De re militari

Introduction
(This introduction was written for a British 1940 reprint of DE RE MILITRI! uthor
un"nown!#
The most influential military treatise in the western world from Roman times to the 19th Century
was Vegetius' DE RE MILITARI Its im!ressions on our own traditions of dis"i!line and
organi#ation are e$erywhere e$ident
The Austrian %ield Marshal& 'rin"e de Ligne& as late as 1(()& "alled it a golden *oo+ and wrote,
-A .od& said Vegetius& ins!ired the legion& *ut for myself& I find that a .od ins!ired Vegetius-
Ri"hard Coeur de Lion "arried DE RE MILITARI e$erywhere with him in his "am!aigns& as did
his father& /enry II of England Around 1))) A D Vegetius was the fa$orite author of %oul0ues
the 1la"+& the a*le and fero"ious Count of An2ou 3umerous manus"ri!t "o!ies of Vegetius
"ir"ulated in the time of Charlemagne and one of them was "onsidered a ne"essity of life *y his
"ommanders A manus"ri!t Vegetius was listed in the will of Count E$erard de %re2us& a*out 45(
A D& in the time of Ludwig the 6ust
In his Memoirs& Monte"u"ulli& the "on0ueror of the Tur+s at 7t .otthard& wrote, -/owe$er& there
are s!irits *old enough to *elie$e themsel$es great "a!tains as soon as they +now how to handle
a horse& "arry a lan"e at "harge in a tournament& or as soon as they ha$e read the !re"e!ts of
Vegetius- 7u"h was the re!utation of Vegetius for a thousand years
Manus"ri!t "o!ies dating from the 1)th to the 18th "enturies are e9tant to the num*er of 18) DE
RE MILITARI was translated into English& %ren"h& and 1ulgarian *efore the in$ention of
!rinting The first !rinted edition was made in :tre"ht in 1;(5 It was followed in 0ui"+
su""ession *y editions in Cologne& 'aris and Rome It was first !u*lished in English *y Ca9ton&
from an English manus"ri!t "o!y& in 1;49
%la$ius Vegetius Renatus was a Roman of high ran+ In some manus"ri!ts he is gi$en the title of
"ount Ra!hael of Volterra "alls him a Count of Constantino!le Little is +nown of his life It is
a!!arent from his *oo+ that he had not had e9tensi$e !ra"ti"al e9!erien"e as a soldier /e states
0uite fran+ly that his !ur!ose was to "olle"t and synthesi#e from an"ient manus"ri!ts and
regulations the military "ustoms and wisdom that made an"ient Rome great A""ording to his
statement& his !rin"i!al sour"es were Cato the Elder& Cornelius Celsus& 'aternus& %rontinus& and
the regulations and ordinan"es of Augustus& Tra2an and /adrian
The Em!eror Valentinian& to whom the *oo+ is dedi"ated& is *elie$ed to *e the se"ond em!eror
of that name /e e$idently was not Valentinian I sin"e his su""essor& .ratian& is named in the
*oo+ 1etween the reign of Valentinian II and Valentinian III& Rome was ta+en and *urned *y
Alari"& <ing of the .oths& an e$ent that un0uestiona*ly would ha$e *een mentioned had it
o""urred *efore the *oo+ was written Vegetius mentions the defeat of the Roman armies *y the
.oths& *ut !ro*a*ly refers to the *attle of Adriano!le where Valens& the "olleague of Valentinian
I& was +illed
It is a !arado9 that DE RE MILITARI& whi"h was to *e"ome a military *i*le for innumera*le
generations of Euro!ean soldiers& was little used *y the Romans for whom it was written The
de"ay of the Roman armies had !rogressed too far to *e arrested *y Vegetius' !leas for a return to
the $irtues of dis"i!line and "ourage of the an"ients At the same time Vegetius' ho!e for a
re$i$al of the an"ient organi#ation of the legion was im!ra"ti"a*le Ca$alry had ado!ted the
armor of the foot soldier and was 2ust "ommen"ing to *e"ome the !rin"i!al arm of the military
for"es The hea$y armed foot=soldier& formerly the *a"+*one of the legion& was falling a $i"tim
of his own weight and immo*ility& and the light=armed infantry& una*le to resist the sho"+ of
"a$alry& was turning more and more to missile wea!ons 1y one of the strange mutations of
history& when later the "ross=*ow and gun=!owder de!ri$ed "a$alry of its sho"+=!ower& the
ta"ti"s of Vegetius again *e"ame ideal for armies& as they had *een in the times from whi"h he
drew his ins!iration
Vegetius un"easingly em!hasi#ed the im!ortan"e of "onstant drill and se$ere dis"i!line and this
as!e"t of his wor+ was $ery tiresome to the soldiers of the middle ages& the feudal system
lending itself *ut !oorly to dis"i!line -Vi"tory in war&- he states in his o!ening senten"e& -does
not de!end entirely u!on num*ers or mere "ourage> only s+ill and dis"i!line will insure it- /is
first *oo+ is de$oted to the sele"tion& training and dis"i!line of re"ruits /e insists u!on the
utmost meti"ulousness in drill -3o !art of drill is more essential in a"tion than for soldiers to
+ee! their ran+s with the greatest e9a"tness- /is des"ri!tion of the many arms whi"h the Roman
soldier was re0uired to *e"ome e9!ert in reminds one of the almost innumera*le duties of the
!resent day infantryman Re"ruits were to *e hardened so as to *e a*le to mar"h twenty miles in
half a summer's day at ordinary ste! and twenty=four miles at 0ui"+ ste! It was the an"ient
regulation that !ra"ti"e mar"hes of this distan"e must *e made three times a month
The se"ond *oo+ deals with the organi#ation and offi"ers of the legion& the an"ient system of
!romotion& and how to form the legion for *attle ?e find the Romans !ro$ided for soldier's
de!osits& 2ust as is done in the Ameri"an army today> that guard and duty rosters were +e!t in
those days as now> and that the Roman system of guard duty is only slightly different from our
manual for interior guard duty The field musi" is des"ri*ed and is an ornamental !rogenitor of
that in use in :nited 7tates The legion owed its su""ess& a""ording to Vegetius& to its arms and
its ma"hines& as well as to the *ra$ery of its soldiers The legion had fifty=fi$e *allista for
throwing darts and ten onagri& drawn *y o9en& for throwing stones E$ery legion "arried its
!onton e0ui!ment& -small *oats hollowed out of a single !ie"e of "im*er& with long "a*les or
"hains to fasten them together- And in addition were -whate$er is ne"essary for e$ery +ind of
ser$i"e& that the en"am!ments may ha$e all the strength and "on$enien"es of a fortified "ity-
Trains of wor+men were !ro$ided to !erform all the duties now !erformed *y the $arious
ser$i"es in armies
