Powder metallurgy is the process of blending fine powdered materials, pressing them into a desired

shape or form (compacting), and then heating the compressed material in a controlled atmosphere to
bond the material (sintering). The powder metallurgy process generally consists of four basic steps:
powder manufacture, powder blending, compacting, and sintering. Compacting is generally performed at
room temperature, and the elevated-temperature process of sintering is usually conducted at atmospheric
pressure. Optional secondary processing often follows to obtain special properties or enhanced
precision.
[1]
The use of powder metal technology, bypasses the need manufacture the resulting products
by metal removal processes thereby reducing costs.
Two main techniques used to form and consolidate the powder are sintering and metal injection molding.
Recent developments have made it possible to use rapid manufacturing techniques which use metal
powder for the products. Because with this technique the powder is melted and not sintered, better
mechanical strength can be accomplished.

History and capabilities[edit]
The history of powder metallurgy (P/M) and the art of metals and ceramics sintering are intimately related
to each other. Sintering involves the production of a hard solid metal or ceramic piece from a starting
powder. "While a crude form of iron powder metallurgy existed in Egypt as early as 3000 B.C, and the
ancient Incas made jewelry and other artifacts from precious metal powders, mass manufacturing of P/M
products did not begin until the mid-or late- 19th century".
[2]
In these early manufacturing operations, iron
was extracted by hand from metal sponge following reduction and was then reintroduced as a powder for
final melting or sintering.
A much wider range of products can be obtained from powder processes than from direct alloying of
fused materials. In melting operations the "phase rule" applies to all pure and combined elements and
strictly dictates the distribution of liquid and solid phases which can exist for specific compositions. In
addition, whole body melting of starting materials is required for alloying, thus imposing unwelcome
chemical, thermal, and containment constraints on manufacturing. Unfortunately, the handling of
aluminium/iron powders poses major problems.
[3]
Other substances that are especially reactive with
atmospheric oxygen, such as tin, are sinterable in special atmospheres or with temporary coatings.
[4]

