GRAMMAR

List of Irregular Nouns

Plural nouns with no singular form

binoculars
cattle
clogs
contents
earnings
pyjamas (US pajamas)
scales
scissors
shears
shorts

glasses
media
jeans
pants
pincers

spectacles
tongs
trousers
tweezers
pliers
police
Suffixes Meaning Example
-able, -ible (adj) able lovable
-al, -ical, -ial (adj) belonging to, pertaining to, having to do with magical
-ance, -ence (n) State of being presence, absence
-ant, -ent (n) sbd/sth who does sth student
-er (n) Sbd who does sth worker
-fic (adj) making, doing specific
-ful (adj) full of Playful, joyful
-fy (V) To add, to make simplify
-hood (n) state, condition brotherhood
-ic (adj) belonging to public
-ion, -sion, tion (n) act, state Motion, decision
Singular: Plural:

alumnus alumni
aquarium aquaria
bacterium bacteria
baggage baggage
child children
cod cod
crisis crises
curriculum curricula
deer deer
fish fish
foot feet
fungus fungi
hippopotamus hippopotami
man men
memorandum memoranda
moose moose
Singular: Plural:

mouse mice
neurosis neuroses
nucleus nuclei
news news
oasis oases
octopus octopi
ox oxen
person people
series series
sheep sheep
son-in-law sons-in-law
species species
syllabus syllabi
thesis theses
tooth teeth
woman women


List of Uncountable Words




PRONOUNS
Subject Object
Possessive
Adjective
Possessive
Pronoun
Reflexive Pronoun
I
You
They
We
He
She
It
You
Me
You
Them
Us
Him
Her
It
You
My
Your
Their
Our
His
Her
Its
Your
Mine
Yours
Theirs
Ours
His
Hers

Yours
Myself
Yourself
Themselves
Ourselves
Himself
Herself
Itself
Yourselves

MODAL AUXILIARIES
A. MUST

Subject Must have Past
Participle
Past time Must followed by the verb word haveand
a participle expresses a logical conclusion
based on evidence that happened in the
past.
My friend must have called last night
Subject Must be Present
Participle
Present
tense
My friend must be calling now
Subject Must Verb word Repeated
time
My friend must call often
Avoid using should or can instead of must.
B. USED TO/ BE USED TO V-ING

Subject Used to Verb word Phrase/ Noun Used to with a verb means that a
custom in the past has not
continued.
He used to live in the country
Subject be Used to Present
participle
Phrase/ Noun Be used to with an ing form
means to be accustomed to.
He is used to living in the country
C. HAD BETTER

Subject had better simple verb
Had better indicates advice for the future

You had better study
1. advice 2. ice 3. rice
4. air 5. impatience 6. silk
7. aluminum 8. information 9. soap
10. baggage 11. knowledge 12. sugar
13. butter 14. leather 15. steel
16. cloth clothing 17. luggage 18. talent
19. coal 20. meat 21. toothpaste
22. cotton 23. metal 24. traffic
25. currency 26. milk 27. travel
28. dust 29. money 30. vinegar
31. energy 32. oil 33. weather
34. equipment 35. patience 36. water
37. experience 38. photography 39. wood
40. flour 41. plastic 42. wool
43. food 44. polish 45. work
46. furniture 47. progress 48. heat
49. gas 50. research 51. homework


D. WOULD RATHER

Subject Would rather Simple verb
Would rather expresses preference in
present and future time.
I would rather sleep
I would rather not sleep




SINGULAR-PLURAL FORMS
COUNT-NONCOUNT

A. PLURALS
(a) Man men Mouse mice
Child children Foot feet
The nouns in (a) have irregular plural forms
(b) echoes (c) photos (d) Mosquitoes
heroes pianos / mosquitos
potatoes videos volcanoes
/volcanos
Some nouns that end in :
o add es to form the plural, as in (b)
o add only s to form in the plural, as in (c)
o add either es or end s to form the plural, as in
(d)
(d) Knife - knives
(e) Belief - beliefs


