Insulation Strength Characteristics: Topics To Be Covered in The Following

Fachgebiet
Hochspannungstechnik
Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 7 - 1 -
Insulation Strength Characteristics
Topics to be covered in the following:
Insulators under polluted conditions
Probability of flashover (Normal and Weibull distributions)
Behavior of parallel insulation
Coordination procedure: deterministic and statistical approach
Correction with altitude of installation
Clearances in air; "gap factors"
Fachgebiet
Probability of Disruptive Discharge of Insulation
Non-self-restoring insulation
No method at present available for the determination of the probability of disruptive discharge
Therefore, it is assumed that the withstand probability changes from 0% to 100% at the value
defining the withstand voltage.
Withstand voltage usually verified by application of a limited number of test voltages at standard
withstand level with no disruptive breakdown allowed "Procedure A" of IEC 60006-1:
[IEC 60060-1]
The breakdown process is statistical in nature to be taken into account, especially for
impulse voltage stress!
Fachgebiet
The breakdown process is statistical in nature to be taken into account, especially for
impulse voltage stress!
Self-restoring insulation
Withstand capability can be evaluated by tests and be described in statistical terms.
Therefore, self-restoring insulation is typically described by the statistical withstand voltage
corresponding to a withstand probability of 90%.
Withstand voltage verified by application of a limited number of test voltages at standard insulation
level, allowing a certain number of discharges
"Procedure B" of IEC 60060-1 "15/2-test" usually applied procedure in the "IEC world"
"Procedure C" of IEC 60060-1 "3+9-test"
See next three slides .
Fachgebiet
[IEC 60060-1]
Fachgebiet
[IEC 60071-2]
Comparison of Procedures B and C
Only here both procedures are equivalent!
Example:
equipment at the borderline, rated and tested at its U
10
, has a 82% probability of passing the test in Procedure B
a better equipment, rated and tested at its U
5,5
, has a 95% probability of passing the test in Procedure B
a worse equipment, rated and tested at its U
36
, has only a 5% probability of passing the test in Procedure B;
with Procedure C, its probability of passing would be higher, the 5% probability of passing would be given for
equipment rated and tested at its U
63
(see also next slide)
Fachgebiet
Comparison of Procedures B and C
0,0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
-3 -2,5 -2 -1,5 -1 -0,5 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
(U-U50)/Z
Pb(U)
15/2
3+9
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

b
r
e
a
k
d
o
w
n

P
(
U
)
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

t
h
e

t
e
s
t

"
1
5
/
2
"
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

p
a
s
s
i
n
g

t
h
e

t
e
s
t

"
3
+
9
"
Test voltage referred to conventional deviation
Probability of passing the test: approx. 82 %
at probability of breakdown of 10 %
P(U)
(U-U
50
)/Z
Fachgebiet
[IEC 60071-2]
Comparison of Procedures B and C (IEC depiction)
50
Equipment that has a
5% probability of
passing the 15/2-test,
would have an approx.
40% probability of
passing the 3+9-test
Fachgebiet
Completely different approaches:
Verification of withstand voltages (see slides before)
Evaluation of withstand voltages
Determination of the probability function P = P(U), defined by the three following
parameters in case of a Normal or Gaussian distribution:
U
50
voltage under which the insulation has a 50% probability to flashover or to withstand
Z conventional deviation; Z = U
50
U
16
U
0
truncation voltage (cannot be directly determined)
IEC 60071-2:
"For insulation co-ordination purposes, the up-and-down withstand method with
seven impulses per group and at least eight groups is the preferred method of
determining U
50
".
IEC 60071-2:
"For insulation co-ordination purposes, the up-and-down withstand method with
seven impulses per group and at least eight groups is the preferred method of
determining U
50
".
Fachgebiet
n
breakdown
no breakdown
5
U 3% of
1
Count starts here
Up-and-down method (see HVT I, Ch. 5)
Special case for determining U
50
General procedure see next slides
Fachgebiet
Examples see next slides.
See slide before!
[IEC 60060-1]
Fachgebiet
n
group of 7 impulses with at least one disruptive discharge
group of 7 impulses with no disruptive discharge
5
U 3% of
1
Count starts here
Up-and-down method Withstand procedure with m = 7 and n = 8
Fachgebiet
n
group of 7 impulses with no withstand
group of 7 impulses with at least one withstand
5
U 3% of
1
Count starts here
Up-and-down method Discharge procedure with m = 7 and n = 8
Fachgebiet
Replacing the Normal (Gaussian) by a Weibull distribution
Disruptive discharge probability described by a Gaussian cumulative frequency distribution:
2
1
2
1
( ) e d
2
x
y
P U y
where
50
( ) / x U U Z =
U
50
50% discharge voltage (P(U
50
) = 0.5)
Z conventional deviation
In order to reflect the real physical behavior, this function has to be truncated at
U
0
= U
50
3Z or
U
0
= U
50
4Z
(No discharge can occur at voltages below U
0
!)
Fachgebiet
Arguments for replacing the Gaussian by the Weibull distribution:
the truncation value U
0
is mathematically included in the Weibull expression;
the function is easily evaluated by pocket calculators;
the inverse function U = U(P) can be expressed mathematically and is easily evaluated
by pocket calculators;
the modified Weibull expression is defined by the same parameters characterizing the
truncated Gaussian expression: U
50
, Z and U
0
;
the disruptive discharge probability function of several identical insulations in parallel has
the same expression as that of one insulation and its characteristics can be easily
determined from those of the single insulation.
Fachgebiet
General expression for Weibull distribution:
( ) 1
U
P U e