The third *oo+ deals with ta"ti"s and strategy and it was this !ortion of Vegetius that influen"ed
war in the Middle Ages so greatly /e e9!lains the use of reser$es& attri*uting this in$ention to
the 7!artans& from whom the Romans ado!ted it -It is mu"h *etter to ha$e se$eral *odies of
reser$es than to e9tend your front too mu"h- = an in2un"tion as good today as when it was
written En"ir"ling !ursuit is des"ri*ed The terrain is not o$erloo+ed -The nature of the ground
is often of more "onse0uen"e than "ourage- The enemy should *e estimated "arefully -It is
essential to +now the "hara"ter of the enemy and of their !rin"i!al offi"ers=whether they *e rash
or "autious& enter!rising or timid& whether they fight from "areful "al"ulation or from "han"e-
Vegetius' wor+ is filled with ma9ims that ha$e *e"ome a !art of our e$eryday life -/e& therefore&
who as!ires to !ea"e should !re!are for war- -The an"ients !referred dis"i!line to num*ers- -In
the midst of !ea"e& war is loo+ed u!on as an o*2e"t too distant to merit "onsideration- -%ew men
are *orn *ra$e> many *e"ome so through training and for"e of dis"i!line-
Vegetius was a reformer who attem!ted to restore the degenerate Romans of the ;th Century to
the military $irtues of the an"ients& whom he ne$er "eases to laud /is little *oo+ was made short
and easy to read& so as not to frighten& *y a too arduous te9t& the readers whom he ho!ed to
"on$in"e /e "onstantly gi$es the e9am!le of the - An"ients- to his "ontem!oraries The result is
a sort of !erfume of a"tuality& whi"h had mu"h to do with his su""ess It still is interesting
reading and still is the su*2e"t of modern "ommentaries 3o less than forty ha$e a!!eared in
.ermany in the 19th and @)th "enturies Re$ue Mititare .enerate A%ran"eB and our own Infantry
6ournal "arried arti"les on Vegetius in 1954 Dan+fried 7"hen+ !u*lished an interesting arti"le in
<lio in 195)& whi"h gi$es Vegetius the highest !la"e among the writers of his time
The !resent edition in"ludes the first three *oo+s of Vegetius' wor+& omitting only re!etitions
The fourth and fifth *oo+s& *oth $ery *rief& deal with the atta"+ and defense of fortified !la"es
and with na$al o!erations These are of interest only to military anti0uarians and for that reason
ha$e not *een in"luded The !resent translation was made *y Lieutenant 6ohn Clar+e and
!u*lished in London in 1(C( It is the *est a$aila*le in English and has *een edited only to the
minimum e9tent ne"essary to "onform to modern usage
An e9"ellent dis"ussion of Vegetius "an *e found in ?arfare& *y 7!aulding& 3i"+erson and
?right& !age @9;& et se0uens& /ar"ourt 1ra"e D Co& 19@8 Del!e"h& La Ta"ti0ue au 15me
7ie"te& 'aris& 144C& gi$es the *est a""ount of the influen"e of Vegetius on Euro!ean military
thought /ans Del*ru"+'s dis"ussion of Vegetius in .es"hi"hte der <riegs+unft& Vol II& 1erlin&
19@1& although *rief& is $ery a"ute
$reface to Boo" I
To the Emperor %alentinian
It has *een an old "ustom for authors to offer to their 'rin"es the fruits of their studies in *elles
letters& from a !ersuasion that no wor+ "an *e !u*lished with !ro!riety *ut under the aus!i"es of
the Em!eror& and that the +nowledge of a 'rin"e should *e more general& and of the most
im!ortant +ind& as its influen"e is felt so +eenly *y all his su*2e"ts ?e ha$e many instan"es of
the fa$ora*le re"e!tion whi"h Augustus and his illustrious su""essors "onferred on the wor+s
!resented to them> and this en"ouragement of the 7o$ereign made the s"ien"es flourish The
"onsideration of Eour Ma2esty's su!erior indulgen"e for attem!ts of this sort& indu"ed me to
follow this e9am!le& and ma+es me at the same time almost forget my own ina*ility when
"om!ared with the an"ient writers Fne ad$antage& howe$er& I deri$e from the nature of this
wor+& as it re0uires no elegan"e of e9!ression& or e9traordinary share of genius& *ut only great
"are and fidelity in "olle"ting and e9!laining& for !u*li" use& the instru"tions and o*ser$ations of
our old historians of military affairs& or those who wrote e9!ressly "on"erning them
My design in this treatise is to e9hi*it in some order the !e"uliar "ustoms and usages of the
an"ients in the "hoi"e and dis"i!line of their new le$ies 3or do I !resume to offer this wor+to
Eour Ma2esty from a su!!osition that you are not a"0uainted with e$ery !art of its "ontents> *ut
that you may see that the same salutary dis!ositions and regulations whi"h your own wisdom
!rom!ts Eou to esta*lish for the ha!!iness of the Em!ire& were formerly o*ser$ed *y the
founders thereof> and that Eour Ma2esty may find with ease in this a*ridgement whate$er is most
useful on so ne"essary and im!ortant a su*2e"t
De Re Militari Boo" I& The 'election and
Trainin( of )ew Le*ies
T+E R,M) DI'-I$LI)E T+E -.'E ,/ T+EIR 0RET)E''
Vi"tory in war does not de!end entirely u!on num*ers or mere "ourage> only s+ill and dis"i!line
will insure it ?e find that the Romans owed the "on0uest of the world to no other "ause than
"ontinual military training& e9a"t o*ser$an"e of dis"i!line in their "am!s and unwearied
"ulti$ation of the other arts of war ?ithout these& what "han"e would the in"onsidera*le
num*ers of the Roman armies ha$e had against the multitudes of the .aulsG Fr with what
su""ess would their small si#e ha$e *een o!!osed to the !rodigious stature of the .ermansG The
7!aniards sur!assed us not only in num*ers& *ut in !hysi"al strength ?e were always inferior to
the Afri"ans in wealth and une0ual to them in de"e!tion and stratagem And the .ree+s&
indis!uta*ly& were far su!erior to us in s+ill in arts and all +inds of +nowledge
1ut to all these ad$antages the Romans o!!osed unusual "are in the "hoi"e of their le$ies and in
their military training They thoroughly understood the im!ortan"e of hardening them *y
"ontinual !ra"ti"e& and of training them to e$ery maneu$er that might ha!!en in the line and in
a"tion 3or were they less stri"t in !unishing idleness and sloth The "ourage of a soldier is
heightened *y his +nowledge of his !rofession& and he only wants an o!!ortunity to e9e"ute what
he is "on$in"ed he has *een !erfe"tly taught A handful of men& inured to war& !ro"eed to "ertain
$i"tory& while on the "ontrary numerous armies of raw and undis"i!lined troo!s are *ut
multitudes of men dragged to slaughter
T+E 'ELE-TI,) ,/ RE-R.IT'
