Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487

www.elsevier.com/locate/jcsr
Review article
Cold-formed steel structures
G.J. Hancock

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney 2006, New South Wales, Australia
Received 27 February 2002; received in revised form 11 March 2002; accepted 17 October 2002
Abstract
Cold-formed steel structures are steel structural products that are made by bending at sheets
of steel at ambient temperature into shapes which will support more than the at sheets them-
selves. They have been produced for more than a century since the rst at sheets of steel
were produced by the steel mills. However, in recent years, higher strength materials and a
wider range of structural applications have caused a signicant growth in cold-formed steel
relative to the traditional heavier hot-rolled steel structural members.
This paper contains three components. First, it reviews and summarises the major research
developments in cold-formed steel structures over the last 3 years (19992001) as published
in leading journals on steel structures and thin-walled structures. Secondly, it summarises the
development of the North American Specication for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Struc-
tural Members. Finally, it provides a brief summary of the Direct Strength Method being
developed by the American Iron and Steel Institute Specication Committee.
2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
2. Review of published papers during 19992001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
2.1. Compression members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
2.2. Distortional and element buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
2.3. Corrugated and curved panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
2.4. Flexural members and purlins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
2.5. Torsion and distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

Tel.: +612-9351-2144; fax: +612-9351-3343.

E-mail address: g.hancock@civil.usyd.edu.au (G.J. Hancock).
0143-974X/03/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0143-974X(02)00103-7
474 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
2.6. Web crippling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
2.7. Connections and fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
2.8. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
2.9. Composite and plasterboard construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
2.10. Storage racks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
2.11. Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
3. International conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
4. North American Specication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
5. Direct strength method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
7. Introduction to references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
1. Introduction
A series of three useful review papers has been produced in recent years to provide
the latest information on developments in, and the design of, cold-formed steel struc-
tural members and sections. The rst of these [1] concentrates on developments in
the design of light gauge cold-formed steel structural members in 1996 particularly
the publication of the 1996 edition of the American Iron and Steel Institute Speci-
cation [2], publication of the CEN document Eurocode 3, Part 1.3 for cold-formed
thin gauge members and sheeting [3], and the publication of the Australian/New
Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4600:1996 for cold-formed steel structures [4]. Hancock
[1] also summarises research published in 1995 and 1996. A supplement [5] to the
AISI Specication [2] was published in 2000 to update the technical material. The
second and third reviews were presented at the Sixth International Colloquium on
Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures held in Timisoara, Romania in September
1999. They were republished in the Journal of Constructional Steel Research in 2000
[6,7]. The general report by Rondal [6] deals with stability problems of cold-formed
members, and joints between cold-formed members and updates the reference list
in Ref. [1]. The paper by Davies [7] includes developments in cold-formed section
technology, developments in applications, developments in design procedures for
cold-formed sections, the application of generalised beam theory (GBT) to buckling
problems, current design models and their deciencies, and design using whole-
section models. The rst and main objective of this review paper is to provide an
updated review of references on cold-formed steel research as published in leading
journals in 19992001.
The second objective of this paper is to describe the developments in the North
American Specication (NAS) for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Mem-
bers [8]. The third objective is to introduce the Direct Strength Method (DSM) under
development for cold-formed steel structural member design.
475 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
2. Review of published papers during 19992001
The review includes 50 papers published in the Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, Thin-Walled Structures and the Journal of Structural Engineering, Amer-
ican Society of Civil Engineers on cold-formed steel research and design. They have
been grouped into the major areas of:
1. Compression members
2. Distortional and element buckling
3. Corrugated and curved panels
4. Flexural members and purlins
5. Torsion and distortion
6. Web crippling
7. Connections and fasteners
8. Mechanical properties
9. Composite and plasterboard construction
10.Storage racks
11.Optimisation
2.1. Compression members
The research on cold-formed compression members has concentrated on three
areas. These are channel (singly symmetric) sections, angle sections and perforated
sections. The major work on cold-formed channel section columns has been perfor-
med by Young and Rasmussen [911]. They have focussed on the behaviour of cold-
formed plain and lipped channel columns. The different effects of local buckling on
the behaviour of xed-ended and pin-ended channels were investigated [9] including
the shift of the effective centroid [10] and theoretical bifurcation models [11]. The
effects of local buckling on channel column strength are accurately quantied in
these papers for both lipped and unlipped channels.