Some nouns that end in :
eor feare changed to ves in the plural, as in
(e)
f simply add s to form the plural, as in (f)
(g) Deer fish sheep - Some nouns have the same singular and plural form
(e.g., One deer is Two deer are .)
(h)Criterion criteria (i) cactus cacti
(j) Formula formulae (k) basis bases
(l) Index indices (m) datum - data
- Some nouns that English has borrowed from other
languages have foreign plurals, as in (h) , (i), (j), (k),
(l), (m)

B. NONCOUNT NOUNS
Notice in the following: Most noncount nouns refer to a whole that is made up of different parts
(a) I bought some earrings, necklaces, rings
and bracelets. In other words, I bought
some jewelry.
In (a): jewelry represents a whole group of things that
is made up of similar but separate items.
(b) I put some sugar in my coffee In (b): sugar and coffeerepresent whole masses made
up of individual particles or elements
(c) I wish you luck In (c): luck is an abstract concept, an abstract
whole. It has no physical form: you cant touch it,
you cant count it.
(d) Sunshineis warm and cheerful In (d): phenomena of nature, such as sunshine, are
frequently used as noncount nouns.


When the preference is for another person or thing, would rather that introduces a clause. The other
person or thing is the subject of the clause. Although the verb is past tense, the preference is for
present or future time. Avoid using a present verb or a verb word instead of a past verb. Avoid using
should and a verb instead of a past verb.
Subject Would rather That Subject Verb (past)
I would rather that you drove
I would rather that you didnt drive


WORD ORDER
A. WORD ORDER IN ADJECTICE
Det.

Opinion Fact Noun
Size Age Shape Color Origin Material Purpose
A silly young English man
Two huge round metal bowls
Some small red sleeping bags



B. SUBJECT AUXILIARY WORD INVERSION

In normal everyday English, inversion is used :
to make questions : does he? can you?
after so, neither, nor : so do I, neither do I.
In written English, as well as in a very formal style, inversion is used in the following cases :
(a) At no timedid she say she would come. After negative adverbial expressions
(b) On the doorstep was a bunch of flowers. After adverbial expressions of place
(c) Seldomhave I seen such a beautiful view. After seldom, rarely, never
(d) No sooner had I arrived than they all started to
argue
After hardly, scarcely, no sooner, when one thing happens after
another
(e) Only after the meeting did I realize the
importance of the subject
After adverbial expressions beginning with 'only'
(f) Herecomes the winner!

After exclamations with hereand there


DETERMINERS
A. DEFINITE AND INDENFINITE ARTICLES

ARTICLE THE
a) An elephant and a mouse fell in love. The mouse
loved the elephant's long trunk, and the
elephant loved the mouse's tiny nose.

b) Could you open the door, please?


c) My house is theone with a blue door.


d) The sun sets in the west.

e) They have their honeymoon in the Yacht the
Caribbean
f) she grew up in theseventies
a) To refer to something this has already been mentioned.



b) When both the speaker and listener know what is being talked
about, even if it has not been mentioned before.
c) in sentences or clauses where we define or identify a particular
person or object.
d) to refer to objects we regard as unique.

e) with names of geographical areas and oceans.
f) with decades, or groups of years.


ARTICLE A/ AN
1. An elephant and a mousefell in love.
2. a. John is a doctor
(A) John is an Englishman.
(B) Sherlock Holmes was playing a violin
(C) I was born on a Thursday

3. it was a very strange car

4. She's such a beautiful

5. The burglar took a diamond necklaceand a
valuable painting
1. to refer to something for the first time
2. to refer to a particular member of a group or class; a) with
names of jobs, b) with nationalities and religions, c) with
musical instruments,
d) with names of days.
3. to refer to a kind of, or example of something.

