Soil Mechanics CIVL2410 Lecture 11 1

8. ONE DIMENSIONAL SETTLEMENT BEHAVIOUR

Contents
1. One Dimensional Loading Conditions 1
2. The Oedometer 1
3. elation o! "olume strain and "ertical strain 2
4. elation #et$een "olume strain and "oids ratio 3
%. &eha"iour o! soil under one dimensional loading 4
a' (reconsolidation Stress )*ressure' %
#' +ormall, consolidated soils %
c' O"erconsolidated soils -
d' .stimation o! the *reconsolidation stress /
-. Idealised soil #eha"iour 0
/. Com*ression and ecom*ression Inde1es 0
1. One
Dimensional Loading Conditions
Soils are o!ten su#2ected to uni!orm loading o"er large areas3 such as sho$n in 4igure 13 !rom an
em#an5ment. 6nder such conditions soil $hich is remote !rom the edges o! the loaded area
undergoes "ertical strain3 #ut no hori7ontal strain. That is strains3 and hence sur!ace settlement3
onl, occur in one8dimension.
Figure 1: Embankment loading on a layered soil
x
z
oc5
Soil la,er 1
.m#an5ment
Soil la,er 2
The accurac, o! this assum*tion de*ends on the relati"e dimensions o! the loaded area and
thic5ness o! the soil la,er. I! the area is relati"el, large and the thic5ness o! the soil la,er relati"el,
small then the assum*tion o! 18D conditions $ill #e reasona#le.
Soil Mechanics CIVL2410 Lecture 11 2
It is *ossi#le to ma5e a**ro1imate estimates o! sur!ace settlement using the 18D a**roach e"en
$hen the loaded area is not relati"el, large. The *rocedures !or doing this are discussed in
section 0 on the calculation o! settlement.
2. The
Oedometer
The #eha"iour o! soil during one8dimensional loading can #e tested using a de"ice called an
oedometer3 $hich is sho$n schematicall, in 4igure 2. The one8dimensional condition in $hich the
"ertical strain3
77
9 03 and the lateral strains3
11
:
,,
: 0 is also re!erred to as con!ined
com*ression.
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of an oedometer
Cell
Loading ca*
Load
Dis*lacement
measuring de"ice
Soil sam*le
$ater
(orous dis5s
The !ollo$ing *oints ma, #e noted;
The soil is loaded under conditions o! no lateral strain )e1*ansion'3 as the soil !its tightl, into a
relati"el, rigid ring.
6ncontrolled drainage is *ro"ided at the to* and #ottom o! the s*ecimen #, *orous discs )t$o
$a, drainage'. In more so*histicated oedometer a**aratus control o! drainage is *ossi#le.
< "ertical load is a**lied to the s*ecimen and a record o! the settlement "ersus time is made. The
load is le!t on until all settlement ceases )usuall, 24 hours although this de*ends on the soil t,*e3
im*ermea#le cla,s ma, ta5e longer'.
The load is then increased )usuall, #, a !actor o! 23 so the "ertical stresses might #e e.g. 203 403
=03 1-0 5(a'. >hen the ma1imum load is reached3 the soil is unloaded in se"eral increments. I!
desired reloading can #e carried out. <t each ste* time8settlement records are made.
The relationshi*s #et$een "oids ratio and e!!ecti"e stress3 and settlement and time are !ound
!rom the test. The methods #, $hich these are o#tained $ill #e e1*lained in the la#orator,
classes.
Soil Mechanics CIVL2410 Lecture 11 3
It is con"entional to *lot the "oid ratio "ersus the logarithm o! the e!!ecti"e stress in e1amining the
#eha"iour o! soil3 rather than *lotting the relationshi* #et$een e!!ecti"e stress and strain as is
o!ten done in materials testing. The reason !or this is that the relationshi* #et$een e!!ecti"e
stress and "oids ratio is !undamental to an understanding o! soil #eha"iour. The relationshi*
o#tained is similar to that #et$een e!!ecti"e stress and strain #ecause changes in "oids ratio and
strain are sim*l, related as sho$n later.
3. Relation of
volume strain and vertical strain
The "olume strain ?
"
o! an element o! material is de!ined to #e the change in "olume V di"ided
#, initial "olume V
0
.

