ng water t abl es associated with flood events. Locally, the
problem may have been analyzed and the source of t he ground water de-
termined. Records, newspaper accounts, or affected resi dent s often
can r el at e t he occurrence of damaging ground water with past events
and developments or with cert ai n recurring events, such as storms of
a given i nt ensi t y or duration. It may be the geol ogi st ' s responsi-
bi l i t y t o subst ant i at e or disprove these analyses and determine whether
the preliminary investigation appears t o warrant a det ai l ed study.
The Value of Recharged Water
Generally t he value of recoverable recharged ground water w i l l depend upon i t s
intended use as well as i t s qual i t y. Recharged water recovered f or agri cul t ural
use normally would be evaluated the same as a surface supply f or t hat use. Recharge
would reduce pumping cost s, slow t he r at e of depletion, and delay t he dat e f or a
s hi f t from i r r i gat ed t o dry land farming.
The value of water may range from f i ve dol l ars t o more than $100 per acre-foot
depending upon i t s type of use and t he section of t he country where it i s used.
For example, water f or i r r i gat i ng pasture may be low i n value, while water f or
valuable truck or f r u i t crops may be worth $100 or more per acre-foot. Ground
water f or i r r i gat i ng cotton i n t he High Plains of Texas, with a 200-foot
pumping l i f t , has been valued as high a s $63 per acre-foot. A study by t he
Corps of Ehgineers of t he Edwards underground reservoi r of Texas gave an
estimated value of $39 per acre-foot.
Engineering News Record, June 4, 1964, reported t hat t he Los Angeles area w i l l
pay i ni t i a l l y '$20 per acre-foot f or Colorado River water f or pumping i nt o t he
ground t o build up a bar r i er against salt water i nt rusi on.
Water recovered f or c i t i e s or i ndust ri es may be worth more than $100 per
acre-foot. W. F. Hughes in Itwater f or Texas,'( reported t hat f f . . . . . i n 1958,
r esi dent i al and i ndust r i al water users i n t he 10 l ar gest c i t i e s of Texas paid
an average monthly pri ce of $104 and $72 per acre-foot respectively f or t reat ed
water." Indust ri al i nt er es t s along t he G u l f Coast have indicated t hat a r at e
of $16.30 per acre-foot of raw water would not necessarily be excessive. However,
few agri cul t ural water users can afford t o pay t hi s pri ce.
It i s qui t e possible t hat i n areas of water scarci t y t he demand f or water f or
domestic and i ndust r i al use would bec~me so great and t he cost of water so high
t hat i r r i gat i on would become uneconomic. On the other hand, t he need f or food
might become so great t hat water f or i r r i gat i on would have a higher economic
value than f or i ndust r i al use.
Case Histories
York Creek Watershed
In t he York Creek Watershed near San Marcos, Texas, two floodwater retarding
st ruct ures were evaluated f or i nci dent al ground-water recharge benefi t s in the
Edwards Underground Water Di st ri ct .
A study by t he Texas Bodrd of Water Engineers
(1956 and 1962) and t he U. S. Geological Survey i n t h i s ar ea i ndi cat ed t ha t
nat ur al recharge was taking 70 percent of t he runoff. The SCS study estimated
t ha t t he proper placement of t hese two floodwater r et ar di ng st r uct ur es would
recharge an addi t i onal 20 percent of t he runoff, or about 84.0 acre-feet t he
f i r s t year. By adj ust i ng f o r an average reduction of 10% due t o sediment
deposition over t he 50-year evaluation period, it was estimated t ha t t h e
average annual r a t e of recharge w i l l be 750 acre-feet . A value of $10 per
acre-foot was used, based upon i t s recovery nearby f o r home, l i vest ock, and
municipal use. Thi s gave an average annual ground-water recharge benef i t of
$7500 f or t hese two st r uct ur es.
Lower Runnine: Water Draw Watershed
I n t he Lower Running Water Draw Watershed i n t he Texas High Pl ai ns, det ai l ed
recharge i nvest i gat i ons were made by dr i l l i ng, sampling, and making well
permeameter t e s t s . Because of t he topography, geology, and low gradi ent of
t he water t abl e, it was estimated t ha t a l l of t he i nci dent al recharge from
t he ret ardi ng st r uct ur es would be recovered within t he watershed boundaries.
Test s and ot her st udi es i ndi cat ed t ha t t he present r a t e of 1,500 acre-feet
annual recharge w i l l be increased t o 2,900 acre-feet a f t e r t he i ns t a l l a t i on
of t he st r uct ur es. This addi t i onal 1,!+00 acre-feet of ground water was
evaluated a s supplemental i r r i ga t i on water f o r t he crops normally grown i n
t ha t area. The computations were based on t he following:
(1)
Average crop production without i r r i ga t i on
(2)
i ncrease in production with i r r i ga t i on
( 3)
one and one-half acre-feet of water per acr e needed f o r i r r i ga t i on
( 4)
t he cost of pumping and applying i r r i ga t i on water.
