CONCRETE

STRUCTURES05

2
CONCRETE
STRUCTURES05
JANUARY2005
The Concrete Centre is the central market
development organisation for the 5 billion UK
concrete sector. The Centre works in the interests of
all those involved in concrete design and
construction. It focuses on design and construction
methods, education and training, research, new
product and process development and the
performance of concrete in practice. A free national
helpline for all concrete-related queries is available
on 0700 4 500 500.
The Concrete Centre works closely with other well-
established cement and concrete bodies in the UK.
For more information see: www.concretecentre.com
front cover image
Client: Salvation Army
Project: 101 Queen Victoria Street
Architect: Sheppard Robson
Engineer: Arup
CONTENTS
2 Resources for designers
3 Versatile concrete
4 Schools for the future
5 Thermal mass and structural design
6 Hybrid concrete construction
8 Eurocode 2
10 Finite element analysis
11 Concrete cores
12 Structural assistance
The concrete sector is leading the construction
industry in the introduction of Eurocodes. The
Concrete Centre is making the following
resources available in 2006 to enable designers
to follow this lead.
Publications and software
Concise Eurocode 2 CCIP-005
All the essential information needed
to design simple frames to Eurocode 2
Worked examples CCIP-007
Element design to Eurocode 2
Spreadsheets and User Guide CCIP-004
Update of the RCCs RC Spreadsheets to
Eurocode 2 (and to BS8110 Amendment 3)
How to extracts
Free extracts from CCIP-006 explaining how
to design concrete structures to Eurocode 2:
1. Introduction
2. Getting Started
3. Slabs
4. Beams
5. Columns
6. Foundations
7. Flat slabs
8. Deflections
Website
www.eurocode2.info
CALcrete
Computer aided learning of Eurocode 2
(and BS8110 )
CPDs
45 minute talks by The Concrete Centre staff
through Societies, Institutions and by
arrangement in offices.
Training
One and two-day courses available
Lecture material
5 basic PowerPoint files dealing with flexure,
basis of design, shear, deflection, detailing
For further information on the above contact the free national
concrete helpline on tel: 0700 4 500 500, visit
www.concretecentre.com or www.eurocode2.info
RESOURCES FOR DESIGNERS
HOW TO DESIGN
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
USING EUROCODE 2
This cement and concrete industry publication (CCIP),
published by The Concrete Centre, aims to make the
transition to Eurocode 2 as easy as possible by
drawing together in one place key information and
commentary required for the design of typical concrete
elements - flat slabs, beams, etc For further
information of Eurocode 2 see pages 8-9.
The publication, CCIP-006, can be pre-ordered from our
free national helpline, 0700 4 500 500. Alternatively
extracts will be available in forthcoming issues of
Structural Engineer.
Concrete offers the structural engineer a wide
range of material choices and construction
forms to choose from to meet design
constraints and performance requirements.
These constraints and requirements vary for
each building, but concrete warrants
consideration in all sectors.
Construction techniques
In the residential sector, flat slab construction
offers the thinnest possible structural solution
and, hence, minimises cladding costs.
Increasingly these slabs are being post-
tensioned making them even thinner. (Typically
50-75mm less than conventional flat slabs). For
student accommodation and hotels, tunnel form
construction and precast crosswall are fast to
build. They take advantage of the cellular
architecture by also making the separating walls
the structure, thereby reducing the period to
erect internal partitions. Both tunnel form and
crosswall can be arranged with openings for
two and three bedroom apartments.
Hospitals and laboratories are the most heavily
serviced buildings - the flat soffits of flat slabs
provide infinite flexibility during design and,
more importantly, operation for services
distribution. Flat slabs are also the most
economical at meeting vibration criteria.
In the retail and schools sector adaptability is an
important design issue, but it means different
things in each sector. In retail the ability to meet
tenant demands means being able to
accommodate large voids (e.g. escalators) and
high imposed loads (e.g. partitions). Hybrid
concrete construction, utilizing the best of in-situ
and precast concrete, can offer this flexibility, but
some design teams opt for in-situ slabs with
judicious over provision of reinforcement and
incorporation of knockout panels.
In the schools sector, the adaptability required is
generally on classroom size and often leads to
designs with columns with in-situ slab solutions
(flat slab, ribbed slab or one-way slab) or precast
floor planks on beams. However, crosswall
solutions with large openings (75% of classroom
width) have been used to provide flexibility of
joining classrooms (refer to article p.4 ).
Long span solutions offered by post tensioning
make concrete an option to be considered for all
commercial projects. 12m x 12m post-tensioned
flat slabs are economical, as demonstrated by
current London projects. For longer spans up to
18m, one-way post-tensioned slabs on post-
tensioned band beams provide an office solution
that avoids the constraint of integrating services
and structure.
Other concrete construction techniques may
suit particular projects. Precast concrete
cladding can be more than simply cladding.
Cladding panels with factory fitted insulation
and decorative finish are being produced on
automated carousels. They can be made as
load bearing elements supporting the
perimeter of floor structures.
Performance as standard
The changing regulatory environment is directly
affecting other members of the design team,
but indirectly affecting the structural engineer
and his/her solutions.
Changes in acoustics regulations (Part E) formalises
what structural engineers have always known
concretes mass makes it ideal for acoustic
performance. The required levels of sound
reduction can be met with a minimum of finishes
when concrete structural solutions are adopted.
Vibration criteria for hospitals and laboratories
often dictate design choices. An Arup report
1
concludes that concrete meets vibration criteria
at little or no extra cost, whereas other solutions
require significant additional mass and cost.