To treat our su*2e"t with some method& we shall first e9amine what !ro$in"es or nations are to *e
!referred for su!!lying the armies with re"ruits It is "ertain that e$ery "ountry !rodu"es *oth
*ra$e men and "owards> *ut it is e0ually as "ertain that some nations are naturally more warli+e
than others& and that "ourage& as well as strength of *ody& de!ends greatly u!on the influen"e of
the different "limates
?e shall ne9t e9amine whether the "ity or the "ountry !rodu"es the *est and most "a!a*le
soldiers 3o one& I imagine& "an dou*t that the !easants are the most fit to "arry arms for they
from their infan"y ha$e *een e9!osed to all +inds of weather and ha$e *een *rought u! to the
hardest la*or They are a*le to endure the greatest heat of the sun& are una"0uainted with the use
of *aths& and are strangers to the other lu9uries of life They are sim!le& "ontent with little& inured
to all +inds of fatigue& and !re!ared in some measure for a military life *y their "ontinual
em!loyment in their "ountry=wor+& in handling the s!ade& digging tren"hes and "arrying *urdens
In "ases of ne"essity& howe$er& they are sometimes o*liged to ma+e le$ies in the "ities And these
men& as soon as enlisted& should *e taught to wor+ on entren"hments& to mar"h in ran+s& to "arry
hea$y *urdens& and to *ear the sun and dust Their meals should *e "oarse and moderate> they
should *e a""ustomed to lie sometimes in the o!en air and sometimes in tents After this& they
should *e instru"ted in the use of their arms And if any long e9!edition is !lanned& they should
*e en"am!ed as far as !ossi*le from the tem!tations of the "ity 1y these !re"autions their minds&
as well as their *odies& will !ro!erly *e !re!ared for the ser$i"e
I reali#e that in the first ages of the Re!u*li"& the Romans always raised their armies in the "ity
itself& *ut this was at a time when there were no !leasures& no lu9uries to ener$ate them The
Ti*er was then their only *ath& and in it they refreshed themsel$es after their e9er"ises and
fatigues in the field *y swimming In those days the same man was *oth soldier and farmer& *ut a
farmer who& when o""asion arose& laid aside his tools and !ut on the sword The truth of this is
"onfirmed *y the instan"e of Huintius Cin"innatus& who was following the !low when they "ame
to offer him the di"tatorshi! The "hief strength of our armies& then& should *e re"ruited from the
"ountry %or it is "ertain that the less a man is a"0uainted with the sweets of life& the less reason
he has to *e afraid of death
T+E $R,$ER 0E /,R RE-R.IT'
If we follow the an"ient !ra"ti"e& the !ro!er time for enlisting youth into the army is at their
entran"e into the age of !u*erty At this time instru"tions of e$ery +ind are more 0ui"+ly im*i*ed
and more lastingly im!rinted on the mind 1esides this& the indis!ensa*le military e9er"ises of
running and lea!ing must *e a"0uired *efore the lim*s are too mu"h stiffened *y age %or it is
a"ti$ity& im!ro$ed *y "ontinual !ra"ti"e& whi"h forms the useful and good soldier %ormerly& says
7allust& the Roman youth& as soon as they were of an age to "arry arms& were trained in the
7tri"test manner in their "am!s to all the fatigues and e9er"ises of war %or it is "ertainly *etter
that a soldier& !erfe"tly dis"i!lined& should& through emulation& re!ine at his not *eing yet arri$ed
at a !ro!er age for a"tion& than ha$e the mortifi"ation of +nowing it is !ast A suffi"ient time is
also re0uired for his instru"tion in the different *ran"hes of the ser$i"e It is no easy matter to
train the horse or foot ar"her& or to form the legionary soldier to e$ery !art of the drill& to tea"h
him not to 0uit his !ost& to +ee! ran+s& to ta+e a !ro!er aim and throw his missile wea!ons with
for"e& to dig tren"hes& to !lant !alisades& how to manage his shield& glan"e off the *lows of the
enemy& and how to !arry a stro+e with de9terity A soldier& thus !erfe"t in his *usiness& so far
from showing any *a"+wardness to engage& will *e eager for an o!!ortunity of signaling himself
T+EIR 'I1E
?e find the an"ients $ery fond of !ro"uring the tallest men they "ould for the ser$i"e& sin"e the
standard for the "a$alry of the wings and for the infantry of the first legionary "ohorts was fi9ed
at si9 feet& or at least fi$e feet ten in"hes These re0uirements might easily *e +e!t u! in those
times when su"h num*ers followed the !rofession of arms and *efore it was the fashion for the
flower of Roman youth to de$ote themsel$es to the "i$il offi"es of state 1ut when ne"essity
re0uires it& the height of a man is not to *e regarded so mu"h as his strength> and for this we ha$e
the authority of /omer& who tells us that the defi"ien"y of stature in Tydeus was am!ly
"om!ensated *y his $igor and "ourage
'I0)' ,/ DE'IRBLE 2.LITIE'
Those em!loyed to su!erintend new le$ies should *e !arti"ularly "areful in e9amining the
features of their fa"es& their eyes& and the ma+e of their lim*s& to ena*le them to form a true
2udgment and "hoose su"h as are most li+ely to !ro$e good soldiers %or e9!erien"e assures us
that there are in men& as well as in horses and dogs& "ertain signs *y whi"h their $irtues may *e
dis"o$ered The young soldier& therefore& ought to ha$e a li$ely eye& should "arry his head ere"t&
his "hest should *e *road& his shoulders mus"ular and *rawny& his fingers long& his arms strong&
his waist small& his sha!e easy& his legs and feet rather ner$ous than fleshy ?hen all these mar+s
are found in a re"ruit& a little height may *e dis!ensed with& sin"e it is of mu"h more im!ortan"e
that a soldier should *e strong than tall
TRDE' $R,$ER /,R )E3 LE%IE'
In "hoosing re"ruits regard should *e gi$en to their trade %ishermen& fowlers& "onfe"tioners&
wea$ers& and in general all whose !rofessions more !ro!erly *elong to women should& in my
o!inion& *y no means *e admitted into the ser$i"e Fn the "ontrary& smiths& "ar!enters& *ut"hers&
and huntsmen are the most !ro!er to *e ta+en into it Fn the "areful "hoi"e of soldiers de!ends
the welfare of the Re!u*li"& and the $ery essen"e of the Roman Em!ire and its !ower is so
inse!ara*ly "onne"ted with this "harge& that it is of the highest im!ortan"e not to *e intrusted
indis"riminately& *ut only to !ersons whose fidelity "an *e relied on The an"ients "onsidered