Thi s gave a value of $12.65 per acre-foot of recharged water, and an average
annual benef i t of $17,710 t o t he pr oj ect f o r i nci dent al ground-water recharge.
Recharge Under P. L. 46
Guidance should be provided by SCS geol ogi st s, engineers, and hydrol ogi st s t o
help d i s t r i c t cooperators plan e f f i c i e nt recharge measures and t o discourage
them from wasting time and money on st r uct ur es t ha t ar e not f easi bl e. For
example, an i r r i ga t i on d i s t r i c t in southwestern Oklahoma received t echni cal
assi st ance from t he SCS i n planning ground-water recharge. I n t h i s area,
underlain by cavernous gypsum, t he urgent need f or ground water f or i r r i ga t i on
has prompted t he landowners t o i n s t a l l measures f o r recharging excess runoff.
Some impoundments and several f i e l d di versi ons were constructed with SCS
t echni cal assi st ance. The st r uct ur es were so l ocat ed t ha t they discharge i nt o
nat ur al openings o r sinkholes. Some of t he openings have been enlarged t o
recharge l ar ger volumes of water and one i r r i gat i on well has been converted
i nt o a recharge wel l . This system has helped a l l e vi a t e a l oc a l water problem
a t a reasonable cost .
Selected References
Babcock, H. M., and Cushing, E. Me, 1942. Recharge to ground water from
floods in a typical desert wash, Pinal County, Arizona. A.G.U. Trans.,
vol. 23, Pt. 1, pp 49-56.
Bennison, E. W., 1947. Ground Water. Edward E. Johnson, Inc., St. Paul,
Minn. 509 p.
Broadhurst, W. L., 1962. Decline of the Water Table 1938-1962, High Plains
Underground Water Conservation District, Lubbock, Texas, May 1962.
Busby, C. E., 1954. Water Rights and Our Expanding Economy. Jour. of
Soil and Water Conservation, March, May, and July 1954.
Butler, R. G., Orlob, G. T., and McGauhey, P. H., 1954. Underground
Movement of Bacterial and Chemical Pollutants. Am. Water Works Assoc.
Jou~., vole 46, NO. 2, pp 97-111.
California Dept. of Public Works, 1950. Sea-Water Intrusion Into Ground-
Water Basins Bordering the California Coast and Inland Bays. Div. of Water
Resources, Water Pollution Investigation Report 1, Sacramento, Calif.
Cawley, W. A. and W. C. Rutledge, 1966. Application of Radioactive Tracer
Techniques to Stream Improvements. Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Ehgrs., vol. 92,
No. SA-1. Ann Arbor, Mich.
Cedergren, H. R., 1967. Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets. John Wiley
& Sons Inc., New York.
Clyma, Wayne, 1964. Artificial Groundwater Recharge by a Multiple-purpose
Well. Texas A & M Univ . , May 1964.
Congressional Record, 88th Congress, Second Session. Vol. 110, No. 183.
Sept. 23, 1964. pp 21951-21954. Address by Elmer T. Peterson: "The
Wave of the Future Goes Underground.ff
Cronin, J. G., 1961. A Summary of the Occurrence and Development of
Ground Water in the Southern High Plains of Texas, Texas Board of Water
Engineers, Bulletin 6107, September 1961.
Davis, Stanley N., and Dewiest, Roget J. M., 1966 - Hydrogeology;
John Wiley & Sons.
Feely, Herbert W., Alan Walton, and C. R. Barnett, 1963. Radioisotope
Uses in the Treatment and Distribution of Water Supplies. Jour. Amer.
Water Works Assoc., vol. 55, fro. 2, Feb. 1963.
Ferris, J. G., 1949. Groundwater. In Wisler, C. O., and E. F. Brater,
Hydrology, John Wiley & Sons, New York. pp 198-272.
Ferri s, J. G. , D. B. Knowles, R. H. Brown andR. W. Stallman. 1962.
Theory of Aquifer Tests. USGS, WSP 1536-E.
Hughes, W. F., Water f or Texas. Proc. Sixth Annual Conference, A & M College
of Texas.
Hutchins, W. A. , 1954. Establishment of Water Rights from Ground-Water Resources.
Presented a t Irri gat i on and Drainage Division Conference, Am. Soc. Ci vi l f i g. ,
Sal t Lake City, Utah.
Johnson, Edward E. Inc. Ground Water and Wells. Edward E. Johnson, Inc. ,
St . Paul, Minn., 55104.
Laverty, F. B., 1954. Water-spreading Operations in the San Gabriel Valley.
Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., vol 46, No. 2, pp 112-122.