In powder metallurgy or ceramics it is possible to fabricate components which otherwise would
decompose or disintegrate. All considerations of solid-liquid phase changes can be ignored, so powder
processes are more flexible than casting, extrusion, or forging techniques. Controllable characteristics of
products prepared using various powder technologies include mechanical, magnetic,
[5]
and other
unconventional properties of such materials as porous solids, aggregates, and intermetallic compounds.
Competitive characteristics of manufacturing processing (e.g., tool wear, complexity, or vendor options)
also may be closely controlled.
Powder production techniques[edit]
Any fusible material can be atomized. Several techniques have been developed which permit large
production rates of powdered particles, often with considerable control over the size ranges of the final
grain population. Powders may be prepared by comminution, grinding, chemical reactions, or electrolytic
deposition.
Powders of the elements titanium, vanadium, thorium, niobium, tantalum, calcium, and uranium have
been produced by high-temperature reduction of the corresponding nitrides and carbides. Iron, nickel,
uranium, and beryllium submicrometre powders are obtained by reducing metallic oxalates and formates.
Exceedingly fine particles also have been prepared by directing a stream of molten metal through a high-
temperature plasma jet or flame, simultaneously atomizing and comminuting the material. Various
chemical and flame associated powdering processes are adopted in part to prevent serious degradation
of particle surfaces by atmospheric oxygen.
In tonnage terms, the production of iron powders for PM structural part production dwarfs the production
of all of the non-ferrous metal powders combined. Virtually all iron powders are produced by one of two
processes: The sponge Iron Process or Water Atomisation.
Sponge iron process[edit]
The longest established of these processes is the sponge iron process, the leading example of a family of
processes involving solid state reduction of an oxide. In the process, selected magnetite (Fe3O4) ore is
mixed with coke and lime and placed in a silicon carbide retort. The filled retort is then passed through a
long kiln, where the reduction process leaves an iron cake and a slag. In subsequent steps, the retort is
emptied, the reduced iron sponge is separated from the slag and is crushed and annealed.
The resultant powder is highly irregular in particle shape, therefore ensuring good green strength so that
die-pressed compacts can be readily handled prior to sintering, and each particle contains internal pores
(hence the term sponge) so that the good green strength is available at low compacted density levels.
Sponge iron provides the base feedstock for all iron-based, self-lubricating bearings and still accounts for
around 30% of iron powder usage in PM structural parts.
Atomization[edit]
Atomization is accomplished by forcing a molten metal stream through an orifice at moderate pressures.
A gas is introduced into the metal stream just before it leaves the nozzle, serving to create turbulence as
the entrained gas expands (due to heating) and exits into a large collection volume exterior to the orifice.
The collection volume is filled with gas to promote further turbulence of the molten metal jet. On Earth, air
and powder streams are segregated using gravity or cyclonic separation. Most atomised powders are
annealed, which helps reduce the oxide and carbon content. The water atomized particles are smaller,
cleaner, and nonporous and have a greater breadth of size, which allows better compacting.
Atomization are three types:
1.Liquid Atomization
2.Gas Atomization
3.Centrifugal Atomization
Simple atomization techniques are available in which liquid metal is forced through an orifice at a
sufficiently high velocity to ensure turbulent flow. The usual performance index used is theReynolds
number R = fvd/n, where f = fluid density, v = velocity of the exit stream, d = diameter of the opening, and
n = absolute viscosity. At low R the liquid jet oscillates, but at higher velocities the stream becomes
turbulent and breaks into droplets. Pumping energy is applied to droplet formation with very low efficiency
(on the order of 1%) and control over the size distribution of the metal particles produced is rather poor.
Other techniques such as nozzle vibration, nozzle asymmetry, multiple impinging streams, or molten-
metal injection into ambient gas are all available to increase atomization efficiency, produce finer grains,
and to narrow the particle size distribution. Unfortunately, it is difficult to eject metals through orifices
smaller than a few millimeters in diameter, which in practice limits the minimum size of powder grains to
approximately 10 m. Atomization also produces a wide spectrum of particle sizes, necessitating
downstream classification by screening and remelting a significant fraction of the grain boundary.
Centrifugal disintegration[edit]
Centrifugal disintegration of molten particles offers one way around these problems. Extensive
experience is available with iron, steel, and aluminium. Metal to be powdered is formed into a rod which is
introduced into a chamber through a rapidly rotating spindle. Opposite the spindle tip is an electrode from
which an arc is established which heats the metal rod. As the tip material fuses, the rapid rod rotation
throws off tiny melt droplets which solidify before hitting the chamber walls. A circulating gas sweeps
particles from the chamber. Similar techniques could be employed in space or on the Moon. The chamber
wall could be rotated to force new powders into remote collection vessels,
[6]
and the electrode could be
replaced by a solar mirror focused at the end of the rod.
An alternative approach capable of producing a very narrow distribution of grain sizes but with low
throughput consists of a rapidly spinning bowl heated to well above the melting point of the material to be
powdered. Liquid metal, introduced onto the surface of the basin near the center at flow rates adjusted to
permit a thin metal film to skim evenly up the walls and over the edge, breaks into droplets, each
approximately the thickness of the film.
[7]


This section
requires expansion. (March 2013)
Other techniques[edit]
Another powder-production technique involves a thin jet of liquid metal intersected by high-speed streams
of atomized water which break the jet into drops and cool the powder before it reaches the bottom of the
bin. In subsequent operations the powder is dried. This is called water atomisation. The advantage is that
metal solidifies faster than by gas atomization since the heat capacity of water is some magnitudes
higher, mainly a result of higher density. Since the solidification rate is inversely proportional to the
particle size smaller particles can be made using water atomisation. The smaller the particles, the more
homogeneous the micro structure will be. Notice that particles will have a more irregular shape and the
particle size distribution will be wider. In addition, some surface contamination can occur by oxidation skin
formation. Powder can be reduced by some kind of pre-consolidation treatment as annealing.used for
ceramic tool.
Powder compaction[edit]