v
o
V
V
=

)Note: Compressive strains are positive) )1'
The "olume strain is related to the "ertical )a1ial' strain. To sho$ this consider 4igure 3.
Figure 3: eformation of a soil element
[ ] [ ] [ ]
V x y z
xx yy zz
= ! " ! " ! " 1 1 1
)2a'

v
V V
V
=

#
#
)2#'
[ ] [ ] [ ]

v
xx yy zz
x y z x y z
x y z
=


! " ! " ! " 1 1 1
)2c'
thus neglecting second order and higher terms

v xx yy zz
= + +
)2d'
Soil Mechanics CIVL2410 Lecture 11 4
4or con!ined com*ression ?
11
: 03 ?
,,
: 0. and thus;

" 77
= (for confined compression) )2e'
4. Relation
between volume strain and voids ratio
4or most soils the s5eletal material is !ar sti!!er than the soil com*osite and thus re!erring to
4igure 4 it can #e seen that the relationshi* #et$een "olume strain and "oids ratio is;

v
s
s
V V
V
V e
V e
e
e
=

=
+

=
+
#
# # #
1 1

! "
)3a'
and thus !or con!ined com*ression;

zz
e
e
=
+

1
#
)3#'
Figure $: eformation of soil element
. !ehaviour
of soil under one dimensional loading
The #eha"iour o! an initiall, unloaded soil under one8dimensional conditions is illustrated in
4igure %.
Figure %: &y'ical effective stress( voids ratio relationshi'
Soil Mechanics CIVL2410 Lecture 11 %
<& corres*onds to initial loading o! the soil.
&C corres*onds to an unloading o! the soil.
CD corres*onds to a reloading o! the soil.
6*on reloading the soil #e,ond & the soil continues along the *ath that it $ould ha"e !ollo$ed i!
loaded !rom < to D.
a) Preconsolidation Stress (pressure)
The *reconsolidation stress3 s@
*c
3 is de!ined to #e the ma1imum e!!ecti"e stress e1*erienced #,
the soil. 4or soil at state C this $ould corres*ond to the e!!ecti"e stress at *oint & in 4igure %.
b) Normally consolidated soils
I! the current e!!ecti"e stress3 sA3 is eBual )note that it cannot #e greater than' to the
*reconsolidation stress3 s@
*c
3 then the de*osit is said to #e normall, consolidated )+C'
:
*c
(normally consolidated) )4a'
During de*osition o! a soil )$hich usuall, ta5es *lace through sedimentation'3 the $eight o! the
soil )$hich increases $ith de*th #elo$ the sur!ace' causes a decrease in "oid ratio. Su**ose that
at a *articular de*th #elo$ the sur!ace the soil is re*resented #, *oint ( in 4igure -. I! the soil is
no$ su#2ected to an e!!ecti"e stress increase under 18D conditions the *ath that $ill #e !ollo$ed
in the e8log
10
s@ *lot $ill #e along the e1tension o! the de*osition line as sho$n in 4igure -. <
Soil Mechanics CIVL2410 Lecture 11 -
soil $hich lies at an, *oint on this line is called normally consolidated3 and the line is called the
normal consolidation line.
+ormall, consolidated soils are usuall, !ound as recent allu"ial de*osits3 and are mainl,
com*osed o! silt and cla, si7ed *articles. It is e1tremel, rare to !ind normall, consolidated soils
inland3 a$a, !rom the ri"ers or la5es in $hich the, $ere de*osited.
Figure ): &he normal consolidation line
c) Overconsolidated soils
I! the current e!!ecti"e stress s@ is less than the *reconsolidation stress3 s@
*c
3 then the soil is said
to #e o"er8consolidated )OC'.
C
*c
(over-consolidated) )4#'
+ote
D
*c
(not possible) )4c'
I! a soil a!ter de*osition is normall, consolidated to *oint ( and then unloaded )*erha*s #ecause
o! erosion o! the sur!ace la,ers o! soil' it ma, e1ist in the state indicated #, *oint E in 4igure /.
The *ath E4 $ill #e !ollo$ed u*on reloading o! the soil.
It ma, #e seen that !or the same increase in e!!ecti"e stress3 the change in "oid ratio $ill #e much
less !or an o"erconsolidated soil )!rom e
0