=
where
truncation value
scale parameter
shape parameter
Modification for description of discharge probability of an insulation with a truncated
discharge probability:
50
U NZ =
1
(ln2) NZ

=
1
50 50
1
50
( )(ln 2)
ln 2
(ln 2)
( ) 1 1 1
U U NZ U U NZ
U U NZ
NZ
NZ
NZ
P U e e e

+ +

+

= = =
( )
50 50
50
1 ln 2 1
1
ln 2
1 1 1 0.5
U U U U
U U
NZ NZ
NZ
e e

+ +
+

= = =
(N may be 3 or 4)
Fachgebiet
50
1
( ) 1 0.5
U U
NZ
P U

+

=
Condition:
50
( ) 0.16 P U Z =
50 50
1
1 0.5 0.16
U Z U
ZN

+

=
1
1
1 0.5 0.16
N

=
Solving the equation to :
1
1
0.5 1 0.16
N

=
( )
1
1
ln 0.5 ln 1 0.16
N

=

Fachgebiet
( ) ( )
1
1 ln 0.5 ln 1 0.16
N

=

( )
( )
ln 1 0.16
1
1
ln 0.5 N

=

( )
( )
ln 1 0.16
1
ln 1 ln
ln 0.5 N

=

( )
( )
ln 1 0.16
1
ln 1 ln
ln 0.5 N

=

( )
( )
ln 1 0.16
ln
ln 0.5
1
ln 1
N

Fachgebiet
( )
( )
ln 1 0.16
ln
ln 0.5
1
ln 1
N

Assuming that U
0
= U
50
4Z N = 4
( )
( )
( )
ln 1 0.16
ln
ln 0.5
4,80 5
ln 1 0.25

= =
(reasonably accurate)
Fachgebiet
5
50 50
1 1
4
( ) 1 0.5 1 0.5
U U U U
NZ Z
P U