Laverty, F. B., Jordan, L. W. , and van der Goot, H. A, , 1951. Report on Tests
f or t he Creating of Fresh Water Barri ers t o Prevent Sal i ni t y Intrusion Performed
in West Coast Basin, Los Angeles County Flood Control Di st r i ct , Los Angeles,
Cal i f.
Meinzer, 0. E., 1923. The Occurrence of Ground Water in t he United St at es.
U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 489.
Meinzer, 0. E., 1942. (Editor), Physics of t he Earth - I X. Hydrology.
McGraw-Hill. 712 pp.
Meinzer, 0. E., 194.6. General Pri nci pl es of Ar t i f i ci al Ground Water Recharge.
Econ. Geol., vol. a, No. 3, pp 191-201.
Meinzer, 0. E., 1948. Ground Water in t he United St at es, A Summary. USGS,
W. S. P. 836-D.
Moulder, E. A. , and Frazer, D. R. , 1957. Ar t i f i ci al Recharge Experiments a t
McDonald Well Field, Amarillo, Texas. Texas Board of Water Engineers
cooperating with the USGS, Bull. 5701.
Muckel, D. C. , 1959. Replenishment of Ground Water Supplies by Ar t i f i ci al Means.
Technical Bulletin 1195, USDA, Agricultural Research Service. Feb. 1959. 51 p.
Nace, R. L. 1958.
Water Manageaaent, Agriculture, and Ground Water Supplies.
U. S. Geological Survey Circular 415, Washington, D. C.
Schiff , Leonard ( ~ d i t o r ) , 1962. Proc . 1961 Biennial Conference on Ground Water
Recharge. Ground Water Recharge Laboratory, Soi l and Water Conservation
Research Division, Fresno, Calif.
Sniegocki, R. T. , 1963. Problems i n Ar t i f i ci al Recharge Through Wells in t he
Grand Pr ai r i e Region, Arkansas. USGS Water-Supply Paper 1615-F. 25 p.
Sniegocki, R. T. , Bayley, Ehgler, and Stephens, 1965. Testing Procedures
and Results of Studies of Ar t i f i ci al Recharge i n the Grand Pr ai r i e Region,
Arkansas. USGS Water-Supply Paper 1615-G. 56 p.
Stone, R. , Gotaas, H. B., and Bacon, V. W. , l952b. Economic and technical
st at us of water reclaimed from sewage and i ndust r i al wastes. Am. Water
Works Assoc. Jour., vol. 4.4, No. 6, pp 503-517.
Texas Board of Water Ehgineers, 1962. Recharge, Discharge, and Changes
in Ground Water Storage i n t he Edwards and Associated Limestones. A
Progress Report on Studies, 1955-59. Bulletin 6201.
Thomas, H. E., 1952. Ground-water Regions of t he United St at es --- Their
Storage Faci l i t i es: U. S. 83rd Cong., House I nt er i or and Insul ar Affai rs
Comm., The physical and economic foundation of nat ural resources., V.3, 78 p.
Thomas, H. E., 1957. Factors Influencing t he Establishment of a National
Water Policy. Jour. of Soi l and Water Conservation, vol. 12, No. 6.
Todd, David K. , 1957. Ar t i f i ci al Recharge t o Ground Water -- An Annotated
Bibliography Through 1954. Open-file report, USGS, Ground Water Branch,
Sacramento, California.
Todd, D. K. , 1959. Ground Water Hydrology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Tolman, C. F., 1937. Ground Water. McGraw-Hill, New York. 593 p.
University of California, Sanitary Engineering Resources Proj., 1953a.
Annual recharge i nt o underground formations. Standard Service Agreement
No. 12 C-4, Richmond, California.
U. S. Army Corps of Ehgineers, 1964. Survey Report on Edwards Underground
Reservoir, Texas. U. S. Army Ehgineer Di st ri ct , Ft . Worth, and t he Edwards
Underground Water Di st ri ct , San Antonio. 3 Vols. Dec. 1964.
USGS Water-Supply Paper 15&-H, 1963. Methods of Collecting and Int erpret i ng
Ground Water Data. Compiled by Ray Bentall. 97 p.
U. S. Weather Bureau, 1959. Evaporation Maps f or t he United St at es.
Technical Paper 37, Washington, D. C.
Valliant, J. C. , 1962. Ar t i f i ci al Recharge of Surface Water t o t he Ogallala
Formation i n the High Pl ai ns of Texas. High Pl ai ns Research Foundation,
September 1962. Halfway, Texas.
Wenzel, L. K. , 194.2. Methods of Determining Permeability of Water Bearing
Materials. USGS Water-Supply Paper 887.
Ziegler, W. L. 1958. Water Use Under Common Law Doctrines, Water Resources
and The Law, Univ. of Michigan Law School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp 73-78,