4. with singular nouns, after the words 'what' and 'such':

5. meaning 'one', referring to a single object or person:




NO ARTI CLE EXPLANATI ON
a) Germany is an important economic power (But:
I'm visiting the United States next week.)

b) English uses many words of Latin origin
c) Breakfast is the first meal of the day.

d) George King is my uncle.
(But: we're having lunch with the Morgans
tomorrow.)
e) President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas.
(But: the Queen of England, the Pope.)
f) His brother's car.
g) Engineering is a useful career
h) 1948 was a wonderful year.
i) Rice is the main food in Asia.
j) Mount McKinley is the highest mountain in
Alaska.
k) Victoria Station is in the centre of London
a) with names of countries (if singular)..



b) with the names of languages
c) with the names of meals.

d) with people's names (if singular):
J ohn's coming to the party

e) with titles and names


f) After the 's possessive case
g) with professions
h) with years
i) with uncountable nouns
j) with the names of individual mountains, lakes and islands
k) with most names of towns, streets, stations and airports
1. in some fixed expressions, for example:
by car
by train
by air

on foot
on holiday
on air

at school
at work
at University

in prison
in bed
in church


B. DEMONSTRATIVES
The demonstratives this, that, these, thoseshow where an object or person is in relation to the speaker.
this (singular) and these(plural) refer to an object or person near the speaker. that (singular) and those(plural) refer to an
object or person further away. It can be a physical closeness or distance as in the following examples.

1. This car looks cleaner than that one.
2. This old world keeps turning round
3. I would like some of thosecookies on that shelf.
4. These dolls on the table hereare very old.

C. QUANTIFIERS

An expression of quantity (many, much, few, little) may precede a noun. Pay attention that some expressions of quantity
are used only with count nouns; some only with noncount nouns. Some with either count or noncount nouns
USI NG A FEW AND FEW; A LI TLLE AND LI TTLE
a few (a) She is a new students but she has made a
few friends. (positive idea: she has made
some friends)
a few and a littlegive a positive idea;
they indicate that something exists, is
present, as in (a) and (b)
a little (b) Im very pleased. Ive been able to save a
little money this month. (positive idea: I
have save some money instead of spending
all of it)

few I am very sorry for her. She has very few
friends, (Negative idea: she does not have many
friends; she has almost no friends)
fewand little(without a) give a
negative idea; they indicate that
something is largely absent.

very (+few/little) makes the negative
idea stronger, the amount/the number
smaller.
Very +Little I have very little money. I dont even have
enough money to buy food for dinner. (negative
idea: I do not have much money, I have almost
no money)

USI NG MUCH AND MANY
much (a) I dont have much money
(b) How much water do you consume every
day?
much and many mainly used in
negative sentences as in (a) and (c) and


questions, as in (b) and (d)
many (c) There arent many new species here.
(d) How many cigarettes do you smoke in a
day?

USING SOME AND ANY
Some: we some in affirmative sentences
Any: we use any in negative sentences and most in questions (but not all).
AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE INTEROGATIVE
There are some apples.
(We don't know how many,
but the bowl is not empty)
There aren't any apples.
(The bowl is empty)
Are there any apples?
(We want to know if
the bowl contains apples)


USING ENOUGH
(a) I am strong enough to lift that box. I can lift it.
(b) I have enough strength to lift that box.
(c) I have strength enough to lift that box.

Enough follows an adjective, as in (c)

Enough may precede a noun, as in (d), or follow a
noun as in (c)

TENSES
THE SIMPLE TENSE
Tense Examples Meaning
Simple Present (a) It snows in Alaska
(a) I read newspaper every morning
In general, the simple present expresses events or
situations that exist always, usually, habitually. They exist
now, have existed in the past, and probably will exist in the
future.
Present
Progressive
(Continuous)
(b) John is eating dinner now
(c) We are leaving for the theater at seven
oclock.