7ertorius' "are in this !oint as one of the most eminent of his military 0ualifi"ations The soldiery
to whom the defense of the Em!ire is "onsigned and in whose hands is the fortune of war&
should& if !ossi*le& *e of re!uta*le families and une9"e!tiona*le in their manners 7u"h
sentiments as may *e e9!e"ted in these men will ma+e good soldiers A sense of honor& *y
!re$enting them from *eha$ing ill& will ma+e them $i"torious
1ut what good "an *e e9!e"ted from a man *y nature a "oward& though e$er so well dis"i!lined
or though he has ser$ed e$er so many "am!aignsG An army raised without !ro!er regard to the
"hoi"e of its re"ruits was ne$er yet made good *y length of time> and we are now "on$in"ed *y
fatal e9!erien"e that this is the sour"e of all our misfortunes 7o many defeats "an only *e
im!uted to the effe"ts of a long !ea"e whi"h has made us negligent and "areless in the "hoi"e of
our le$ies and to the in"lination so !re$alent among the *etter sort in !referring the "i$il !osts of
the go$ernment to the !rofession of arms and to the shameful "ondu"t of the su!erintendents&
who& through interest or "onni$an"e& a""e!t many men whi"h those who are o*liged to furnish
su*stitutes for the army "hoose to send& and admit su"h men into the ser$i"e as the masters
themsel$es would not e$en +ee! for ser$ants Thus it a!!ears that a trust of su"h im!ortan"e
should *e "ommitted to none *ut men of merit and integrity
T+E MILITR4 MR5
The re"ruit& howe$er& should not re"ei$e the military mar+I as soon as enlisted /e must first *e
tried if fit for ser$i"e> whether he has suffi"ient a"ti$ity and strength> if he has "a!a"ity to learn
his duty> and whether he has the !ro!er degree of military "ourage %or many& though !romising
enough in a!!earan"e& are found $ery unfit u!on trial These are to *e re2e"ted and re!la"ed *y
*etter men> for it is not num*ers& *ut *ra$ery whi"h "arries the day
After their e9amination& the re"ruits should then re"ei$e the military mar+& and *e taught the use
of their arms *y "onstant and daily e9er"ise 1ut this essential "ustom has *een a*olished *y the
rela9ation introdu"ed *y a long !ea"e ?e "annot now e9!e"t to find a man to tea"h what he
ne$er learned himself The only method& therefore& that remains of re"o$ering the an"ient
"ustoms is *y *oo+s& and *y "onsulting the old historians 1ut they are of little ser$i"e to us in
this res!e"t& as they only relate the e9!loits and e$ents of wars& and ta+e no noti"e of the o*2e"ts
of our !resent en0uiries& whi"h they "onsidered as uni$ersally +nown
I)ITIL TRI)I)0
The first thing the soldiers are to *e taught is the military ste!& whi"h "an only *e a"0uired *y
"onstant !ra"ti"e of mar"hing 0ui"+ and together 3or is anything of more "onse0uen"e either on
the mar"h or in the line than that they should +ee! their ran+s with the greatest e9a"tness %or
troo!s who mar"h in an irregular and disorderly manner are always in great danger of *eing
defeated They should mar"h with the "ommon military ste! twenty miles in fi$e summer=hours&
and with the full ste!& whi"h is 0ui"+er& twenty=four miles in the same num*er of hours If they
e9"eed this !a"e& they no longer mar"h *ut run& and no "ertain rate "an *e assigned
1ut the young re"ruits in !arti"ular must *e e9er"ised in running& in order to "harge the enemy
with great $igor> o""u!y& on o""asion& an ad$antageous !ost with greater e9!edition& and !re$ent
the enemy in their designs u!on the same> that they may& when sent to re"onnoiter& ad$an"e with
s!eed& return with greater "elerity and more easily "ome u! with the enemy in a !ursuit
Lea!ing is another $ery ne"essary e9er"ise& to ena*le them to !ass dit"hes or em*arrassing
eminen"es of any +ind without trou*le or diffi"ulty There is also another $ery material
ad$antage to *e deri$ed from these e9er"ises in time of a"tion> for a soldier who ad$an"es with
his 2a$elin&running and lea!ing& da##les the eyes of his ad$ersary& stri+es him with terror& and
gi$es him the fatal stro+e *efore he has time to !ut himself on his defense 7allust& s!ea+ing of
the e9"ellen"e of 'om!ey the .reat in these !arti"ulars& tells us that he dis!uted the su!eriority
in lea!ing with the most a"ti$e& in running with the most swift& and in e9er"ises of strength with
the most ro*ust 3or would he e$er ha$e *een a*le to ha$e o!!osed 7errorius with su""ess& if he
had not !re!ared *oth himself and his soldiers for a"tion *y "ontinual e9er"ises of this sort
T, LER) T, '3IM
E$ery young soldier& without e9"e!tion& should in the summer months *e taught to swim> for it is
sometimes im!ossi*le to !ass ri$ers on *ridges& *ut the flying and !ursuing army *oth are often
o*liged to swim o$er them A sudden melting of snow or fall of rain often ma+es them o$erflow
their *an+s& and in su"h a situation& the danger is as great from ignoran"e in swimming as from
the enemy The an"ient Romans& therefore& !erfe"ted in e$ery *ran"h of the military art *y a
"ontinued series of wars and !erils& "hose the %ield of Mars as the most "ommodious for their
e9er"ises on a""ount of its $i"inity to the Ti*er& that the youth might therein wash off the sweat
and dust& and refresh themsel$es after their fatigues *y swimming The "a$alry also as well as
the infantry& and e$en the horses and the ser$ants of the army should *e a""ustomed to this
e9er"ise& as they are all e0ually lia*le to the same a""idents
T+E $,'T E6ER-I'E
?e are informed *y the writings of the an"ients that& among their other e9er"ises& they had that
of the !ost They ga$e their re"ruits round *u"+lers wo$en with willows& twi"e as hea$y as those
used on real ser$i"e& and wooden swords dou*le the weight of the "ommon ones They e9er"ised
them with these at the !ost *oth morning and afternoon
This is an in$ention of the greatest use& not only to soldiers& *ut also to gladiators 3o man of
either !rofession e$er distinguished himself in the "ir"us or field of *attle& who was not !erfe"t in
this +ind of e9er"ise E$ery soldier& therefore& fi9ed a !ost firmly in the ground& a*out the height
of si9 feet Against this& as against a real enemy& the re"ruit was e9er"ised with the a*o$e
mentioned arms& as it were with the "ommon shield and sword& sometimes aiming At the head or