+ +

= =
With x = (U U
50
)/Z:
5
1
4
( ) 1 0.5
x
P U

+

=
Modified Weibull flashover probability
Modified Weibull flashover probability
Typical values for Z (if more accurate data are missing):
For lightning impulses: Z = 0.03 U
50
[Z] = kV
For switching impulses: Z = 0.06 U
50
For lightning impulses: Z = 0.03 U
50
[Z] = kV
For switching impulses: Z = 0.06 U
50
And for U
10
, resulting from the distribution function:
U
10
= U
50
1.3 Z
U
10
= U
50
1.3 Z see also chapter 3
Fachgebiet
[IEC 60071-2]
Fachgebiet
Many insulations in parallel
P(U) P
1
(U) P
2
(U) P
3
(U) P
4
(U) P
5
(U) P
M
(U) ........
P(U) = ?
Question: if the probability of flashover of one insulator at U is P(U), what is the probability
P'(U) of M of these insulators connected in parallel to flashover?
Fachgebiet
Many insulations in parallel Applying the rules of statistics:
Probability of flashover of one single insulator: P(U)
If many insulators of the same individual flashover probability are connected in parallel
and one is looking for the probability of a flashover of one of them, this cannot be
calculated by an addition of the individual probabilities. (Note: if this was the case, 100
parallel insulators of 10% flashover probability (P(U) = 0.1) would have a probability of
P'(U) = 10 to flashover, which is mathematical nonsense.)
Solution: consider the probability of withstand: W(U) = 1 P(U)
The probability that a number of M insulators withstands at the same time can be
calculated by multiplication according to the rules of statistics:
W
total
(U) = W
1
(U) W
2
(U) W
3
(U) .. W
M
(U) = W(U)
M
= [1-P(U)]
M
The probability P'(U) that one out of M insulators flashes over is equal to the probability
that not all insulators withstand at the same time, thus:
[ ]
( ) 1 1 ( )
M
P U P U
=
Fachgebiet
[ ]
( ) 1 1 ( )
M
P U P U
=
5
1
4
( ) 1 0.5
x
P U

+

=
5
1
4
( ) 1 0.5
x
M
P U

+

=
Flashover probability of M parallel insulations
Introducing the normalized variable x
M
= (U U
50M
)/Z
M
:
5
1
4
( ) 1 0.5
M
x
P U

+

=
Comparison of both equations yields:
5
1 1
4 4
M
x x
M

+ = +

Fachgebiet
Replacing x and x
M
by their extended definitions:
x = (U U
50
)/Z
x
M
= (U U
50M
)/Z
M
and because:
U
50
4Z = U
50M
4Z
M
= U
0
5
1 1
4 4
M
x x
M

+ = +

5
M
Z
Z
M
=
50 50
5
1
4 1
M
U U Z
M

=

Fachgebiet
5
M
Z
Z
M
=
50 50
5
1
4 1
M
U U Z
M

=

Example 1:
For M = 200:
U
50(200)
= U
50
2.6 Z
U
10(200)
= U
50(200)
1.3 Z
200
= U
50
3.1 Z
M = 100, U
50
= 1600 kV, Z = 100 kV
Z
M
= 39.8 kV, U
50M
= 1359.2 kV
Example 2:
Fachgebiet
5
M
Z
Z
M
=
50 50
5
1
4 1
M
U U Z
M

=

Example 2, continued:
[IEC 60071-2]
Fachgebiet
[IEC 60071-2]
[ ] ( ) 1 1 ( )
M
P U P U =
Note: These values can
directly be obtained from this
equation:
see Example 1:
U
50(200)
= U
50
2.6 Z
Fachgebiet
Grading capacitors
Breaking chambers
Closing resistors
also relevant for apparatus design
three parallel external insulations
one external insulation
Fachgebiet
Insulation Strength in Air
Factors influencing the dielectric strength of the insulation:
magnitude, shape, duration and polarity of the applied voltage
electric field distribution in the insulation
homogeneous or non-homogeneous electric field
electrodes adjacent to the considered gap and their potential
type of insulation
gaseous
liquid
solid
combination of two or all of them
impurity content and the presence of local inhomogeneities
physical state of the insulation
temperature
pressure
other ambient conditions
mechanical stress
history of the insulation (aging, damage)
chemical effects
conductor surface effects
Covered by equations U
50RP
= f(d)
where
U
50RP
50% probability
breakdown voltage of
a rod-plane-configuration
d gap spacing
Covered by equations U
50
= f(U
50RP
, K)
where
K gap factor
K is a factor indicating how much higher the
electrical strength of a particular electrode
configuration is in comparison with the rod-plane-
configuration (which gives least dielectric strength);
factors K were experimentally found for standard
switching impulse voltage stress
Fachgebiet
Gap factors
Gap factors
(Table G.1 of IEC 60071-2)
Fachgebiet
Gap factors
Gap factors
Fachgebiet
Gap factors
Gap factors
Fachgebiet
Gap factors
Gap factors
Fachgebiet
Gap factors
Gap factors
[Electra No. 29 (1973),
pp. 29-44)]
Electrode configuration K
Rod-plane
Rod-structure (under)
Conductor-plane
Conductor-window
Conductor-structure (under)
Rod-rod (h = 6 m, under)
Conductor-structure
(over and laterally)
Conductor-rope
(under and laterally)
Conductor-crossarm (end)
Conductor-rod (h = 6 m, under)
Conductor-rod (h = 3 m, under)
1.0
1.05
1.15
1.20
1.30
1.30
1.35
1.40
1.55
1.65
1.90
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