Axial compression tests on cold-formed angles have been performed by Popovic
et al. [12,13]. The rst paper [12] investigates both xed-ended and pin-ended col-
umns with the pin-ended columns free to buckle about the minor principal axis. The
effect of loading eccentricity is studied in detail for these cold-formed angles with
a nominal yield stress of 450 MPa. Recommendations on load eccentricity to be
used for design are given in the paper. The second paper [13] studies slender section
angles with eccentric loads which caused bending parallel with a leg as is common
in practical applications. Both papers compare the results with American and Aus-
tralian steel design standards and make recommendations for improved design. The
results of Popovic et al. [12] have been incorporated into the new North American
Design Specication [8] so that nonslender section cold-formed angles no longer
need to be designed with an eccentricity of L/1000.
Perforated sections commonly occur in storage rack structures. Pu et al. [14] have
investigated the effects of rectangular holes on lipped channels. They show that the
position of the holes relative to the effective area is important and provide an accurate
476 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
design method. Dhanalakshmi and Shanmugam [15] studied cold-formed equal angle
steel stub columns with openings. Experimental and nite element studies have been
used to develop a simple design model for ultimate capacity. The openings studied
were basically rectangular with circular ends.
2.2. Distortional and element buckling
The three basic modes of buckling of compression members are shown in Fig. 1.
As dened in the Australian/New Zealand Standard [4], local buckling is a mode
involving plate exure alone without transverse deformation of the line or lines of
intersection of adjoining plates, distortional buckling is a mode of buckling involving
change in cross-sectional shape excluding local buckling, and exural-torsional
(sometimes called torsional-exural) is a mode in which compression members can
bend and twist simultaneously without change of cross-sectional shape. There seems
to be common acceptance of these denitions worldwide but one recent paper [16]
has called the distortional mode lip buckling. This latter term may be confusing
because it does not distinguish between localised lip buckling and lip buckling by
transverse bending as in the distortional mode.
Three recent papers have provided more useful data on the distortional buckling
mode where the edge stiffened element fails by transverse bending of the stiffener.
In a recent text by the author of this review [17], this has been called ange-distor-
tional to distinguish it from the lateral-distortional mode that can occur in exure
as shown in Fig. 2. The rst paper by Badawy Abu-Sena et al. [16] provides an
interesting study where the torsional-exural mode interacts with the lip buckling
(ange-distortional) mode for lip-stiffened compression members. Useful formulae
based on an energy method are provided for design and compared with nite element
analyses to test their accuracy.
The second paper by Kesti and Davies [18] investigates local and distortional
Fig. 1. Buckling modes of lipped channel in compression [60].
477 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
Fig. 2. Buckling modes of lipped channel in bending [60].
buckling of thin-walled short columns. An investigation of the design method in
Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 [3] for lip-stiffened channels versus design based on distortional
buckling and GBT has been performed to show that the latter provides a better
estimate of strength than EC3. The third paper by Schafer and Pekoz [19] investigates
laterally braced cold-formed steel exural members with edge stiffened anges with
similar buckling modes to those shown in Fig. 2. New procedures for hand prediction
of the buckling stress in the local and distortional modes are presented and veried.
Comparisons with tests show that the methods are more reliable than the existing
methods in the design standards and specications [2,4].
2.3. Corrugated and curved panels
Cold-forming of steel allows for a wide variety of shapes and procedures. Corru-
gated panels have been used for over a century but recently corrugated curved panels
have been developed and are widely used in metal arch type buildings such as farm
buildings. They serve as both the building envelope and structural system providing
economic designs. These corrugated and curved panels often contain transverse cor-
rugations which serve to bend the thin-walled steel sheet into a curved shape and
act as a stiffener at the same time. However, it is difcult to assess the strength of
these corrugated and curved panels. A recent paper by Xu et al. [20] provides and
veries test methods for assessing the strength of panels of this type.