fa"e& sometimes at the sides& at others endea$oring to stri+e at the thighs or legs /e was
instru"ted in what manner to ad$an"e and retire& and in short how to ta+e e$ery ad$antage of his
ad$ersary> *ut was thus a*o$e all !arti"ularly "autioned not to lay himself o!en to his antagonist
while aiming his stro+e at him
),T T, -.T7 B.T T, T+R.'T 3IT+ T+E '3,RD
They were li+ewise taught not to "ut *ut to thrust with their swords %or the Romans not only
made a 2est of those who fought with the edge of that wea!on& *ut always found them an easy
"on0uest A stro+e with the edges& though made with e$er so mu"h for"e& seldom +ills& as the
$ital !arts of the *ody are defended *oth *y the *ones and armor Fn the "ontrary& a sta*& though
it !enetrates *ut two in"hes& is generally fatal 1esides in the attitude of stri+ing& it is im!ossi*le
to a$oid e9!osing the right arm and side> *ut on the other hand& the *ody is "o$ered while a
thrust is gi$en& and the ad$ersary re"ei$es the !oint *efore he sees the sword This was the
method of fighting !rin"i!ally used *y the Romans& and their reason for e9er"ising re"ruits with
arms of su"h a weight at first was& that when they "ame to "arry the "ommon ones so mu"h
lighter& the greater differen"e might ena*le them to a"t with greater se"urity and ala"rity in time
of a"tion
T+E DRILL -LLED RMT.R
The new le$ies also should *e taught *y the masters at arms the system of drill "alled armatura&
as it is still !artly +e!t u! among us E9!erien"e e$en at this time "on$in"es us that soldiers&
!erfe"t therein& are of the most ser$i"e in engagements And they afford "ertain !roofs of the
im!ortan"e and effe"ts of dis"i!line in the differen"e we see *etween those !ro!erly trained in
this *ran"h of drill and the other troo!s The old Romans were so "ons"ious of its usefulness that
they rewarded the masters at arms with a dou*le allowan"e of !ro$ision The soldiers who were
*a"+ward in this drill were !unished *y ha$ing their allowan"e in *arley 3or did they re"ei$e it
as usual& in wheat& until they had& in the !resen"e of the !refe"t& tri*unes& or other !rin"i!al
offi"ers of the legion& showed suffi"ient !roofs of their +nowledge of e$ery !art of their study
3o state "an either *e ha!!y or se"ure that is remiss and negligent in the dis"i!line of its troo!s
%or it is not !rofusion of ri"hes or e9"ess of lu9ury that "an influen"e our enemies to "ourt or
res!e"t us This "an only *e effe"ted *y the terror of our arms It is an o*ser$ation of Cato that
mis"ondu"t in the "ommon affairs of life may *e retrie$ed& *ut that it is 0uite otherwise in war&
where errors are fatal and without remedy& and are followed *y immediate !unishment %or the
"onse0uen"es of engaging an enemy& without s+ill or "ourage& is that !art of the army is left on
the field of *attle& and those who remain re"ei$e su"h an im!ression from their defeat that they
dare not afterwards loo+ the enemy in the fa"e
T+E .'E ,/ MI''ILE 3E$,)'
1esides the aforementioned e9er"ise of the re"ruits at the !ost& they were furnished with 2a$elins
of greater weight than "ommon& whi"h they were taught to throw at the same !ost And the
masters at arms were $ery "areful to instru"t them how to "ast them with a !ro!er aim and for"e
This !ra"ti"e strengthens the arm and ma+es the soldier a good mar+sman
T+E .'E ,/ T+E B,3
A third or fourth of the youngest and fittest soldiers should also *e e9er"ised at the !ost with
*ows and arrows made for that !ur!ose only The masters for this *ran"h must *e "hosen with
"are and must a!!ly themsel$es diligently to tea"h the men to hold the *ow in a !ro!er !osition&
to *end it with strength& to +ee! the left hand steady to draw the right with s+ill& to dire"t *oth
the attention and the eye to the o*2e"t& and to ta+e their aim with e0ual "ertainty either on foot or
on horse*a"+ 1ut this is not to *e a"0uired without great a!!li"ation& nor to *e retained without
daily e9er"ise and !ra"ti"e
The utility of good ar"hers in a"tion is e$idently demonstrated *y Cato in his treatise on military
dis"i!line To the institution of a *ody of troo!s of this sort Claudius owed his $i"tory o$er an
enemy who& till that time& had "onstantly *een su!erior to him 7"i!io Afri"anus& *efore his *attle
with the 3umantines& who had made a Roman army ignominiously !ass under the yo+e& thought
he "ould ha$e no li+elihood of su""ess e9"e!t *y mingling a num*er of sele"t ar"hers with e$ery
"entury
T+E 'LI)0
Re"ruits are to *e taught the art of throwing stones *oth with the hand and sling The inha*itants
of the 1aleari" Islands are said to ha$e *een the in$entors of slings& and to ha$e managed them
with sur!rising de9terity& owing to the manner of *ringing u! their "hildren The "hildren were
not allowed to ha$e their food *y their mothers till they had first stru"+ it with their sling
7oldiers& notwithstanding their defensi$e armor& are often more annoyed *y the round stones
from the sling than *y all the arrows of the enemy 7tones +ill without mangling the *ody& and
the "ontusion is mortal without loss of *lood It is uni$ersally +nown the an"ients em!loyed
slingers in all their engagements There is the greater reason for instru"ting all troo!s& without
e9"e!tion& in this e9er"ise& as the sling "annot *e re"+oned any in"um*ran"e& and often is of the
greatest ser$i"e& es!e"ially when they are o*liged to engage in stony !la"es& to defend a
mountain or an eminen"e& or to re!ulse an enemy at the atta"+ of a "astle or "ity
T+E L,DED 8%ELI)
The e9er"ise of the loaded 2a$elins& "alled martio*ar*uli& must not *e omitted ?e formerly had
two legions in lllyri"um& "onsisting of si9 thousand men ea"h& whi"h from their e9traordinary
de9terity and s+ill in the use of these wea!ons were dis"inguished *y the same a!!ellation They
su!!orted for a long time the weight of all the wars and distinguished themsel$es so remar+a*ly
that the Em!erors Dio"letian and Ma9imian on their a""ession honored them with the titles of
6o$ian and /er"ulean and !referred them *efore all the other legions E$ery soldier "arries fi$e
of these 2a$elins in the hollow of his shield And thus the legionary soldiers seem to su!!ly the
!la"e of ar"hers& for they wound *oth the men and horses of the enemy *efore they "ome within
rea"h of the "ommon missile wea!ons