d
i
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
Fachgebiet
Insulation response to power-frequency voltages (IEC60071-2, Annex G)
1.2
50RP
750 2 ln(1 0.55 ) U d = +
with
U
50RP
crest value in kV
d in m; d 3 m
50 50RP
U U =
( )
2
50 50RP
1.35 0.35 U U K K =
for d > 2 m
exact for d < 1 m; conservative for 1 m d 2 m
0 50
0.9 U U
influence of rain in an air gap negligible; but for insulators to be considered!
pollution for insulators to be considered!
altitude correction required!
3
0
0

k
V
/
m

(
r
.
m
.
s
.

v
a
l
u
e
)
3
0
0

k
V
/
m

(
r
.
m
.
s
.

v
a
l
u
e
)
(assuming U
0
= U
50
- 4Z and Z = 0.03 U
50
)
Fachgebiet
Insulation response to slow-front overvoltages (IEC60071-2, Annex G)
50RP
1080 ln(0.46 1) U d = +
with
U
50RP
in kV; for positive polarity at most critical front-time (see Ch. 3)
d in m; d 25 m
0.6
50RP
500 U d =
with
U
50RP
in kV; for positive polarity standard switching impulse voltage (see Ch. 3)
d in m; d 25 m
50 50RP
U KU = Note: for K 1.45 U
50neg.
may become lower than U
50pos.
Note: for K 1.45 U
50neg.
may become lower than U
50pos.
Fachgebiet
0 50
0.75 U U (assuming U
0
= U
50
- 4Z and Z = 0.06 U
50
)
influence of rain in an air gap negligible; but for insulators to be considered!
Fachgebiet
For phase-to-phase insulation similar gap factors as for phase-to-earth insulation
can be applied.
But: the influence of negative and positive components has to be taken into
account by a factor :
peak negative component

=
sum of peak negative and positive components
[IEC 60071-2]
Fachgebiet
Insulation response to fast-front overvoltages (IEC60071-2, Annex G)
50RP
530 U d =
with
U
50RP
in kV; for positive polarity
d in m; d 10 m
Note: for negative LI voltages, dielectric
strength is higher and increases non-
linearly with gap spacing!
Note: for negative LI voltages, dielectric
strength is higher and increases non-
linearly with gap spacing!
i.e. linear increase with gap spacing
The gap factors K (found for SI voltages!) cannot be directly applied.
From experimental investigations:
ff
0.74 0.26 K K
+
= +
with
K
+
ff
fast-front overvoltage gap factor
for positive polarity
K ... gap factor for SI voltage
according to tables
50 ff 50RP
U K U
+
=
Fachgebiet
Insulation response to fast-front overvoltages (IEC60071-2, Annex G)
50 neg, line insulator
700 U d =
influence of insulators to be considered particularly for range II!
less influence from long insulators without metallic parts (long rod, composite, station
post) than for cap-and-pin insulators
virtually no influence of rain neither for air gaps nor for insulators
Estimation of negative line insulator flashover voltage (in order to determine lightning
overvoltages impinging on a substation:
Conventional deviation:
Z 0.03U
50
for air gaps and positive polarity
Z 0.05U
50
for air gaps and negative polarity
Z (0.05 0.09)U
50
across insulators
Conventional deviation:
Z 0.03U
50
for air gaps and positive polarity
Z 0.05U
50
for air gaps and negative polarity
Z (0.05 0.09)U
50
across insulators
Fachgebiet
Independent from the theoretical and empirical background given so far, IEC 60071-2
offers tables on minimum clearances in air (Annex A). Not all values of these tables
can be derived from above equations, as they additionally take into account
withstand values instead of U
50
-values
feasibility
economy
experience
average influence of environmental conditions (pollution, rain, insects, )
Fachgebiet
[IEC 60071-2]
Fachgebiet
[IEC 60071-1]
Procedure for Insulation Coordination in Four Steps
Flow chart of IEC 60071-1
(Figure 1)
we are here!
N
e
x
t