Rhodium metal: powder, pressed pellet (3*10
5
psi), remelted
Powder compaction is the process of compacting metal powder in a die through the application of high
pressures. Typically the tools are held in the vertical orientation with the punch tool forming the bottom of
the cavity. The powder is then compacted into a shape and then ejected from the die cavity.
[8]
In a
number of these applications the parts may require very little additional work for their intended use;
making for very cost efficient manufacturing.
The density of the compacted powder is directly proportional to the amount of pressure applied. Typical
pressures range from 80 psi to 1000 psi, pressures from 1000 psi to 1,000,000 psi have been obtained.
Pressure of 10 tons/in to 50 tons/in are commonly used for metal powder compaction. To attain the
same compression ratio across a component with more than one level or height, it is necessary to work
with multiple lower punches. A cylindrical workpiece is made by single-level tooling. A more complex
shape can be made by the common multiple-level tooling.
Production rates of 15 to 30 parts per minutes are common.
There are four major classes of tool styles: single-action compaction, used for thin, flat components;
opposed double-action with two punch motions, which accommodates thicker components; double-action
with floating die; and double action withdrawal die. Double action classes give much better density
distribution than single action. Tooling must be designed so that it will withstand the extreme pressure
without deforming or bending. Tools must be made from materials that are polished and wear-resistant.
Better workpiece materials can be obtained by repressing and re-sintering. Here is a table of some of the
obtainable properties.
Typical workpiece materials
Workpiece material Density (grams/cc) Yield strength (psi) Tensile strength (psi) Hardness (HB)
Iron 5.2 to 7.0 5.1*10
3
to 2.3*10
4
7.3*10
3
to 2.9*10
4
40 to 70
Low alloy steel 6.3 to 7.4 1.5*10
4
to 2.9*10
4
2.00*10
4
to 4.4*10
4
60 to 100
Alloyed steel 6.8 to 7.4 2.6*10
4
to 8.4*10
4
2.9*10
4
to 9.4*10
4
60 and up
Stainless steel 6.3 to 7.6 3.6*10
4
to 7.3*10
4
4.4*10
4
to 8.7*10
4
60 and up
Bronze 5.5 to 7.5 1.1*10
4
to 2.9*10
4
1.5*10
4
to 4.4*10
4
50 to 70
Brass 7.0 to 7.9 1.1*10
4
to 2.9*10
4
1.6*10
4
to 3.5*10
4
60
Die Pressing[edit]


A powder compacting press
The dominant technology for the forming of products from powder materials, in terms of both tonnage
quantities and numbers of parts produced, is Die Pressing. This forming technology involves a production
cycle comprising:
1. Filling a die cavity with a known volume of the powder feedstock, delivered from a fill shoe
2. Compaction of the powder within the die with punches to form the compact. Generally,
compaction pressure is applied through punches from both ends of the toolset in order to reduce
the level of density gradient within the compact.
3. Ejection of the compact from the die, using the lower punch(es)
4. Removal of the compact from the upper face of the die using the fill shoe in the fill stage of the
next cycle.
This cycle offers a readily automated and high production rate process.
Design considerations[edit]

This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this
article to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (February 2010)
Must be able to remove part from die.
Maximum surface area below 20 square inches.
Minimum wall thickness of 0.08 in.
Sharp corners should be avoided.
Should avoid height to diameter ratios greater than 7:1.
Adjacent wall thickness ratios greater than 2.5 to 1 should be avoided.
One of the major advantages of this process is its ability to produce complex geometries. Parts with
undercuts and threads require a secondary machining operation. Typical part sizes range from 0.1 in to
20 in. in area and from 0.1 in. to 4 in. in length. However, it is possible to produce parts that are less than
0.1 in. and larger than 25 in. in area and from a fraction of an inch to approximately 8 in. in length.
Isostaticpressing[edit]
In some pressing operations, such as Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) compact formation and sintering occur
simultaneously. This procedure, together with explosion-driven compressive techniques, is used
extensively in the production of high-temperature and high-strength parts such as turbine blades for jet
engines. In most applications of powder metallurgy the compact is hot-pressed, heated to a temperature
above which the materials cannot remain work-hardened. Hot pressing lowers the pressures required to
reduce porosity and speeds welding and grain deformation processes. It also permits better dimensional
control of the product, lessens sensitivity to physical characteristics of starting materials, and allows
powder to be compressed to higher densities than with cold pressing, resulting in higher strength.
Negative aspects of hot pressing include shorter die life, slower throughput because of powder heating,
and the frequent necessity for protective atmospheres during forming and cooling stages.
Isostatic powder compacting[edit]
Isostatic powder compacting is a mass-conserving shaping process. Fine metal particles are placed into a
flexible mould and then high gas or fluid pressure is applied to the mould. The resulting article is then
sintered in a furnace which increases the strength of the part by bonding the metal particles. This
manufacturing process produces very little scrap metal and can be used to make many different shapes.
The tolerances that this process can achieve are very precise, ranging from +/- 0.008 inches (0.2 mm) for
axial dimensions and +/- 0.020 inches (0.5 mm) for radial dimensions. This is the most efficient type of
powder compacting.(The following subcategories are also from this reference.)
[8]
This operation is
generally applicable on small production quantities, as it is more costly to run due to its slow operating
speed and the need for expendable tooling.poda
[9]