Corrugated panels in compression may undergo interaction between overall and
local buckling modes. Pignataro et al. [21] have developed a general theory of elastic
stability using the nite strip method to investigate the effect of the interaction
between modes on the post-buckling behaviour of compressed corrugated sheets. An
extensive parametric study is included.
478 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
2.4. Flexural members and purlins
Channel and Zee (Zed) sections are the most common members used as exural
members in cold-formed design. Most commonly, they are used as purlins and girts
in roof and wall systems with sheeting attached and so the effect of the sheeting
preventing torsion and lateral-torsional buckling needs to be quantied. Considerable
research has been performed in this area over many years with the most recent paper
by Laine and Tuomala [22]. They study Z, Zeta, C and Hat shaped sections to
determine experimentally the inuence of internal supports and sheeting on the top
ange for purlins under gravity load.
Very little research has been performed until recently on laterally unbraced C-
and Z-sections to determine their lateral buckling capacity. A series of papers by
Put et al. [2326] investigate the lateral buckling and biaxial bending behaviour of
both C- and Z-sections. The studies are both experimental and theoretical and provide
detailed comparisons with the Australian steel structures standards for hot-rolled
(AS4100) and cold-formed (AS/NZS4600) design. Recommendations regarding
improved design strength curves for lateral buckling are given. A pilot study of
laterally braced C-sections as used in wall studs was performed by Beshara and
LaBoube [27]. The effect of a lateral brace at mid length to restrain the C-section
from rotation was investigated experimentally.
The hollow ange beam (HFB) is a unique cold-formed section developed in
Australia for use mainly as a exural member. A typical section is shown in Fig. 3
as HBS1 where the anges are fully welded to each form tubular sections. The
section HBS2 in Fig. 3 has the anges unwelded and is not a proper HFB. It is an
open section and is much weaker. Fig. 3 shows typical buckling modes versus buckle
half-wavelengths and includes the lateral-distortional mode where the web bends
transversely in the lateral mode with the anges remaining mainly untwisted. A
Fig. 3. Buckling modes of HFBs [60].
479 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
recent paper by Avery et al. [28] investigates the lateral-distortional buckling mode
of HFBs in detail using an ABAQUS nite element analysis. The model includes
all signicant effects that may inuence the ultimate capacity including material
inelasticity, local buckling, member instability, web distortion, residual stresses and
geometric imperfections.
2.5. Torsion and distortion
Cold-formed open section steel members are more likely to undergo torsional
deformation due to their low torsional rigidity resulting from their thin walls. Further,
the sections are often loaded eccentrically from their shear centres and so are subject
to substantial torques as shown in Fig. 4(a). Four recent papers provide valuable
information on the torsional and distortional behaviour of thin-walled and cold-for-
med sections.
Gotluru et al. [29] have performed simple geometric nonlinear analyses, nite
element analyses and nite strip analyses and compared their results with simple
experiments. The inuence of typical support conditions is studied and found to
produce partial warping restraints. This effect is accounted for by introducing hypo-
thetical springs. Put et al. [30] have investigated bending and torsion of cold-formed
channel beams. The effect of loading eccentricity is investigated in detail and simple
interaction equations have been developed for design.
Jonsson[31,32] has developed a distortional theory of thin-walled beams by
extending the conventional torsional theory to include a distortional warping func-
tion. The extended theory works for open sections as shown in Fig. 4(b), closed
sections and sections with open and closed parts.
Fig. 4. Torsional and distortional deformations of channel sections.
480 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
2.6. Web crippling
Web crippling often occurs in cold-formed members because they have loading
eccentric from the web centreline due to the rounded corners of the sections, and
because the webs are often slender and unstiffened unlike hot-rolled design where
web stiffeners are often used. A recent paper by Young and Hancock [33] provides
experimental data on cold-formed unlipped channels subject to web crippling. The
web slenderness of the channels was lower than used in the calibration of the design
standards [24] and the results showed these standards to be quite unconservative
for stockier webs. The results have been used as part of the calibration of the new
web crippling rules in the NAS [8] to remove the current unconservatism.