to e
!
' than it $ould ha"e #een !or a normall,
consolidated soil. Fence settlements $ill generall, #e much smaller !or structures #uilt on
o"erconsolidated soils.
Most soils are o"erconsolidated to some degreeG this can #e due to the e!!ects o! shrin5ing and
s$elling o! the soil on dr,ing and re$etting3 changes in ground $ater le"els3 and unloading due to
erosion o! o"erl,ing strata.
Figure *: &y'ical effective stress( voids ratio res'onse
Soil Mechanics CIVL2410 Lecture 11 /
Q
P
R
e : e
0
e : e
!
O

0

!

*c
logarithmic scale
F
The distance !rom the normal consolidation line has an im*ortant in!luence on the soil #eha"iour.
This is descri#ed numericall, #, the o"erconsolidation ratio )OC'. The OC is de!ined as the
ratio o! the *reconsolidation stress to the current e!!ecti"e stress
OC
*c
=

)%'
+ote that $hen the soil is normall, consolidated OC : 1.
d) Estimation of the preconsolidation stress
< distinct change o! slo*e is not generall, o#ser"ed at the *reconsolidation *ressure3 ma5ing it
di!!icult to accuratel, determine its "alue. .m*irical *rocedures are used to estimate the
*reconsolidation stress3 the most $idel, used #eing CasagrandeAs construction $hich is
illustrated in 4igure =.
Figure +: ,asagrande-s construction for estimating 'reconsolidation 'ressure.
Soil Mechanics CIVL2410 Lecture 11 =
A
C
B
D
F

*c
e
log )@'
E
Ste*s in the construction are gi"en #elo$;
Determine the *oint o! ma1imum cur"ature <. )It@s im*ortant to dra$ the gra*h to a
sensi#le scale'
Dra$ a tangent to the cur"e at <3 i.e. line <&.
Dra$ a hori7ontal line at <3 i.e. line <C.
Dra$ the e1tension o! the straight line )normall, consolidated' *ortion o! the cur"e D..
>here the line D. cuts the #isector )<4' o! angle C<&3 is the *reconsolidation stress.
4or a normall, consolidated soil the *reconsolidation stress $ill #e the same as the "ertical
o"er#urden stress )due to $eight o! o"erl,ing soil' e1isting at the de*th !rom $hich the sam*le
$as ta5en. Some unloading o! the sam*le $ill ta5e *lace during sam*ling so that a
*reconsolidation stress ma, #e detected u*on reloading in the oedometer at the *oint $here the
soil is loaded #ac5 to the stress state e1isting in the ground.
<n o"erconsolidated soil $ill e1hi#it a *reconsolidation stress $hich is much larger than the
o"er#urden stress at the le"el !rom $hich it $as sam*led.
". #dealised
soil behaviour
The #eha"iour sho$n in 4igure % to 4igure / ma, #e idealised #, sim*le linear relationshi*s in a
"oid ratio3 e3 logarithm o! e!!ecti"e stress3 s@3 *lot as sho$n in 4igure 0. This idealisation is #ased
on o#ser"ations that;
the #eha"iour o! most normall, consolidated soils can #e a**ro1imated #, straight lines
!or the range o! stresses that are o! interest.
the res*onse o! most o"er8consolidated soils can #e a**ro1imated #, straight lines3 and
!urther;
the #eha"iour is assumed to #e re"ersi#le3 unloading and reloading !ollo$ the same *ath
the slo*e o! the unload8reload res*onse is constant
Figure /: 0dealised void ratio( effective stress relationshi'
Soil Mechanics CIVL2410 Lecture 11 0
e
log )@'
$. Com%ressi
on and Recom%ression #nde&es
4igure 10 sho$s a *ortion o! the e 8 log s@ *lot !or a normall, consolidated soil.
Figure 1#: 0dealised res'onse for 1ormally ,onsolidated !1," soil
Su**ose that a soil is in an initial state 0 and a!ter loading mo"es to the !inal state F3 as sho$n in
4igure 10.
Slo'e of 0F
e e e
F 0
F 0 F 0
=