Compacting pressures range from 15,000 psi (100,000 kPa) to 40,000 psi (280,000 kPa) for most metals
and approximately 2,000 psi (14,000 kPa) to 10,000 psi (69,000 kPa) for non-metals. The density of
isostatic compacted parts is 5% to 10% higher than with other powder metallurgy processes.
Equipment[edit]
There are many types of equipment used in Isostatic Powder Compacting. There is the mold, which is
flexible, a pressure mold that contains the mold, and the machine delivering the pressure. There are also
devices to control the amount of pressure and how long the pressure is held. The machines need to apply
pressures from 15,000 psi to 40,000 psi for metals.
Geometrical Possibilities[edit]
Typical workpiece sizes range from 0.25 in (6.35 mm) to 0.75 in (19.05 mm) thick and 0.5 in (12.70 mm)
to 10 in (254 mm) long. It is possible to compact workpieces that are between 0.0625 in (1.59 mm) and
5 in (127 mm) thick and 0.0625 in (1.59 mm) to 40 in (1,016 mm) long.
Tool style[edit]
Isostatic tools are available in three styles, free mold (wet-bag), coarse mold(damp-bag), and fixed mold
(dry-bag). The free mold style is the traditional style of isostatic compaction and is not generally used for
high production work. In free mold tooling the mold is removed and filled outside the canister. Damp bag
is where the mold is located in the canister, yet filled outside. In fixed mold tooling, the mold is contained
within the canister, which facilitates automation of the process.
Hot isostaticpressing[edit]
Main article: Hot isostatic pressing
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) compresses and sinters the part simultaneously by applying heat ranging
from 900F (480C) to 2250F (1230C). Argon gas is the most common gas used in HIP because it is an
inert gas, thus prevents chemical reactions during the operation.
Cold isostaticpressing[edit]
Cold isostatic pressing (CIP) uses fluid as a means of applying pressure to the mold at room temperature.
After removal the part still needs to be sintered. It is the process by which fluid medium especially liquid is
preferred as a working medium. It is helpful in distributing pressure uniformly over the compaction
material contained in a rubber bag.
Design Considerations[edit]
Advantages over standard powder compaction are the possibility of thinner walls and larger workpieces.
Height to diameter ratio has no limitation. No specific limitations exist in wall thickness
variations, undercuts, reliefs, threads, and cross holes. No lubricants are need for isostatic powder
compaction. The minimum wall thickness is 0.05 inches (1.27 mm) and the product can have a weight
between 40 and 300 pounds (18 and 136 kg). There is 25 to 45% shrinkage of the powder after
compacting.
Sintering[edit]

The following text needs to be harmonized with text in Sintering.
Main article: Sintering
Solid state sintering is the process of taking metal in the form of a powder and placing it into a mold or
die. Once compacted into the mold the material is placed under a high heat for a long period of time.
Under heat, bonding takes place between the porous aggregate particles and once cooled the powder
has bonded to form a solid piece.
Sintering can be considered to proceed in three stages. During the first, neck growth proceeds rapidly but
powder particles remain discrete. During the second, most densification occurs, the structure
recrystallizes and particles diffuse into each other. During the third, isolated pores tend to become
spheroidal and densification continues at a much lower rate. The words Solid State in Solid State
Sintering simply refer to the state the material is in when it bonds, solid meaning the material was not
turned molten to bond together as alloys are formed.
[10]