Once again structural engineers have always
known this and continue to adopt concrete.
Thermal mass is primarily the domain of the
architect and services engineer. The changing
Energy use in buildings regulations (Part L) will
lead to thermal mass being utilised more widely
and the necessary exposure of concrete
surfaces will impact on structural design choices
and wider use of concrete (refer to p.5 ).
Inherent fire resistance has and remains a key
advantage of concrete structures. Whilst life
safety requirements may minimise fire resistance
periods, there is a drive for property safety and
the ability to survive complete burn-out
2
. The
survival of the concrete structure of the Madrid
tower to complete burn-out is testament to
concretes inherent fire resistance. This should
perhaps be a key driver in schools where arson
rates are high and self insurance is common.
BRE, along with the Association of Building
Insurers is currently working on Loss Prevention
Standard LPS 20:20: a document that
highlights, amongst other things, durability,
design life, flooding resistance and damage
resistance. In areas such as these, concretes
inherent properties make it ideal for social
housing and public buildings.
Material Choices
The range of concretes available offer the
structural engineer wide choices. The latest
developments in ultra high strength concrete with
compressive strengths up to C160/C200 and
tensile strengths of up to 50 MPa (utilising steel
fibres), have been applied to structures overseas
with inspiring results (see picture). Which engineer
will be the first to use this material in the UK?
Time
The material choices and construction forms
available with concrete enable time constraints
to be met. If overall construction period is
critical, precast offers the option of pre-
manufacture and quick erection. For short lead-
in time in-situ concrete offers the best solution.
In terms of overall construction period, concrete
offers the fastest solution as follow on trades
and cladding can closely follow a concrete
frame to ensure the earliest completion.
Cost
A check list of items to consider when
assessing cost and value of a structural frame
is available from www.concretecentre.com.
This highlights the importance of considering all
issues, not frame cost alone when choosing a
structural solution. Concept.xls is a
sophisticated new spreadsheet for the
conceptual design of reinforced concrete
frames. It should be run on every new project
to compare frame choices. Up to date rates to
import into Concept.xls are available for
download from www.concretecentre.com.
1 Hospital Floor Vibration Study Arup 2004
2 Safety in Tall Buildings and other buildings with large
occupancy IStructE 2002
3
VERSATILE CONCRETE:
ALL OPTIONS AVAILABLE FOR YOUR NEXT PROJECT
Ultra-high strength
concrete spiral staircase,
Tuborg Nord, Copenhagen
4
The design and construction of schools can
play a major role in the effectiveness of
teaching. This quality of provision is the
focus of the Governments Building Schools
for the Future campaign (BSF).
BSF is the biggest single government
investment in improving school buildings for
over 50 years. The aim is to rebuild or renew
every secondary school in England over a 10
15 year period. This year the Chancellor
announced that he was extending the Schools
for the Future initiative into the primary sector.
Brown said that he was planning to invest a
total of 9.4bn over the next five years.
There are a number of key design issues for
primary and secondary schools. These are
outlined in the Building Bulletins BB99 and BB98
and the Key Design Guidance for Schools:
access to information for school design from
the Department for Education and Skills.
Key design issues for schools for the
future include:
Inspirational design to positively influence the
behaviour and enthusiasm of pupils and staff.
Flexibility and adaptability for short and long
term changes.
Comfort with regards to lighting, heating,
ventilation, humidity and acoustics and use
of thermal mass and night cooling.
Safety and security
Sustainability
Minimum BREEAM rating of very good
Fire resistance
Robustness in terms of reduced
maintenance resulting from robust wall
finishes for internal and external walls and
ceilings
Implementation in terms of timing and
phasing of construction, cost to be
calculated on a life-cycle cost basis,
buildability and off-site construction
opportunities
Structural considerations include the imposed
loading for a typical classroom being 3.0 kN/m
2
plus partitions. The acoustic design can lead to
the use of relatively heavy partitions and an
allowance of 2.5 kN/m
2
for partitions is likely to
be a minimum.
The room areas lead to typical spans of 7.5m
to 8.0m for classrooms and 16.5m to 17.5m
for the larger sports and main hall areas.
One of the key design issues is to ensure short
term and long term flexibility and adaptability
concerning the size and layout of the rooms.
There is usually a cost associated with
providing a structure that will allow the most
flexibility and adaptability. Short term flexibility
could be achieved by movable partitions.
However, movable partitions are expensive and
also have to satisfy the acoustic requirements
of BB93. An alternative way to provide flexibility
is to build larger classrooms, in this way the
premium paid for adaptability has an instant
return by way of more space. Adaptability may
require the structure to be built in large
structural sections of say three classrooms of
60 m
2
that can be changed to one of 70 m
2
and one of 110 m
2
. As always, the client must
decide how much flexibility he can afford up
front, and if the funds will be available to take
advantage of it in the future.
Precast concrete walls, concrete twinwall and
masonry crosswall construction with precast
concrete floor units are all ideal structural
options for classrooms. If maximum future
adaptability is required then an in-situ flat slab
construction would be appropriate. The soffits
of the concrete floors can be exposed to use
the slabs thermal mass together with night
cooling to reduce the need for energy intensive
air-conditioning. This is a significant
sustainability benefit and will help to satisfy the
BREEAM schools assessment and reduce the
whole life cost of the project.