Webs may often contain openings especially if they are part of residential con-
struction as oor joist or studs. A recent experimental investigation of the effect of
circular holes on web strength by LaBoube et al. [34] has developed new design
rules which have been incorporated in the NAS [8].
2.7. Connections and fasteners
Methods for connecting cold-formed members are often quite different from those
of hot-rolled members. Where welding and bolting are common for hot-rolled mem-
bers, such connection types as screws, clinching and rivetting may be used for cold-
formed members. Also even for bolted connections, the structural behaviour of cold-
formed connections is often quite different from hot-rolled members due to the thin
sheets and higher strength steels used. Research on cold-formed connections and
fasteners has concentrated in three areas.
In a series of papers, Rogers and Hancock [3538] have investigated shear connec-
tions in G550 sheet steel. G550 sheet steel is a cold-reduced steel with low ductility
and its application is restricted in Refs. [2,4]. In the case of these references, the
yield stress and tensile strength of the G550 steel are limited to 75% of their nominal
values for design. Further, in the case of [2], applications are limited to roong,
siding and oor decking. The recent supplement to the 1996 AISI Specication [5]
has permitted the 75% rule to be liberalised depending on the width thickness ratio
of the element under consideration such that stockier elements may use the full yield
and tensile strengths. The work of Rogers and Hancock investigated G550 steel less
than 0.9 mm thick in order to improve the design rules mainly for bolted and screwed
connections. Rogers and Hancock [35] give new design rules for bolted connections
less than 1.0 mm thick and applies for mild steel (G300) as well as G550 steel. The
rules propose a change in the bearing coefcients where a gradated bearing coef-
cient applies for thin sheet steels. This proposal has recently been adopted in the
NAS [8]. A detailed discussion of failure modes of bolted-sheet-steel connections
loaded in shear is given in Ref. [36]. In this paper, it is demonstrated that the failure
modes of bolted connections exhibiting tearing of the sheet steel may belong to the
bearing mode of failure. Screwed connections are investigated in a similar way in
Ref. [37], where proposals for screwed connections which fail in the combined
tilting/bearing mode are given. Detailed investigation of the fracture toughness of
481 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
G550 steel is reported in Ref. [38] including an investigation of the possibility of
unstable fracture for bolted connections.
Matteis and Landolfo [39] investigate mechanical fasteners for cladding sandwich
panels. The connection response in shear under both monotonic and cyclic loading
is described. The paper concentrates on a single connection mainly under cyclic load
and an analytical procedure is described which is compared with available experi-
mental data. Makelainen and Kesti [40] describe a new type of joint for steel sheet
joining. The joint is called a Rosette in which a collar is pressed by a special tool
around the perimeter of a hole which forms the nal connection. A series of shear
tests on this new joint type are described in the paper. The Rosette joint is particularly
useful for connections in roof trusses where a single connection is made at a web
to chord connection as given in Ref. [41].
2.8. Mechanical properties
Strain rate and ageing can both have signicant effects on cold-formed members.
Pan et al. [42] and Pan and Yu [43] have recently described tests to investigate the
inuence of strain rate on mechanical properties of sheet steels. The steels ranged
in yield stress from 172 to 690 MPa with ageing and pre-straining included in the
investigations. Pan et al. used tensile coupons whereas Pan and Yu investigated
exural behaviour by testing beams. The amount of strength increase with strain rate
was found to depend upon the material yield strength, type of steel, stressstrain
relationships, width to thickness ratios and type of compression element. By compari-
son, the amount of strength increase with strain rate was not found to depend upon
the test direction, (transverse or longitudinal) and strain ageing.
2.9. Composite and plasterboard construction
Cold-formed steel structural members can become even more effective when used
in conjunction with other materials. Two common ways to do this are to use the
cold-formed sections as composite beams in concrete slab systems, and lined with
gypsum plasterboard as wall studs in residential construction.
A paper by Hanaor [44] provides tests of composite beams with cold-formed sec-
tions. The main problem in implementation of the designs is ensuring adequate shear
transfer between the concrete slab and the cold-formed section. Push-out connections
between the concrete slab and the cold-formed section, and complete beams were
tested to determine the characteristics of the connections and their effects on the
beams. The tests indicate that design of shear connectors can in most cases be con-
servatively based on codes of practice for the design of cold-formed connections.