One recently developed technique for high-speed sintering involves passing high electrical current
through a powder to preferentially heat the asperities. Most of the energy serves to melt that portion of the
compact where migration is desirable for densification; comparatively little energy is absorbed by the bulk
materials and forming machinery. Naturally, this technique is not applicable to electrically insulating
powders.
To allow efficient stacking of product in the furnace during sintering and prevent parts sticking together,
many manufacturers separate ware using Ceramic Powder Separator Sheets. These sheets are available
in various materials such as alumina, zirconia and magnesia. They are also available in fine medium and
coarse particle sizes. By matching the material and particle size to the ware being sintered, surface
damage and contamination can be reduced while maximizing furnace loading.
Continuous powder processing[edit]
The phrase "continuous process" should be used only to describe modes of manufacturing which could
be extended indefinitely in time. Normally, however, the term refers to processes whose products are
much longer in one physical dimension than in the other two. Compression, rolling, and extrusion are the
most common examples.
In a simple compression process, powder flows from a bin onto a two-walled channel and is repeatedly
compressed vertically by a horizontally stationary punch. After stripping the compress from the conveyor
the compact is introduced into a sintering furnace. An even easier approach is to spray powder onto a
moving belt and sinter it without compression. Good methods for stripping cold-pressed materials from
moving belts are hard to find. One alternative that avoids the belt-stripping difficulty altogether is the
manufacture of metal sheets using opposed hydraulic rams, although weakness lines across the sheet
may arise during successive press operations.
Powders can also be rolled to produce sheets. The powdered metal is fed into a two-high rolling mill and
is compacted into strip at up to 100 feet per minute.
[11]
The strip is then sintered and subjected to another
rolling and sintering.
[12]
Rolling is commonly used to produce sheet metal for electrical and electronic
components as well as coins.
[11]
Considerable work also has been done on rolling multiple layers of
different materials simultaneously into sheets.
Extrusion processes are of two general types. In one type, the powder is mixed with a binder or plasticizer
at room temperature; in the other, the powder is extruded at elevated temperatures without fortification.
Extrusions with binders are used extensively in the preparation of tungsten-carbide composites. Tubes,
complex sections, and spiral drill shapes are manufactured in extended lengths and diameters varying
from 0.5300 mm. Hard metal wires of 0.1 mm diameter have been drawn from powder stock. At the
opposite extreme, large extrusions on a tonnage basis may be feasible.
There appears to be no limitation to the variety of metals and alloys that can be extruded, provided the
temperatures and pressures involved are within the capabilities of die materials. Extrusion lengths may
range from 330 m and diameters from 0.21 m. Modern presses are largely automatic and operate at
high speeds (on the order of m/s).
Extrusion Temperatures Of Common Metals And Alloys
Metals and alloys Temperature of extrusion, K C
Aluminium and alloys 673-773 400-500
Magnesium and alloys 573-673 300-400
Copper 10731153 800-880
Brasses 923-1123 650-850
Nickel brasses 10231173 750-900
Cupro-nickel 11731273 900-1000
Nickel 13831433 11101160
Monel 13731403 11001130
Inconel 14431473 11701200
Steels 13231523 10501250
Shock (Dynamic) Consolidation[edit]
Shock consolidation, or dynamic consolidation, is an experimental technique of consolidating powders
using high pressure shock waves.
[13][14]
These are commonly produced by impacting the workpiece with
an explosively accelerated plate. Despite being researched for a long time, the technique still has some
problems in controlability and uniformity. However, it offers some valuable potential advantages. As an
example, consolidation occurs so rapidly that metastable microstructures may be retained.
[15]

Special products[edit]
Many special products are possible with powder metallurgy technology. A nonexhaustive list includes
Al
2
O
3
whiskers coated with very thin oxide layers for improved refractories; iron compacts with
Al
2
O
3
coatings for improved high-temperature creep strength; light bulb filaments made with powder
technology; linings for friction brakes; metal glasses for high-strength films and ribbons;heat shields for
spacecraft reentry into Earth's atmosphere; electrical contacts for handling large current
flows; magnets; microwave ferrites; filters for gases; and bearings which can be infiltrated with lubricants.
Extremely thin films and tiny spheres exhibit high strength. One application of this observation is to coat
brittle materials in whisker form with a submicrometre film of much softer metal (e.g.,cobalt-coated
tungsten). The surface strain of the thin layer places the harder metal under compression, so that when
the entire composite is sintered the rupture strength increases markedly. With this method, strengths on
the order of 2.8 GPa versus 550 MPa have been observed for, respectively, coated (25% Co) and
uncoated tungsten carbides.