Concretes heavyweight mass means that it can
easily meet acoustic insulation requirements and
its inherent fire resistance means that it is likely
to exceed the minimum fire requirements at no
extra cost. The resulting repair cost following
any fire will thus be reduced. Using precast
concrete on its own or with in-situ concrete, (i.e.
hybrid concrete construction), provides robust
exposed finishes and can give a shorter and
more risk free construction programme.
The area of a room depends on the use and type of school, primary or secondary. Guidance on
appropriate room areas is given in BB98 and BB99. For initial design some typical classroom sizes are:
Primary school room Area m
2
Secondary school room Area m
2
Nursery and Reception 63 Typical classroom 59
Infants and Juniors 57 Science laboratory 85
Main Hall 180 Textiles and 3D art rooms 106
Music Classroom 68 Main Hall 294
SCHOOLS FOR
THE FUTURE
Guidance for design
Information on BSF is at www.bsf.gov.uk and
this site contains links to other school web
sites. Partnership for Schools (PfS) is a new
body, jointly managed by the DfES and
Partnerships UK, with the participation of Public
Private Partnerships Programme (4ps), to co-
ordinate the national delivery of the BSF
programme. PfS has been created to be the
delivery vehicle for the BSF programme and
refers for design information to the TeacherNet
web site, www.teachernet.gov.uk .
At the TeacherNet web site the DfES document
Key Design Guidance for Schools: access to
information for school design, updated August
2004, can be downloaded. This guide refers to
various Building Bulletins for school design and
these can be downloaded. Some of the main
design Building Bulletins are:
BB98: Briefing Framework for Secondary
School Projects.
Briefing Framework for Primary School
Projects. First Draft.
BB87: Guidelines for Environmental Design in
Schools. 2nd Edition (May 2003)
BB93: Acoustic Design of Schools
BB7: Fire - is due in 2005.
BB95: Schools for the Future
The constructional standards BB87 and BB93
are used by Building Control Bodies as the
normal means of assessing compliance with
the Building Regulations for Schools. Building
Regulation Approved Documents in support of
Part F, 1995: Ventilation and Part L2, 2002:
Fuel and Power both quote BB87. The
constructional standard for acoustics is now
BB93 and this is quoted in AD E 2003.
The government is keen to ensure that
sustainability is at the top of the agenda for all
those involved in the construction of schools.
DfES requires that new primary school projects
costing over 500k and new secondary schools
costing over 2m achieve a BREEAM rating of
at least very good. Details of the BREEAM
Schools environmental assessment can be
found at the Building Research Establishment
web site www.breeam.org
In June 2003 the Government appointed eleven
design teams to develop exemplar designs for
schools fit for the twenty-first century. The
designs examined both primary and secondary
schools, including a 5 to 18 all-through school,
on a range of sites. The exemplar designs and
comments on them can found in Exemplar
Designs Compendium. This can be
downloaded at www.teachernet.gov.uk
The potential of concretes thermal mass to
realise fabric energy storage (FES) solutions
for improving the energy efficiency of
buildings and so reduce their carbon
emissions is being increasingly recognised.
Whilst this is primarily the domain of the
architect and services engineers, the
structural engineer needs to accommodate
the subsequent structural requirements.
The UK Climate Impacts Programme predicts
that by the 2080s, annual temperatures for the
UK may increase by up to 3.5C. In London,
peak summertime temperatures are likely to
increase by around 7C, taking a warm summer
day to over 40C. This will have a considerable
impact on the internal temperatures within the
buildings that we are designing and building
today, especially those that do not expose
thermal mass. Growing concern over climate
change, increasing energy prices, and changes
to the Building Regulations are increasing
pressure on designers and clients to realise the
potential of Fabric Energy Storage (FES). FES is
the ability of heavyweight materials, such as
concrete, to absorb and store heat.
Typically, using concretes FES can result in
internal temperatures being some 8C cooler
than peak external summertime temperatures.
The provision of a cooler and more comfortable
internal environmental would have a positive
effect on the workplace.
The minimum impact on the structural engineer
is the exposure of the floor structure. This will
affect the specification of surfaces and can be
a driver for the use of precast concrete due to
its high standard of exposed soffit finish. It may
also act as a driver towards using a coffered
slab, which with its additional surface area can
increase cooling by 10 to 20%.
In addition the cooling strategy may require air
movement into atria or faade chimneys. This
may influence the structural solution, for
example, the avoidance of downstand beams
which otherwise interrupt the airflow. The most
integrated designs will include air or water
movement through the floor structure. This will
affect the design and construction of the end of
the floor units where there is structural support
and entry/exit ducts. Established systems, such
as TermoDeck, have standard solutions for this.
The optimal thickness of concrete floors to
maximise FES is greater than 250mm. This
relies on exposure of both sides of the slabs.
The top surface of the slabs can be exposed
by passing air through a floor plenum and
having floor diffusers.
A FES system using exposed concrete soffits
provides a cooling capacity of up to 25W/m
2
of
floor area. Active FES systems, using ducted air
within the concrete slab, can provide cooling of up
to 40W/m
2
. Alternatively, water can be used in an
active concrete system as an effective cooling (or
heating) medium. Embedded pipes in floor slabs
can achieve a cooling capacity of 80W/m
2
. These
figures compare with typical heat gains in office
dues to equipment, lighting and people of 20 to
30 W/m
2
and solar gains of up to double this.
FES is by no means a new technology, indeed
the principle is the basis behind the construction
of ancient civilisations throughout the
Mediterranean. With Britain predicted to have
temperatures more associated with Southern
France, FES must become a key feature in the
design of new buildings. The high thermal mass
of concrete can contribute positively and cost
effectively to a significant reduction in the energy
consumption of buildings by minimising the need
for air-conditioning. Best of all, this is a
performance advantage that you get for free
from concrete construction.