This present progressive is used to indicate present time
(now) with all (c).
It is also used to indicate future time (d).
Tense Examples Meaning
Simple Past (a) John went to Spain last year.
(b) Bob bought a new bicycle yesterday.
(c) Maria washed the dishes last night
The simple past is used for a completed action that
happened at one specific time in the past.
It began and ended in the past.
Past Progressive
(Continuous)
(d) When Mark came home, Martha was
watching television.
(d) Martha was watching television while
John was reading a book.
Past progressive is used to indicate an action which was
occurring in the past and was interrupted by another
action.(d)
It is also used to indicate two actions occurring at the same
time in the past. (e)

THE PERFECT TENSE
Tense Examples Meaning
Present Perfect (a) John has travelled around the world.
(b) George has seen this movie three times.
(c) John has lived in the same house for
twenty years. (he still lives there)

The present perfect is used to indicate an action that
happened at an indefinite time in the past (a)
It is also used to indicate an action that happened more
than once in the past (b)
It is also used to indicate an action began in the past
and is still occurring in the present (c).
Present Perfect
Continuous
(a) I have been waiting for her since you left Present perfect continuous is used to indicate an action
that began in the past and still occurring in the present
(present perfect rules). It is also possible to use the
present perfect progressive.
Tense Examples Meaning
Past Perfect (a) John had gone to the store before he
went home.
Past perfect is used to indicate an action that happened
before another action in the past; there usually are two
actions in the sentence.



PARALLEL STRUCTURE
(a) Steve and Joe are coming to dinner.
(b) Susan raised her hand and snapped her
fingers.
(c) He is wearing his arms and (is) shouting
at us

(d) These shoes are old but comfortable
(e) He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to
some music
(f) They must put the book on the table or the
chair
(g) We know where he went and what he did
(h) Both my brother and my sister are
doctors
(i) Neither Paul nor Linda lives in New York
(j) You can either sit there or wait here
(k) Jane went to the post office not only to
buy stamps but also to send letters.

In (a): noun + and + noun
In (b): verb + and + verb
In (c): verb + and + verb ( The second auxiliary may be omitted if it
is the same as the first auxiliary
In (d): adjective + but + adjective
In (e): infinitive + or + infinitive (the second to may be omitted)
In (f): phrase or phrase
In (g) clause + and + clause
In (h): both ..and .
In (i): neither nor
In (j): either ..or
In (k): not only .but also .
(l) Steve, Joe, and Alice are coming to dinner
(m) Susan raised her hand, snapped her
fingers, and asked a question.
(n) The colors in that fabric are red, gold,
black, and green.
A parallel structure may contain more than two parts. In a series,
commas are used to separate each unit. The final comma that
precedes the conjunction is optional but is customarily used. (No
commas are used if there are only parts to a parallel structure).

CAUSATIVE VERBS
Causative verbs are used to show that one person causes second person to do something for the first person. It means that he
can cause another person to do something for him by paying, asking, or forcing the person. The causative verbs commonly used are:
have, get, make.
(1) ACTIVE
S + have / make* + complement + verb in simple form .......
(any tense) (usually person)
e. g. :
Gery had Tom clean the floor. (Tom cleaned the floor).
I have my husband buy me a new car.
The robber madethe teller givehim the money. (The robber forced the teller to give him the money.)
The president is making his cabinet members sign this document.

* The causative verb makecan be followed only by a clause in the active voice. It has stronger sense than haveand get. It means
force
(2) ACTIVE
S + get + complement + to infinitive ................
(any tense) (usually person)
e. g. :
Gery got Tom to clean the floor. (Tom cleaned the floor)
I get my husband to buy me a new car.

(3) PASSIVE
S + have / get + complement + V3 (past participle) ............
(any tense) (usually thing)
e. g.:
Gery got (had) the floor cleaned.
(The floor was cleaned by somebody)
I have/get the new car bought.