T, BE T.0+T T, %.LT
The an"ients stri"tly o*liged *oth the $eteran soldiers and re"ruits to a "onstant !ra"ti"e of
$aulting It has indeed rea"hed our "imes& although little regard is !aid to it at !resent They had
wooden horses for that !ur!ose !la"ed in winter under "o$er and in summer in the field The
young soldiers were taught to $ault on them at first without arms& afterwards "om!letely armed
And su"h was their attention to this e9er"ise that they were a""ustomed to mount and dismount
on either side indifferently& with their drawn swords or lan"es in their hands 1y assiduous
!ra"ti"e in the leisure of !ea"e& their "a$alry was *rought to su"h !erfe"tion of dis"i!line that
they mounted their horses in an instant e$en amidst the "onfusion of sudden and une9!e"ted
alarms
)D T, -RR4 B.RDE)'
To a""ustom soldiers to "arry *urdens is also an essential !art of dis"i!line Re"ruits in !arti"ular
should *e o*liged fre0uently to "arry a weight of not less than si9ty !ounds Ae9"lusi$e of their
armsB& and to mar"h with it in the ran+s This is *e"ause on diffi"ult e9!editions they often find
themsel$es under the ne"essity of "arrying their !ro$isions as well as their arms 3or will they
find this trou*lesome when inured to it *y "ustom& whi"h ma+es e$erything easy Fur troo!s in
an"ient times were a !roof of this& and Virgil has remar+ed it in the following lines,
The Roman soldiers& *red in war's alarms&
1ending with un2ust loads and hea$y arms&
Cheerful their toilsome mar"hes undergo&
And !it"h their sudden "am! *efore the foe
T+E RM' ,/ T+E )-IE)T'
The manner of arming the troo!s "omes ne9t under "onsideration 1ut the method of the an"ients
no longer is followed %or though after the e9am!le of the .oths& the Alans and the /uns& we
ha$e made some im!ro$ements in the arms of the "a$alry& yet it is !lain the infantry are entirely
defenseless %rom the foundation of the "ity till the reign of the Em!eror .ratian& the foot wore
"uirasses and helmets 1ut negligen"e and sloth ha$ing *y degrees introdu"ed a total rela9ation
of dis"i!line& the soldiers *egan to thin+ their armor too hea$y& as they seldom !ut it on They
first re0uested lea$e from the Em!eror to lay aside the "uirass and afterwards the helmet In
"onse0uen"e of this& our troo!s in their engagements with the .oths were often o$erwhelmed
with their showers of arrows 3or was the ne"essity of o*liging the infantry to resume their
"uirasses and helmets dis"o$ered& notwithstanding su"h re!eated defeats& whi"h *rought on the
destru"tion of so many great "ities
Troo!s& defenseless and e9!osed to all the wea!ons of the enemy& are more dis!osed to fly than
fight ?hat "an *e e9!e"ted from a foot=ar"her without "uirass or helmet& who "annot hold at
on"e his *ow and shield> or from the ensigns whose *odies are na+ed& and who "annot at the
same time "arry a shield and the "olorsG The foot soldier finds the weight of a "uirass and e$en
of a helmet intolera*le This is *e"ause he is so seldom e9er"ised and rarely !uts them on
1ut the "ase would *e 0uite different& were they e$en hea$ier than they are& if *y "onstant
!ra"ti"e he had *een a""ustomed to wear them 1ut it seems these $ery men& who "annot su!!ort
the weight of the an"ient armor& thin+ nothing of e9!osing themsel$es without defense to wounds
and death& or& whi"h is worse& to the shame of *eing made !risoners& or of *etraying their "ountry
*y flight> and thus to a$oid an in"onsidera*le share of e9er"ise and fatigue& suffer themsel$es
ignominiously to *e "ut in !ie"es ?ith what !ro!riety "ould the an"ients "all the infantry a wall&
*ut that in some measure they resem*led it *y the "om!lete armor of the legionary soldiers who
had shields& helmets& "uirasses& and grea$es of iron on the right leg> and the ar"hers who had
gauntlets on the left arm These were the defensi$e arms of the legionary soldiers Those who
fought in the first line of their res!e"ti$e legions were "alled !rin"i!es& in the se"ond hastati& and
in third triarii
The triarii& a""ording to their method of dis"i!line& rested in time of a"tion on one +nee& under
"o$er of their shields& so that in this !osition they might *e less e9!osed to the darts of the enemy
than if they stood u!right> and also& when there was a ne"essity for *ringing them u!& that they
might *e fresh& in full $igor and "harge with the greater im!etuosity There ha$e *een many
instan"es of their gaining a "om!lete $i"tory after the entire defeat of *oth the !rin"i!es and
hastati
The an"ients had li+ewise a *ody of light infantry& slingers& and ferentarii Athe light troo!sB& who
were generally !osted on the wings and *egan the engagement The most a"ti$e and *est
dis"i!lined men were sele"ted for this ser$i"e> and as their num*er was not $ery great& they
easily retired in "ase of a re!ulse through the inter$als of the legion& without thus o""asioning the
least disorder in the line
The 'amonian leather "a!s worn *y our soldiers were formerly introdu"ed with a different
design The an"ients o*liged the men to wear them at all times so that *eing "onstantly
a""ustomed to ha$e the head "o$ered they might *e less sensi*le of the weight of the helmet
As to the missile wea!ons of the infantry& they were 2a$elins headed with a triangular shar! iron&
ele$en in"hes or a foot long& and were "alled !iles ?hen on"e fi9ed in the shield it was
im!ossi*le to draw them out& and when thrown with for"e and s+ill& they !enetrated the "uirass
without diffi"ulty At !resent they are seldom used *y us& *ut are the !rin"i!al wea!on of the
*ar*arian hea$y=armed foot They are "alled *e*rae& and e$ery man "arries two or three of them
to *attle
It must *e o*ser$ed that when the soldiers engage with the 2a$elin& the left foot should *e
ad$an"ed& for& *y this attitude the for"e re0uired to throw it is "onsidera*ly in"reased Fn the
"ontrary& when they are "lose enough to use their !iles and swords& the right foot should *e
ad$an"ed& so that the *ody may !resent less aim to the enemy& and the right arm *e nearer and in
a more ad$antageous !osition for stri+ing /en"e it a!!ears that it is as ne"essary to !ro$ide
soldiers with defensi$e arms of e$ery +ind as to instru"t them in the use of offensi$e ones %or it