A report from The Concrete Centre provides an
introduction to a range of FES solutions for
buildings appropriate for the design
professional, including natural ventilation with
exposed soffits, underfloor ventilation with
exposed soffits, permeable ceilings, hollowcore
slabs with mechanical ventilation, and water-
cooled slabs. Copies of Thermal Mass: A
Concrete Solution for the Changing Climate
are available free of charge from The Concrete
Centre, tel: 0700 4 500 500, or visit
www.concretecentre.com
5
Exposed concrete is a major feature
of the environmentally acclaimed
Jubilee Library, Brighton.
THERMAL MASS AND
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
CASE STUDY
Exposed concrete is a major feature of the
environmentally acclaimed Jubilee Library in
Brighton. The central space of the library is
constructed from a reinforced concrete table
supported by a series of eight tree-like
concrete columns with fins that support an
exposed ceiling soffit. The thermal sink
provided by this exposed concrete plays an
important role in the buildings FES approach.
Incorporated within the ceilings of the rooms
on either side of the central atrium are 1200 x
260mm TermoDeck precast hollowcore slabs.
During the summer, air is pumped through the
TermoDeck to cool temperatures inside the
building. In addition to the exposed concrete,
three five-metre tall wind towers on the roof
draw warm air up and out of the building.
The library has a conventional air-conditioning
chiller unit for use when outside temperatures
exceed 30C, but even during the peak
temperatures experienced in 2005, the unit
was not needed. The overall cooling effect
achieved by FES and the associated passive
cooling system is estimated to be some 5C
lower than the ambient external temperature.
Precast columns and edge beams
with cast in-situ floor slab
Advantages:
Columns can be erected quickly
Precast quality finish for columns
Precast edge beam houses post tension anchorages, slab edge
reinforcement and cladding fixings. Avoids need for slab edge shuttering.
Post-tensioning minimises materials handling, steel fixing and striking times
More flexibility for late changes
Example Chiswick Park, London
Utilising post-tensioned in-situ slabs with precast columns and edge
units ensured the most efficient structural solution was specified which
successfully met the fast-track programme.
6
Hybrid concrete construction (HCC), in which in-situ and precast
concrete are combined for maximum benefit. The drivers for this include
contractors seeking ways of speeding construction and architects
demanding precast quality soffits to utilise concretes thermal mass.
Hybrid concrete construction provides:
Faster construction
Improved safety on site
Cost effective construction
Simple, buildable structures
Excellent fire performance
Sustainability benefits associated with high thermal mass
Exceptional acoustic performance
Whatever the drivers, engineers have many hybrid concrete options to
choose from. Those presented here are representative of current UK practice.
It is not intended to be exhaustive but to reflect the spectrum of possibilities.
Key:
precast in-situ
HYBRID CONCRETE
Precast twin wall and lattice girder soffit slab
with in-situ infill and topping
Advantages:
Precast quality finish for walls and soffits
No formwork for vertical structures
Structural connection between wall and slabs is by standard
reinforced concrete detail, is inherently robust and for basements can
be made watertight
No permanent sealing at connections between precast units
Flexible for casting-in items
Example Hilton Hotel, More London
The walls have two skins of precast concrete including all of the engineer's
reinforcement requirements and a central cavity which is filled with in-situ
concrete at site. Floor units are 50mm thick with 150mm topping and
typically span 4.2m. The hotel floors (21 bedrooms) including all main
structural walls, floors, lift and stair risers were completed in 5-day cycles.
Hilton Hotel, More London
Photo: Courtesy of John
Doyle Construction
7
Hybrid concrete construction: combining precast and in-situ
is a 12 page publication that provides further information and case
studies. Best practice guidance for hybrid concrete construction,
explains the principles of hybrid concrete construction with detailed
process maps. Copies are available from The Concrete Bookshop,
tel: 0700 4 500 500, or visit: www.concretebookshop.com
CONSTRUCTION
Precast columns and floor units
with cast in-situ beams
Advantages:
Vertical structure can be erected quickly,
no formwork required
Precast floor structure can be erected quickly,
no formwork required
Precast quality finish for columns and soffits
Structural connection between precast elements
is via standard reinforced concrete details
Example Homer Road, Solihull
HCC was used to create a moment frame. The structure comprises
precast columns, precast beam shells with in-situ infill and floor units.
These are all exposed. The soffits of the concrete floor slabs are
exposed so that temperature and ventilation strategy can exploit the
potential of the concretes thermal mass for fabric energy storage.
Cast in-situ columns and beams
with precast floor units
Advantages:
Precast floor structure can be erected quickly
Precast quality finish for soffits
In-situ can account for site irregularities
Example Whitefriars, Canterbury
The use of HCC reduced construction costs and time. In the multi-storey
car park, hollowcore floor slabs on in-situ beams provided 16 x 9.6m
bays. Use of hollowcore for the ground floor, with perimeter in-situ
connection to the secant piled walls allowed top-down construction with
no further slab falsework.