SUBJUNCTIVE


Subjunctive is used in a noun clause that follows certain verbs and expressions. The sentences generally stress importance.
Subjunctive verbs are used only in their simple form. They do not have present, past, or future form; they are neither singular nor
plural.
(a) The teacher demands that we beon time.
(b) I insisted that he pay me the money
(c) I recommended that she not go to the concert
(d) It is important that they be told the truth
In (a): be is a subjunctive verb.
Negative: not + simple form, as in (c).
Passive: simple form of be + past participle, as in (d)
(e) I suggested that she seea doctor
(f) I suggested that she should seea doctor
Should is also possible after suggest and recommend
Common verbs and expressions followed by the subjunctive in the noun clause
Verbs It + is (other form of be) + adjective
demand ask
insist urge
suggest advise
recommend propose
request
it is important it is urgent
it is necessary it is vital
it is essential it is imperative


1. EXACT COMPARISON
The same as and the samehave the same meaning, but the same as is used between the two nouns compared, and the sameis
used after the two nouns or a plural noun.

Noun Be The same as Noun
This coat is the same as that one


Noun (plural) Be The same
These coats are the same
Avoid using likeinstead of as. Avoid using the samebetween the two nouns compared.
2. GENERAL SIMILARITY AND GENERAL DIFFERENCE
The words likeand alikehave the same meaning, but likeis used between the two nouns compared, and alikeis used after the two
nouns or a plural noun. And avoid using as instead of likeand avoid using likeafter the two nouns compared.
Noun Be Like Noun
This coat is like that one



3. COMPARATIVE ESTIMATE

Subject +Verb Multiple As Many/ Many As Noun/Clause
Fresh fruit costs
We have
twice

half
as

as
much

many
as

as
canned fruit

we need
Subject +Verb More (Less) Than Number Noun/Clause
Steve has more than a thousand coins in his collections
Subject/Verb As Many As Number Noun
We should have as many as five hundred applications

NOUN CLAUSE
Like a noun, a noun clause is also used as a subject or an object. In other words, a noun clause is a clause used in the same ways as a
noun.
(a) Her presentation was convincing
(b) What she presented was convincing
In (a): presentation is a noun. It is used as the subject of the
Noun And Noun Be the same
This coat and that one are the same
Noun And Noun Be Alike
This coat and that one are alike
Noun (Plural) Be Alike
These coats are alike
Noun Be Different From Noun
This coat is different from that one


sentence
In (b) what she presented is a noun clause. It is also used as the
subject of the sentence. The noun clause has its own subject she
and verb presented
(c) I cannot understand her complaint
(d) I cannot understand what she complained
In (c): complaint is a noun. It is the object of the verb understand
In (d): what she complained is a noun clause. It is the object of the
verb understand
WORDS USED TO INTRODUCE NOUN CLAUSES
(1) question words: when, where, who, why, how, which, whom, what, whose
(2) whether, if
(3) that

NOUN CLAUSES WHICH BEGINS WITH A QUESTION WORD
QUESTION NOUN CLAUSE EXPLANATION
Where does he work?
What time did she come?
(a) I do not know where he works
(b) Did you know what time she came
In (a) where he works is the object of the verb know.
You may not use question word order in a noun clause.
Notice: does and did are used in questions but not in noun
clauses.
Who helped you?
What was wrong?
(c) Tell me who helped you
(d) I do not know what was wrong
In (c) and (d): The word order is the same in both the
question and the noun clause because who and what are
the subjects in both.
Who are you?
Whose book is that?
(e) I know who you are
(f) I know whose book that is
In (e) and (f) you and that are the subjects, so they must
be placed in front of the verb areand is in the noun
clauses.
What did you give?

How did she behave?
(g) What you gavemakes me offended
(h) How she behaved is embarrassing
In (g) and (h): What you gaveand How she behaved are
the subjects of the sentences.
Notice: a noun clause takes a singular verb (e.g. s and
is)

NOUN CLAUSES WHICH BEGIN WITH WHETHER OR I F
YES/NO QUESTIONS NOUN CLAUSES EXPLANATION
Will she study?
Did he come?
(a) I do not know whether she will
study
(b) I wonder if he came
When a yes/no question is changed to a noun
clause, whether or if is used to introduce the noun
clause.
Whether is more acceptable in formal English, but
if is quite common, especially in speaking.