is "ertain a man will fight with greater "ourage and "onfiden"e when he finds himself !ro!erly
armed for defense
E)TRE)-+ED -M$'
Re"ruits are to *e instru"ted in the manner of entren"hing "am!s& there *eing no !art of
dis"i!line so ne"essary and useful as this %or in a "am!& well "hosen and entren"hed& the troo!s
*oth day and night lie se"ure within their wor+s& e$en though in $iew of the enemy It seems to
resem*le a fortified "ity whi"h they "an *uild for their safety where$er they !lease 1ut this
$alua*le art is now entirely lost& for it is long sin"e any of our "am!s ha$e *een fortified either
with tren"hes or !alisades 1y this negle"t our for"es ha$e *een often sur!rised *y day and night
*y the enemy's "a$alry and suffered $ery se$ere losses The im!ortan"e of this "ustom a!!ears
not only from the danger to whi"h troo!s are !er!etually e9!osed who en"am! without su"h
!re"autions& *ut from the distressful situation of an army that& after re"ei$ing a "he"+ in the field&
finds itself without retreat and "onse0uently at the mer"y of the enemy A "am!& es!e"ially in the
neigh*orhood of an enemy& must *e "hosen with great "are Its situation should *e strong *y
nature& and there should *e !lenty of wood& forage and water If the army is to "ontinue in it any
"onsidera*le time& attention must *e had to the salu*rity of the !la"e The "am! must not *e
"ommanded *y any higher grounds from when"e it might *e insulted or annoyed *y the enemy&
nor must the lo"ation *e lia*le to floods whi"h would e9!ose the army to great danger The
dimensions of the "am!s must *e determined *y the num*er of troo!s and 0uantity of *aggage&
that a large army may ha$e room enough& and that a small one may not *e o*liged to e9tend
itself *eyond its !ro!er ground The form of the "am!s must *e determined *y the site of the
"ountry& in "onformity to whi"h they must *e s0uare& triangular or o$al The 'raetorian gate
should either front the east or the enemy In a tem!orary "am! it should fa"e the route *y whi"h
the army is to mar"h ?ithin this gate the tents of the first "enturies or "ohorts are !it"hed& and
the dragonsI and other ensigns !lanted
The De"umane gate is dire"tly o!!osite to the 'raetorian in the rear of the "am!& and through this
the soldiers are "ondu"ted to the !la"e a!!ointed for !unishment or e9e"ution
There are two methods of entren"hing a "am! ?hen the danger is not imminent& they "arry a
slight dit"h round the whole "ir"uit& only nine feet *road and se$en dee! ?ith the turf ta+en
from this they ma+e a +ind of wall or *reastwor+ three feet high on the inner side of the dit"h
1ut where there is reason to *e a!!rehensi$e of attem!ts of the enemy& the "am! must *e
surrounded with a regular dit"h twel$e feet *road and nine feet dee! !er!endi"ular from the
surfa"e of the ground A !ara!et is then raised on the side ne9t the "am!& of the height of four
feet& with hurdles and fas"ines !ro!erly "o$ered and se"ured *y the earth ta+en out of the dit"h
%rom these dimensions the interior height of the intren"hment will *e found to *e thirteen feet&
and the *readth of the dit"h twel$e Fn the to! of the whole are !lanted strong !alisades whi"h
the soldiers "arry "onstantly with them for this !ur!ose A suffi"ient num*er of s!ades& !i"+a9es&
wi"+er *as+ets and tools of all +inds are to *e !ro$ided for these wor+s
There is no diffi"ulty in "arrying on the fortifi"ations of a "am! when no enemy is in sight 1ut if
the enemy is near& all the "a$alry and half the infantry are to *e drawn u! in order of *attle to
"o$er the rest of the troo!s at wor+ on the entren"hments and *e ready to re"ei$e the enemy if
they offer to atta"+ The "enturies are em!loyed *y turns on the wor+ and are regularly "alled to
the relief *y a "rier till the whole is "om!leted It is then ins!e"ted and measured *y the
"enturions& who !unish su"h as ha$e *een indolent or negligent This is a $ery im!ortant !oint in
the dis"i!line of young soldiers& who when !ro!erly trained to it will *e a*le in an emergen"y to
fortify their "am! with s+ill and e9!edition
E%,L.TI,)'
3o !art of drill is more essential in a"tion than for soldiers to +ee! their ran+s with the greatest
e9a"tness& without o!ening or "losing too mu"h Troo!s too mu"h "rowded "an ne$er fight as
they ought& and only em*arrass one another If their order is too o!en and loose& they gi$e the
enemy an o!!ortunity of !enetrating ?hene$er this ha!!ens and they are atta"+ed in the rear&
uni$ersal disorder and "onfusion are ine$ita*le Re"ruits should therefore *e "onstantly in the
field& drawn u! *y the roll and formed at first into a single ran+ They should learn to dress in a
straight line and to +ee! an e0ual and 2ust distan"e *etween man and man They must then *e
ordered to dou*le the ran+& whi"h they must !erform $ery 0ui"+ly& and instantly "o$er their file
leaders In the ne9t !la"e& they are to dou*le again and form four dee! And then the triangle or&
as it is "ommonly "alled& the wedge& a dis!osition found $ery ser$i"ea*le in a"tion They must *e
taught to form the "ir"le or or*> for well=dis"i!lined troo!s& after *eing *ro+en *y the enemy&
ha$e thrown themsel$es into this !osition and ha$e there*y !re$ented the total rout of the army
These e$olutions& often !ra"ti"ed in the field of e9er"ise& will *e found easy in e9e"ution on
a"tual ser$i"e
M,)T+L4 MR-+E'
It was a "onstant "ustom among the old Romans& "onfirmed *y the Frdinan"es of Augustus and
/adrian& to e9er"ise *oth "a$alry and infantry three times in a month *y mar"hes of a "ertain
length The foot were o*liged to mar"h "om!letely armed the distan"e of ten miles from the
"am! and return& in the most e9a"t order and with the military ste! whi"h they "hanged and
0ui"+ened on some !art of the mar"h Their "a$alry li+ewise& in troo!s and !ro!erly armed&
!erformed the same mar"hes and were e9er"ised at the same time in their !e"uliar mo$ement and
e$olutions> sometimes& as if !ursuing the enemy& sometimes retreating and returning again with
greater im!etuosity to the "harge They made these mar"hes not in !lain and e$en ground only&
*ut *oth "a$alry and infantry were ordered into diffi"ult and une$en !la"es and to as"end or
des"end mountains& to !re!are them for all +inds of a""idents and familiari#e them with the