Cast in-situ columns and floor toppings
with precast beams and floor units
Advantages:
Precast flooring can be erected quickly
Precast beams support precast floor planks minimising floor propping
Precast quality finish for soffits
Formwork for in-situ columns can be used to prop precast beams
Structural connection between precast elements is via standard
reinforced concrete details
In-situ topping to beam permits beams to be continuous over columns
Example Home Office, London
In order to meet tight programme deadlines and the demand for a high
quality, durable structural frame, a hybrid solution which comprised
precast floor planks and precast beams with in-situ core walls, columns
and slab topping was chosen
Photo: Courtesy of
Foggo Associates
8
The introduction and implementation of the
new Eurocodes is a significant event for the
UK construction industry. BS EN 1992,
Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures
will affect all concrete design once the
current British Standards, BS 8110 for
Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures,
BS8007 Design of Concrete Structures for
Retaining Aqueous Liquids and BS5400
Steel and Concrete Bridge Design have
been withdrawn. This is due to happen by
2010, but BS 8110 may be withdrawn as
early as January 2008.
Ultimately Eurocode 2 will become the one
design code for all concrete structures in the
UK and Europe. It will bring reinforced concrete
design up-to-date. Whilst Parts 1-1 and 1-2
have been published, we await Part 2 Bridges
and Part 3 Liquid Retaining Structures and all
the National Annexes (NAs). NAs give specific
rules for the use of Eurocode 2 in a specific
country. The UK annexes for Parts 1-1 and 1-2
should be available for use from January 2006.
Once these are published it will then be
possible to use Eurocode 2.
Some European Standards will not be
available, but as the background document to
the UK NA explains, the intention is that during
the interim period, where not all ENs are
available or are covered by UK NAs, relevant
current British Standards can be used.
Examples include wind loads, design of
foundations and couplers.
The design process will not change as a result
of using Eurocode 2. Eurocode 2 is laid out to
deal with phenomena rather than elements.
There are also specific rules dealing with
beams, slabs, flat slabs, columns, walls, deep
beams, foundations, tying systems and precast
concrete. In the long term, it is anticipated that
Eurocode 2 will result in more economic
structures so conceptual design done to, say,
BS8100 may confidently be taken through to
detail design using Eurocode 2.
A range of resources is being made available
via The Concrete Centre, to help with the
transition from BS8110 to Eurocode 2.
A dedicated website, www.eurocode2.info, has
now been launched. This provides advice and
assistance on the introduction, interpretation
and implementation of Eurocode 2. In addition,
there is latest news concerning Eurocode 2,
detailed analysis and examination of the code
plus free downloads and a FAQ section. A
series of seminars and courses on Eurocode 2
throughout the UK has begun and a series of
guides under the banner How to Design
Concrete Structures using Eurocode 2 will be
published. These will be distributed free in
relevant publications once the UK National
Annex has been finalised.
The guides aim to make the transition as easy
as possible by drawing together the key
information and commentary necessary for the
design of typical concrete elements, such as
slabs, beams, columns etc. The Concrete
Centre will also publish a Concise Eurocode 2
(CCIP-005) that brings together information for
building structures, spreadsheets for design to
Eurocode 2 and a book of worked examples.
Publications on civil engineering subjects such
as integral bridges worked examples will follow.
The UK construction industry faces a major
challenge with the replacement of British
Standards by Eurocodes. The Concrete Centre
is making available a range of resources that will
assist with the interpretation and use of
Eurocode 2 and associated Eurocodes. With
these resources, design offices can start
introducing Eurocodes through concrete design.
If you require information or assistance relating
to Eurocoded 2, callour free national helpline
on 0700 4 500 500.
EUROCODE 2
EUROCODE 2
BENEFITS
Learning to use the new Eurocodes will require
time and effort, so what are the benefits?
Eurocode 2 should result in more economic
concrete structures
Eurocode 2 is less restrictive than
British Standards
Eurocode 2 is extensive and
comprehensive
The new Eurocodes are claimed to be
the most technically advanced codes in
the world
In Europe, all public works must allow the
Eurocodes to be used for structural design.
Use of the Eurocodes will provide more
opportunity for designers to work
throughout Europe and for Europeans to
work in the UK
The Eurocodes are logical and organised
to avoid repetition.
The 1st January 2006 will see the implementation
of revised British Standards dealing with the
reinforcement of concrete. Many of the revisions
are the result of falling into line with the
requirements of European Standards. Other
revisions reflect contemporary good practice.
In summary, reinforced material standards are
as follows:
BS EN10080:2005 Weldable steel for the
reinforcement of concrete
It will be implemented in the UK in late 2005.
it gives no actual specification or figures, that
is left to the National Standards.
BS 4449:2005 Weldable reinforcing steel
This will be implemented in January 2006
BS 4482: 2005 Steel wire for the
reinforcement of concrete products
This will be implemented in January 2006
BS 4483:2005 steel fabric for the
reinforcement of concrete
This will be implemented in January 2006
For a full description of the changes visit:
www.eurocode2.info
BS 8666:2005 Scheduling, dimensioning,
bending and cutting of steel reinforcement.
The main change is that there will be far more
shape codes available in BS 8666:2005. 34
shape codes (plus shape code 99) will now be
available, compared to the 13 in the 2000
version. Old favourites have returned, including:
Single leg link, SC22 (the old SC85 to
BS 4466:1989
Two-legged link, SC47 (the old SC77)
Torsion links, SC63
Chairs, SC98
New shapes have been introduced in order to
stop the plethora of standard shape code 99s
that have emerged from different sources.
Fabricators have been reporting up to 10%
shape code 99s going through. That is a lot of
bars for the detailer to draw, the fabricator to
process (redraw, bend, check) and the fixer to
recognise. So the decision was made to
increase the available number of shape codes in
BS 8666. Shape code 99s will not be
completely eradicated, but the hope is that there
will be considerably less to everyones benefit.