NOUN CLAUSES WHICH BEGIN WITH THAT
STATEMENT NOUN CLAUSES EXPLANATION
Ted is a great artist
He is a successful teacher
(a) I think that Ted is a great
artist
(b) I think (that) he is a successful
teacher
In (a) and (b): that Ted is a great artist and that)
he is a successful teacher are noun clauses. They
are the objects of the verb think
The word that, when used to introduce noun
clauses, has no meaning in itself. It may be
omitted.
She is good at mathematics

(c) That she is good at
mathematics is surprising
(d) It is surprising that she is good
at mathematics
In (c): the noun clause is used as the subject of the
sentence.
In (d): the noun clause is used as the object of the
sentence.





GERUNDS & INFINITIVES
GERUNDS
(a) Climbing is challenging
(b) J ogging makes me healthy
In (a) and (b): climbing and jogging are gerunds. They are used as the
subject of the sentences.
(c) I enjoy reading novels
(d) He always avoids seeing me
In (c) and (d): the words reading and seeing are gerunds which are
used as objects of verbs enjoy and avoid respectively
(e) I am looking forward to studying overseas
(f) I object to changing my plan
(g) I talked about not taking this topic.
A gerund is often used as the object of a preposition
In (e), (f) and (g): to and about are prepositions, not part of an
infinitive form, so a gerund follows.
In (g): for negative form, not precedes a gerund
COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS
enjoy appreciate mind quit (give up)
finish (get through) stop avoid postpone (put off)
delay keep (keep on) consider (think about) discuss (talk about)
mention suggest

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES
VERB + INFINITIVES
(a) I want to buy a new notebook
(b) I promise not to disturb you
Some verbs are followed immediately by an infinitive, as in (a)
and (b).
Negative form: not precedes the infinitive
VERB + (PRO)NOUN + INFINITIVES
(c) Mr Ted allowed me to usehis car
(d) The teacher always encourages us to study hard
Some verbs are followed by a (pro)noun and then an infinitive, as
in (c) and (d).


(e) I was told to behere at nine oclock
(f) The thief was ordered not to move
These verbs are followed immediately by an infinitive when used
in the passive, as in (e) and (f).
(g) I expect to visit my grandma
(h) I expect Susan to help me
Ask, expect, would like, want, and need, may or may not be
followed by a (pro)noun object. Compare:
(i) I think I will pass the exam
(j) I think Susan will help me
GROUP A: VERB+INFINITIVES

hope to promise to seem to ask to
plan to agree to appear to expect to
intend to offer to pretend to would like to
decide to refuse to need to want to
GROUP B: VERB+(PRO)NOUN + INFINITIVE
tell someone to invite someone to require someone to ask someone to
advise someone to permit someone to order someone to expect someone to
encourage someone to allow someone to force someone to would like someone to
remind someone to warn someone to want someone to need someone to

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY EITHER INFINITIVES OR GERUNDS
Some verbs may be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, sometimes with no difference un meaning and sometimes with
a difference in meaning.
GROUP A: VERB +INFINITIVES OR GERUND (WITH NO DIFFERENCE IN MEANING
begin like hate start love
cant stand cant bear continue prefer
(a) It began to rain (c) It started to work
(b) It began raining (d) It started working
GROUP A: VERB +INFINITIVES OR GERUND (WITH A DIFFERENCE IN MEANING
remember forget regret try



WORD PARTS

Root Meaning Example Meaning
alter Other, different alternative Another choice
anthro human anthropology The study of humankind
aqua water aquarium Water container/tank
astro star astronomer A person who studies stars
auto self automobile Moving by itself
bio life biography A description of someones life
chron time synchronic Occurring at the same time
cycle circle bicycle Two circles (wheels)
demo people demographics A description of people
Dic, dict To speak, to say dictate To say words (out loud)
equi equal equilibrium Balance
extra Over, in addition extraordinary Out of the ordinary
geo earth geography A description of the earth
graph To write phonograph A device that records sounds
homo same homogeneous Of the same kind