Full-scale tests indicate high ductility and capacity which exceeds design assump-
tions.
Three papers by different groups of authors have described investigations on the
inuence of gypsum plasterboard on the behaviour of steel wall frames and studs
used for residential construction. Gad et al. [45] investigated the contribution of
plasterboard to the lateral resistance of cold-formed steel-framed residential struc-
482 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
tures. Finite element models are developed and compared with lateral load tests on
full-scale house frames. It is concluded that a wall with corner returns, ceiling cor-
nices and skirting boards has more than three times the lateral capacity of an identical
isolated wall panel. Telue and Mahendran [46] concentrated on the strengthening
effect of plasterboard on the axial load carrying capacity of wall frames and studs.
Tests were conducted on lined one side, lined both sides and unlined walls. Compari-
sons with Australian and American standards are provided. Recommendations on
effective lengths for use in design are given. Lee and Miller [47] also investigated
the axial strength of C-section wall studs with gypsum sheathing/sheeting attached
to both anges with screws at regular intervals. The strength is found to be inde-
pendent of stud spacing, reecting the localised nature of the wallboard deformations,
rather then the shear diaphragm behaviour assumed in the AISI Specication.
2.10. Storage racks
Steel storage racks are one of the major applications of cold-formed steel. One
of the most important factors in storage rack design is the down-aisle strength and
stability. This stability is signicantly affected by the beam to column joints since
the structures are usually unbraced in the down-aisle direction to allow for loading
and unloading of pallets. Two recent papers provide valuable information on the
sway and seismic behaviour of racks. Baldassino and Bernuzzi [48] provide a
numerical study of the inuence of beam to column modelling on the down-aisle
stability of storage racks. Second-order effects, frame imperfections, and the inu-
ence of base plate joints are studied in detail. A frame model with semi-rigid joints
is suggested for a more rened and optimal design. Bernuzzi and Castiglioni [49]
describe investigations of the cyclic behaviour of beam-to-column joints in steel
storage pallet racks. Seismic design of storage racks requires a thorough understand-
ing of this behaviour and the paper provides detailed experimental results. The joints
have been shown to have adequate ductility although they exhibit much more exible
characteristics than joints in traditional steel components in steel building frames.
2.11. Optimisation
Use of computational neural networks models for optimisation of cold-formed
sections has been reported by two separate groups of authors. Karim and Adeli [50]
have applied the methodology to optimisation of cold-formed steel hat-shaped beams
using the 1989 edition of the AISI Specication. By comparison, El-Kassas et al.
[51] have used the methodology for optimising thin-walled cold-formed unlipped
and lipped channel and hat sections. The optimisation was performed to the latest
edition of the British Standard BS5950 Part 5 [52]. The paper provides very useful
information on the use of neural networks for problems of this type.
483 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
3. International conferences
Three international conferences which include papers on cold-formed steel have
been held in the period 19992001. They are:
1. Fourth International Conference on Steel and Aluminium Structures, Espoo, Fin-
land, 20-23 June 1999 [53];
2. 15th International Specialty Conference, Recent Research and Design Develop-
ments in Cold-Formed Steel Design and Construction, St Louis, Missouri, October
19 and 20, 2000 [54];
3. Third International Conference on Thin-Walled Structures, Cracow, Poland, 57
June, 2001 [55].
These conferences are not reviewed in detail here but include many papers on new
developments in cold-formed steel.
4. North American Specication
The NAS for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members [8] has
recently been published. The specication supercedes the previous editions of the
Specication for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members [2,5] pub-
lished by the American Iron and Steel Institute, and the S136-94 Standard for Cold-
Formed Steel Structural Members published by the Canadian Standards Association
[56]. It is intended for use in the USA, Canada and Mexico in a similar way that
Eurocode 3 is to be used in the European Community.