The notation of steel reinforcement has had
to change with the changes to BS 4449 and
requirements of BS EN 1992-1-1. The new
notation is set out in table 1. Grade 250 has
disappeared, it does not comply with BS EN
1992-1-1 nor does it have any economic or
bend advantage. H indicates 500 grade,
hence will replace T in T16, T25 etc. A, B and
C indicates 500 grade with the ductility of (Agt
percentage elongation at maximum force) of at
least 2.5%, 5.0% or 7.5% respectively.
Reinforcement to BS 4482 is no longer
allowed, it does not conform to the
requirements of BS EN 1992-1-1.
It has been recognised that many schedules
are by agreement, prepared, sent and used as
electronic data. A new section gives guidance
on the preparation of such files essentially
they should follow the requirements of the
paper-based versions.
The requirements of BS 4483: 2005 have
caused the withdrawal of standard fabrics A98
and B196 and changes to fabrics C503, C385
and C283 where 5mm bars have been
replaced with 6mm bars.
It should be noted that the IStructE/Concrete
Society detailing manual has been updated and
should be available in late 2005. It embraces
the changes in BS 8666: 2005. The manual will
reflect current good practice.
Implementation
BS 10080: 2005 is due to be implemented at
the end of November 2005. BS 4449: 2005,
BS 4482:2005 and BS 4483: 2005 will be
implemented on 1st January 2006.
The revisions will cause some major changes in
the reinforcement supply chain. But designers,
specifiers and contractors will need to heed
some of the changes too. UK CARES
(www.UKCARES.co.uk) have already been
educating fabricators and mills about the
imminent changes.
BS 8666: 2005 is intended to be used with
material to BS 4449 (1997 or 2005 versions) and
BS 4483. It will be implemented on 1st January
2006 at the same time as BS 4449: 2005, BS
4482: 2005 and BS 4483: 2005. It is presumed
that existing projects will continue to use the
older standards and that only new 20006
designs to BS 8110 or Eurocode 2 will embrace
the new reinforcement standards. It will therefore
be some time before schedules to BS 8666:
2005 feed through the system. It should be clear
from the bottom of the bending schedule which
version of BS 8666 is being used.
Users will be assured to know that material to BS
4449: 2005 will satisfy BS 4449: 1997. However,
designers must not use the B500, 500Mpa to BS
4449: 2005 with the y factors in BS 8110: 1997.
The British Association of Reinforcement intend
to release laminated versions of the revised
shape codes in time for the changeover.
9
Table 1 Notation of steel reinforcement
Type of steel reinforcement Notation
Grade B500A, Grade B500B or Grade B500C conforming to BS 4449:2005 H
Grade B500A conforming to BS4449:2005 A
Grade B500B or Grade B500C conforming to BS 4449:2005 B
Grade B500C conforming to BS 4449:2005 C
A specified grade and type of ribbed stainless steel conforming to BS 6744:2001 S
Reinforcement of a type not included in the above list having material properties X
NOTE: in the Grade description B500A, etc B indicates reinforcing steel
NEW REINFORCEMENT STANDARDS
Amendment 3 to BS 8110:1997 was issued for
public comment in 2005. While the amendment is
large and affects many clauses, the actual changes
essentially revolve around two new standards.
BS 8500
Recommendations for durability will be
removed from BS 8110:1997 and replaced
with references to exposure classification and
durability in BS 8500. There are also changes
in terminology, eg the dual cylinder/cube
strength notation.
Nominal cover maximum covers from BS
8110:1997, bond etc and from BS 8500 for
durability etc + design fixing tolerances (which
is taken to be 10mm unless the fabrication is
subject to a quality assurance system in which
case may be reduced to 5mm.
The The Concrete Centres How to use BS
8500 with BS 8110 is available from
www.concretecentre.com to help users
determine required concrete and covers.
BS 4449:2005
UK industry has agreed to adopt Grade 500
high yield steel for reinforcement. The 500 MPa
strength may be considered as being a
characteristic strength and until such time as
there is sufficient data available to the new
standard in BS 8110, it has been considered
wise to increase the material factor to 1.15.
This necessitates many changes, especially
1/1.05 = 0.95 to 1/1.15 = 0.87 in many
formulae. Engineers will note that 460/1.05 very
nearly equals 500/1.15.
Other changes include: a new tying provision
that requires two bottom bars to pass through
the tops of columns; changes to the anchorage
provisions for precast floor, stair and roof
membranes; reference to model specification
for bonded and unbonded post-tensioned flat
slabs and updated references.
BS 8110:1997 : AMENDMENT 3
Finite Element (FE) analysis, a powerful
computer method, has become an
increasingly popular method for analysing
flat slab concrete structures. However, there
are some pitfalls to avoid, that often catch
out the unwary, which are discussed below.
A common myth is that FE will give you lower
bending moments and deflections than would
be obtained by traditional methods. In fact, a
comparative study was carried out by Jones
and Morrison
1
and this demonstrated that using
FE methods for a rectangular grid gives similar
results to other analysis methods including yield
line and equivalent frame analysis. Therefore,
for simple structures there is no benefit in using
FE analysis, and hand methods or specialised
software are probably more time-efficient.
FE software is now relatively simple to use, but
the engineer should still understand what the
software is doing on his/her behalf and what
default parameters have been assumed in the
package, particularly for deflection calculations.