=
log ! " log ! " log ! 2 "
1# 1# 1#

)-a'
&ecause the relationshi* #et$een e!!ecti"e stress and "oids ratio can #e closel, a**ro1imated #,
a straight line3 the slo*e is a constant. The slo*e constant3 C
c
is called the com*ression inde1.
Soil Mechanics CIVL2410 Lecture 11 10
e
,
F 0
c
log ! 2 "
1#

=

)-#'
The a#o"e eBuation can #e used to calculate the !inal "oids ratio !rom the 5no$n !inal e!!ecti"e
stress and initial conditions as !ollo$s;
e e ,
F 0 c F 0
= log ! 2 "
1#

)-c'
< similar a**roach is *ossi#le i! the soil is o"er8consolidated and the !inal stress is less than the
*reconsolidation stress3 this is sho$n in 4igure 11.
<gain su**ose that a soil is at an initial state 0 and a!ter loading mo"es to a !inal state F3 as
sho$n in 4igure 11. <s #e!ore $e ha"e;
Slo'e of 0F
e e e
F 0
F 0 F 0
=


=
log ! " log ! " log ! 2 "
1# 1# 1#

)/a'
Figure 11: 0dealised res'onse of 3ver ,onsolidated !3," soil
<s the relationshi* #et$een e!!ecti"e stress and "oids ratio is a**ro1imatel, linear3 thus;
e
,
F 0
r
log ! 2 "
1#

=

)/#'
The constant C
r
is called the recom*ression or s$elling inde1. <gain this eBuation can #e used to
determine the !inal "oids ratio *ro"ided the !inal e!!ecti"e stress and initial conditions are 5no$n3
as !ollo$s;
Soil Mechanics CIVL2410 Lecture 11 11
e e ,
F 0 r F 0
= log ! 2 "
1#

)/c'
Sometimes a soil ma, mo"e !rom an o"erconsolidated state to a normall, consolidated state.
Su**ose the initial state o! the soil is gi"en #, *oint 1 in 4igure 123 the *oint at $hich it reaches
the *reconsolidation stress is denoted #, 2 and the !inal state is denoted #, 3. The resulting
change in "oids ratio as the soil mo"es !rom the initial state 1 to the !inal state 3 can #e
considered to occur in t$o distinct stages. Stage 1 in $hich the soil is o"econsolidated and stage
2 in $hich the soil is normall, consolidated.
Figure 12: 4es'onse of soil moving from 3, to 1,
(1)
(2)
(3)
e
1
e
2
e
3
log ) '
10 1
log ) '
10 2
log ) '
10 3

Stage 1 )!rom *oint 1 to 2'; During stage 1 the soil is o"er8consolidated and so;
e e ,
r 2 1 1# 2 1
= log ! 2 "
)=a'
$here s@
2
: the initial "alue o! the *reconsolidation stress s@
*c
Stage 2 )!rom *oint 2 to 3' During stage 2 the soil is normall, consolidated and so;
e e ,
c 3 2 1# 3 2
= log ! 2 "
)=#'
Since the soil is normall, consolidated the current state o! e!!ecti"e stress $ill #e the
*reconsolidation stress and thus the !inal "alue o! the *reconsolidation stress )s@
*c
' $ill #e s@
3
I! the soil at *oint 33 $here it is normall, consolidated3 is unloaded so that the e!!ecti"e stress
dro*s3 the change in "oid ratio should #e determined !rom eBuation /c !or o"er8consolidated soil.
end