Two features of the specication are signicant. The rst is the use of an integrated
treatment of Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) and Allowable Stress
Design (ASD) as commonly used in the USA, and the use of Limit States Design
(LSD) as commonly used in Canada. This is accomplished by including the appropri-
ate resistance factors for use with LRFD and LSD, and the appropriate factors of
safety for use with ASD. The second is the use of three different systems of units
principally by the use of nondimensional equations throughout. The units are US
Customary units for the USA, SI units for Canada, and MKS units for Mexico.
A major achievement of the specication is the bringing together of research
throughout the world, particularly the USA, Canada and some from Australia to
make the specication as up-to-date as is technically possible.
Areas where signicant revisions have occurred to the design rules from Ref. [2]
include as follows.
1. The use of rational engineering analysis based on appropriate theory when design
rules are not available. Reduced resistance factors and increased factors of safety
are required at this stage.
2. A design method for webs and other stiffened elements under stress gradient based
on a combination of the AISI [2] and Canadian [56] design rules.
484 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
3. Effective widths of stiffened elements with multiple intermediate stiffeners or
edge stiffened elements with intermediate stiffeners. These rules are based on
local and distortional buckling provisions.
4. New web crippling rules based on a single equation calibrated against a very large
data base.
5. Strength for shear and web crippling of webs with holes.
6. Variable bearing coefcient for bolted connections based on the diameter to thick-
ness ratio of the bolted connection.
7. Strength of bolted connections in shear with consideration of bolt hole deformatio-
n.
8. Design of cold-formed steel structural members and connections for cyclic load-
ing (fatigue).
9. Block shear rupture
5. Direct strength method
The design methods used in the design standards and specications [24] to date
to account for local and distortional buckling of thin-walled members in compression
and bending are based on the effective width concept for stiffened and unstiffened
elements. The effective width method is an elemental method since it looks at the
elements forming a cross-section in isolation. It was originally proposed by Von
Karman and calibrated for cold-formed members by Winter. It was initially intended
to account for local buckling but has been extended to distortional buckling of stiff-
ened elements with an intermediate stiffener in Section B4.1 and edge stiffened
elements in Section B4.2 of the AISI Specication. It accounts for post-buckling by
using a reduced (effective) plate width at the design stress.
As sections become more complex with additional edge and intermediate stiff-
eners, the computation of the effective widths becomes more complex. Interaction
between the elements also occurs so that consideration of the elements in isolation
is less accurate. To overcome these problems, a new method has been developed by
Schafer and Pekoz [57] called the Direct Strength Method. It uses elastic buckling
solutions for the entire cross-section rather than the individual elements, and strength
curves for the entire member.
The method had its genesis in the design method for distortional buckling of thin-
walled sections developed by Hancock et al. [58]. This method was incorporated in
the Australian/New Zealand Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Structures [4] and has
been used successfully to predict the distortional buckling strength of both exural
and compression members since 1996. However, the DSM goes one step further and
assumes that local buckling behaviour can also be predicted using the elastic local
buckling stress of the whole section with an appropriate strength design curve for
local instability. The method has the advantage that calculations for complex sections
are very simple, as demonstrated in the examples in Ref. [17], provided elastic buck-
ling solutions are available.
A recent paper by Rusch and Lindner [59] provides remarks on the DSM. The
485 G.J. Hancock / Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59 (2003) 473487
paper queries the applicability of the method to sections where a shift of the effective
centroid may lead to an overestimation of the ultimate load and suggests that further
investigation is required in this case before the method is generally applicable.
6. Conclusions
Signicant developments continue to take place in the design of cold-formed steel
structural members and connections. This is to be expected since the growth in the
use of cold-formed steel has signicantly outstripped that for hot-rolled steel struc-
tural members, particularly with the increased use in residential construction through-
out the world. This review paper has concentrated on those developments, which
have appeared in the leading journals in the area. Of particular note is the develop-
ment of the North American specication for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Struc-
tural Members, which has included much of this latest research for use by designers.
The development of the Direct Strength Method is an interesting project which may
eventually lead to simplied design of cold-formed steel structural members.
7. Introduction to references
Refs. [1,6,7] provide comprehensive reviews since 1995 and give a useful lead to
this paper.
The new NAS for the Design of Cold-formed Steel Structural Members [8] is the
latest development for North America and has incorporated within it much of the
research in recent years.
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