A linear elastic FE analysis can be used by
assuming reinforced concrete is an elastic
isotropic material, as is generally assumed for
hand analysis. It is suitable for carrying out a
design at the ultimate limit state (ULS) and the
serviceability limit state (SLS) can be checked
by using one deemed to satisfy span-to-depth
ratios in BS 8110, or by considering the long-
term creep, shrinkage and cracking effects.
Ultimate Limit State
At the ULS the key points to watch are:
1. Columns should be included in the analysis
model or column stiffness should be
considered in the analysis by calculating a
rotational spring stiffness in X and Y
directions at each support.
2. The twisting moment Mxy needs to be
apportioned to direction of the reinforcement
(usually X and Y). The most widely used
method in the UK is Wood-Armer moments
2,3
,
although there are other methods.
3. The maximum moment that can be
transferred between the slab and the column
should be checked against code provisions.
4. High peak moments are usually generated in
concentrated zones over the supports. In
reality, reinforced concrete will crack and
yield under these peak stresses, which will
be distributed to adjacent areas. For design,
these peaks should be averaged over a
design strip.
5. The design moments can be taken at the
face of the column.
Serviceability Limit State
It is acceptable to check deflection criteria
using linear analysis by determining the
cracked stiffness of the slab (which is
approximately 1/2 the gross stiffness).
However, since many programs calculate the
slab stiffness from the depth of the slab, it is
usual to adjust the elastic modulus to achieve
the same result. The gross depth should be
used in the analysis to ensure that the correct
torsional constant is used.
A long term elastic modulus must be used,
which will generally be in the range 1/3 to 1/2
of the short term value. When this is combined
with the adjustment for the cracked section
properties, the elastic modulus used in the
analysis should be in the range 1/6 to 1/4 of
the short term value.
Where an estimate of deflection is required then
a non-linear analysis is essential. The user
should fully understand how the software is
carrying out the deflection calculations, since
there is a large variety of methods employed
within the different software packages. Even
with the most sophisticated analysis, the
estimate of deflection is reliant on the accuracy
of the elastic modulus value used. This varies
due to many factors including age and duration
of loading and properties of the aggregates
used. It is advisable to give a suitable caveat
with any estimate of deflection which other
parties will be relying on. Further advice on SLS
can be found in Concrete Society report TR58
4
.
Validation
Before any analysis is carried out using
computer software, it is always good practice
to carry out some simple hand calculations to
verify the results. It is particularly important to
do this when using FE, and not treat the
computer as a black box. A check should be
carried out to confirm that the bending
moments are reasonable. Also, the total load
on the slab should be calculated and
compared against the sum of the reactions
from the model. Always include any hand
checks in your calculations.
The use of FE analysis is certain to increase in
the future. The practising engineer should
understand how to correctly model concrete,
know the limitations of the software and be
able to correctly interpret the results. He must
also ensure that sufficient validation checks are
carried out to ensure that the output is correct.
1. Jones A.E.K. & Morrison J. Flat slab design past present
and future, Structures and Buildings, April 2005
2. Wood RH. The reinforcement of slabs in accordance with a
pre-determined field of moments, Concrete, February 1968,
pp69-76
3. Armer GST. Correspondence. Concrete, April 1968, pp319-
320
4. Concrete Society. TR58 Deflections in concrete slabs and
beams Concrete Society 2005
10
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF
CONCRETE FLAT SLABS
Deflection Contour Display courtesy of CSC Orion
The design and construction of large
occupancy buildings continues to be subject
to review in the UK as the repercussions of
World Trade Center are taken into
consideration. The NIST National Institute of
Standards and Technology report into the
WTC disaster was issued, following a period
of public comment, in September 2005 and
has thirty recommendations.
Two of these relate to core construction (see box).
These closely match guidance already issued in
the UK. The Institution of Structural Engineers
convened a working group which prepared
Safety in Tall Buildings and other buildings with
large occupancy July 2002 (see box).
The guidance in both reports is that in addition
to providing a fire resistant escape route, the
route must be robust. It must be hardened to
ensure it remains fire resistant and functional
when subjected to an event.
The provision of robust and hardened escape
routes is most effectively done by using
concrete. Since 9/11 there has already been
a shift in design of tall buildings by major
consultancies to using concrete cores. After
all, rather than have to clad a skeletal frame
and have to detail cladding to resist an event,
the inherent robustness of a concrete wall will
provide both the structure and the cladding for
a robust enclosure.
Constructing concrete cores
Concrete cores can be constructed using
precast concrete, in-situ concrete or hybrid
concrete construction.
Precast cores are commonly used in 100%
precast buildings such as crosswall residential
developments or precast car parks, but are
also used elsewhere. They can be formed from
2D panels or 3D units comprising L elements
or closed cell elements. In all cases the
connections are the key to the solution. Hybrid
concrete cores using precast twinwall with in-
situ, infill are likely to become more common as
the use of precast twinwall increases generally
(see page 6). In-situ cores remain the most
common perhaps because of the very high
level of innovation in terms of speed, health and
safety and adaptability in recent years.
The three major in-situ methods of forming
cores are jumpform, climbform and slipform.
Whilst different formwork suppliers have
proprietary products, they fall into these three
categories. Jumpform and climbform have
discrete lifts after which the formwork is raised
for the subsequent lift. They are raised by tower
crane in the case of jumpform or are self
climbing in the case of climbform. The
tolerance of construction is limited by setting
out rather than the formwork as this is
fabricated to 1 or 2mm. The top of each lift can
be correctly set out each time. Typically higher
strengths of concrete (C50/60) are used to
enable a quick succession of pours, often one
lift per 24 hour cycle. Slipform systems are
constructed to equivalent tight tolerances.