s
l
i
d
e
S
o
r
r
y
,

n
o

t
i
m
e

t
h
i
s

y
e
a
r
Fachgebiet
Performance criterion IEC 60071-2, Cl. 3.2
Performance criterion IEC 60071-2, Cl. 3.2
According to definition 3.22 of IEC 71-1, the performance criterion to be required from the
insulation in service is the acceptable failure rate (R
a
).
The performance of the insulation in a system is judged on the basis of the number of
insulation failures during service. Faults in different parts of the network can have different
consequences. For example, in a meshed system a permanent line fault or an unsuccessful
reclosure due to slow-front surges is not as severe as a busbar fault or corresponding faults
in a radial network. Therefore, acceptable failure rates in a network can vary from point to
point depending on the consequences of a failure at each of these points.
Examples for acceptable failure rates can be drawn from fault statistics covering the existing
systems and from design projects where statistics have been taken into account. For
apparatus, acceptable failure rates R
a
due to overvoltages are in the range of 0.001/year
up to 0.004/year depending on the repair times. For overhead lines acceptable failure rates
due to lightning vary in the range of 0.1/100 km/year up to 20/100 km/year (the greatest
number being for distribution lines). Corresponding figures for acceptable failure rates due to
switching overvoltages lie in the range 0.01 to 0.001 per operation. Values for
acceptable failure rates should be in these orders of magnitude.
Fachgebiet
Altitude correction
Altitude correction
In general, withstand or breakdown voltages must be corrected for air density (pressure,
temperature) and absolute humidity.
Temperature and absolute humidity tend to cancel out each other. Thus correction is
mainly required for pressure, which has its strongest influence in the altitude of
installation.
Therefore, in the procedure of insulation coordination, an altitude correction must be
performed in the step from the coordination withstand voltage U
cw
to the required
withstand voltage U
rw
.
Air density vs. altitude:
8150
e
H

=
(regression of experimental data)
where H altitude above sea level in m
Voltage correction depends on voltage shape (the kind of pre-discharges), thus a voltage-
dependant factor m is introduced:
8150
e
H
m
k

=
Fachgebiet
Altitude correction
Altitude correction
[IEC 60071-2]
m = 1 for LI voltage
m = acc. to Figure 9 for SI voltage
m = 1 for short-time alternating voltage
m = 0.5 for long-time alternating
voltage and tests under pollution
Final altitude correction factor:
8150
a
1
e
H
m
K
k
= =
approx. 1.3% per 100 m (for m = 1)
approx. 1.3% per 100 m (for m = 1)
Fachgebiet
[IEC 60071-1]
(Figure 1)
we are here!
Fachgebiet
From U
cw
U
rw
rw a s cw
U K K U =
where K
a
altitude correction factor
K
s
safety factor, taking into account:
differences in equipment assembly
dispersion in product quality
quality of installation
aging effects
other unknown influences
Internal insulation:
no altitude correction (K
a
= 1)
K
s
= 1.15
Internal insulation:
no altitude correction (K
a
= 1)
K
s
= 1.15
External insulation:
K
a
= f(m,H) = exp(mH/8150)
K
s
= 1.05
External insulation:
K
a
= f(m,H) = exp(mH/8150)
K
s
= 1.05
Fachgebiet
From U
cw
U
rw
1000
1500
2000
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 H/m
U
/
k
V
Assumption: U
cw
= 1000 kV
Internal insulation: U
rw
= 1.151000 kV = 1150 kV
E
x
t
e
r
n
a
l

i
n
s
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
:

Ur
w
=

1
.
0
5
e
x
p
(
H
/
8
1
5
0
)
1
0
0
0

k
V
Example (for m = 1)
Fachgebiet
[IEC 60071-1]
(Figure 1)
we arrived here!
Fachgebiet
Insulation Coordination
For calculation examples, see IEC 60071-2, Annex H!
Fachgebiet
Insulation Coordination

Insulation Strength Characteristics: Topics To Be Covered in The Following

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Insulation Strength Characteristics: Topics To Be Covered in The Following

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peak negative component

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