Based on a normal shift, slipform has little
speed advantage. However, if 24 hour working
is possible slipform offers greater speeds of
construction. Slipform systems can operate
effectively on C32/40 mixes carefully designed
with appropriate retardants.
CONCRETE CORES
NIST* recommendations relating
directly to core construction:
18 - Design of occupant friendly evacuation
paths that maintain functionality in
foreseeable emergencies.
21 - Fire protected and structurally hardened
elevators
(NIST recommendations relating to
progressive collapse (1) and lateral stiffness
(3) also have implications for core
construction, as do those relating to fire
resistance).
IStructE** recommendations relating
to core construction:
7.4.1.2
Shafts containing escape routes need to
have sufficient structural robustness and
integrity so that there is only a small risk of
them becoming impassable by occupants
during an extreme event.
7.4.1.3
It may be that properly designed and
protected lifts can be used for evacuation
generally.
*www.nist.gov/public_affairs/ncst/sept2005_meeting/sunder
NCSTAC(2)091205%20final.pdf
** Safety in Tall Buildings and other Buildings with Large
Occupancy
11
Lancefield Quay, Glasgow.
Photo: PERI Ltd
STRUCTURAL ASSISTANCE
The Concrete Centre has an ongoing programme of initiatives aimed at assisting all members of the professional and
project team. Those aimed at structural engineers include:
In-house CPD presentations
Eurocode 2
An introduction to Eurocode 2, how the codes
are structured and how they are applied
together with an examination of the
publications available to help designers.
Specifying appropriate and durable
concrete mixes
Examination of how, following the
recommendations of the new British Standard
BS8500 (which supersedes BS 5328), to
specify the appropriate concrete.
Post-tensioned slabs
Introduction to the technique of post-tensioning
and presentation of design parameters to allow
consideration of post-tensioning at the early
stages of project design.
Cellular construction
for residential buildings
Introduction to tunnel form construction and
precast crosswall structures that examines the
design advantages and architectural
constraints.
Hybrid concrete construction (HCC)
HCC exploits the benefits of both precast and
in-situ concrete. The CPD presentation explains
the options available and demonstrates how to
gain the best out of HCC by considering the
approach at the early stages of procurement.
Software/Design Tools
Concept.xls
Concept.xls is a sophisticated new
spreadsheet for the conceptual design of
reinforced concrete frames. Concept should be
run on every new project to compare frame
choices. It is quick and easy to use.
Concept.xls is available on CD or as a free trial
download. For this or registration for
commercial use and future updates visit
www.concretecentre.com.
RC-Spreadsheets
The design spreadsheets help with the rapid
production of clear and accurate design
calculations for reinforced concrete elements.
RC-Spreadsheets are available on CD or as a
free trial download. For this or registration for
commercial use and future updates visit
www.concretecentre.com.
CALcrete
CALcrete is a comprehensive suite of 16
computer-aided e-learning modules on concrete
materials, design and construction. The suite
contains up to 20 days worth of essential CPD
learning material and is fully updated to the latest
version of Eurocode 2, January 2004. Trial
downloads are available from visiting the Frame
Buildings section on www.concretecentre.com.
Practical yield line design
A world leading pre-scheme design handbook
that helps designers choose the most effective
building frame solution from in-situ, precast,
hybrid and prestressed options. The handbook
results from the research carried out at the
European Concrete Building Project at
Cardington. Yield line design is a robust and
proven design technique. For further details tel:
0700 4 500 500 or visit
www.concretecentre.com.
Publications
National Structural Concrete
Specification, Edition 3
The National Specification has been produced
by consultants, clients and main contractors as
well as specialist frame contractors. It is a
valuable tool to promote better understanding
and efficiency. For further details: tel: 0700 4
500 500.
Best Practice Guidance for Hybrid
Concrete Construction
Definitive procurement guidance and case studies
on how to realise the benefits of hybrid concrete
construction where the construction techniques of
precast and in-situ concrete are married to
complement each other. For further details tel: 0700
4 500 500 or visit www.concretecentre.com.
Best Practice Guides
A new series of case studies based on the St
George Wharf development in Vauxhall, London,
where the recommendations and innovations
resulting from the European Concrete Building
Project were trialled. Innovations include
reinforcement rationalisation, advanced
deflection prediction techniques and the use of
special concretes. For free copies tel: 0700 4
500 500 or visit www.concretecentre.com.
High Performance Hospitals using
Concrete Frames and Cladding
Good hospital design can provide more efficient
facilities and a better environment for both staff
and patients. Concrete construction provides great
opportunities for the project team to meet the
needs of the client by improving the function, value
and whole life performance of the facility often at
no or little additional cost. For free copies tel: 0700
4 500 500 or visit www.concretecentre.com.
Thermal Mass: A Concrete Solution for
the Changing Climate
Exploiting the thermal mass of concrete as part of
a Fabric Energy Storage (FES) solution can
provide an effective means of maintaining a
comfortable internal environment while reducing
or even avoiding the need for energy intensive air-
conditioning. This publication outlines the
application of FES techniques using cast in-situ
and precast floor slabs. For free copies tel: 0700
4 500 500 or visit www.concretecentre.com.
12
Tel: +44 (0) 1276 606800
E-mail: info@concretecentre.com
Internet: www.concretecentre.com
Photo: Falcon Wharf
Courtesy of Getjar