different maneu$ers that the $arious situations of a "ountry may re0uire
-,)-L.'I,)
These military ma9ims and instru"tions& in$in"i*le Em!eror& as a !roof of my de$otion and #eal
for your ser$i"e& I ha$e "arefully "olle"ted from the wor+s of all the an"ient authors on the
su*2e"t My design herein is to !oint out the "ertain method of forming good and ser$i"ea*le
armies& whi"h "an only *e a""om!lished *y an e9a"t imitation of the an"ients in their "are in the
"hoi"e and dis"i!line of their le$ies Men are not degenerated in !oint of "ourage& nor are the
"ountries that !rodu"ed the La"edaemonians& the Athenians& the Marsians& the 7amnites& the
'eligni and e$en the Romans themsel$es& yet e9hausted Did not the E!irots a"0uire in former
times a great re!utation in warG Did not the Ma"edonians and Thessalians& after "on0uering the
'ersians& !enetrate e$en into IndiaG And it is well +nown that the warli+e dis!ositions of the
Da"ians& Moesians and Thra"ians ga$e rise to the fa*le that Mars was *orn among them
To !retend to enumerate the different nations so formida*le of old& all whi"h now are su*2e"t to
the Romans& would *e tedious 1ut the se"urity esta*lished *y long !ea"e has altered their
dis!ositions& drawn them off from military to "i$il !ursuits and infused into them a lo$e of
idleness and ease /en"e a rela9ation of military dis"i!line insensi*ly ensued& then a negle"t of
it& and it sun+ at last into entire o*li$ion 3ow will it a!!ear sur!rising that this alteration should
ha$e ha!!ened in latter times& if we "onsider that the !ea"e& whi"h lasted a*out twenty years or
somewhat more after the first 'uni" war& ener$ated the Romans& *efore e$erywhere $i"torious&
*y idleness and negle"t of dis"i!line to su"h a degree& that in the se"ond 'uni" war they were not
a*le to +ee! the field against /anni*al At last& after the defeat of many "onsuls and the loss of
many offi"ers and armies& they were "on$in"ed that the re$i$al of dis"i!line was the only road to
$i"tory and there*y re"o$ered their su!eriority The ne"essity& therefore& of dis"i!line "annot *e
too often in"ul"ated& as well as the stri"t attention re0uisite in the "hoi"e and training of new
le$ies It is also "ertain that it is a mu"h less e9!ense to a 7tate to train its own su*2e"ts to arms
than to ta+e foreigners into its !ay
I This mar+ was im!rinted on the hands of the soldiers& either with a hot iron& or in some other
manner It was indeli*le
I The dragon was the !arti"ular ensign of ea"h "ohort
$reface to Boo" II
To the Emperor %alentinian
7u"h a "ontinued series of $i"tories and trium!hs !ro$ed in"ontesta*ly Eour Ma2esty's full and
!erfe"t +nowledge of the military dis"i!line of the an"ients 7u""ess in any !rofession is the most
"ertain mar+ of s+ill in it 1y a greatness of mind a*o$e human "om!rehension Eour Ma2esty
"ondes"ends to see+ instru"tion from the an"ients& notwithstanding your own re"ent e9!loits
sur!ass anti0uity itself Fn re"ei$ing Eour Ma2esty's orders to "ontinue this a*ridgement& not so
mu"h for your instru"tion as "on$enien"e& I +new not how to re"on"ile my de$otion to Eour
"ommands with the res!e"t due to Eour Ma2esty ?ould it not *e the greatest height of
!resum!tion to !retend to mention the art of war to the Lord and Master of the world and the
Con0ueror of all the *ar*arous nations& unless it were to des"ri*e his own a"tionsG 1ut
diso*edien"e to the will of so great a 'rin"e would *e *oth highly "riminal and dangerous My
o*edien"e& therefore& made me !resum!tuous& from the a!!rehensions of a!!earing more so *y a
"ontrary "ondu"t And in this I was not a little en"ouraged *y the late instan"e of Eour Ma2esty's
indulgen"e My treatise on the "hoi"e and dis"i!line of new le$ies met with a fa$ora*le re"e!tion
from Eour Ma2esty& and sin"e a wor+ su""eeded so well& "om!osed of my own a""ord& I "an ha$e
no fears for one underta+en *y your own e9!ress "ommands
Boo" II& The ,r(ani9ation of the Le(ion
T+E MILITR4 E'TBLI'+ME)T
The military esta*lishment "onsists of three !arts& the "a$alry& infantry and marine The wings of
"a$alry were so "alled from their similitude to wings in their e9tension on *oth sides of the main
*ody for its !rote"tion They are now "alled $e9illations from the +ind of standards !e"uliar to
them The legionary horse are *odies !arti"ularly anne9ed to ea"h legion& and of a different +ind>
and on their model were organi#ed the "a$alry "alled F"reati& from the light *oots they wear The
fleet "onsists of two di$isions& the one of men of war "alled Li*urnae& and the other of armed
sloo!s The "a$alry are designed for !lains %leets are em!loyed for the !rote"tion of seas and
ri$ers The infantry are !ro!er for the defense of eminen"es& for the garrisons of "ities and are
e0ually ser$i"ea*le in !lain and in une$en ground The latter& therefore& from their fa"ility of
a"ting e$erywhere& are "ertainly the most useful and ne"essary troo!s to a state e9"lusi$ely of the
"onsideration of their *eing maintained at a less e9!ense The infantry are di$ided into two "or!s&
the legions and au9iliaries& the latter of whi"h are furnished *y allies or "onfederates The
!e"uliar strength of the Romans always "onsisted in the e9"ellent organi#ation of their legions
They were so denominated a* eligendo& from the "are and e9a"tness used in the "hoi"e of the
soldiers The num*er of legionary troo!s in an army is generally mu"h more "onsidera*le than
that of the au9iliaries
DI//ERE)-E BET3EE) T+E LE0I,)' )D .6ILIRIE'
The Ma"edonians& the .ree+s and the Dardanians formed their troo!s into !halan9es of eight
thousand men ea"h The .auls& Celti*erians and many other *ar*arous nations di$ided their
armies into *odies of si9 thousand ea"h The Romans ha$e their legions usually si9 thousand
strong& sometImes more
?e shall now e9!lain the differen"e *etween the legions and the au9iliaries The latter are hired
"or!s of foreigners assem*led from different !arts of the Em!ire& made u! of different num*ers&
without +nowledge of one another or any tie of affe"tion Ea"h nation has its own !e"uliar
dis"i!line& "ustoms and manner of fighting Little "an *e e9!e"ted from for"es so dissimilar in
e$ery res!e"t& sin"e it is one of the most essential !oints in military underta+ings that the whole
army should *e !ut in motion and go$erned *y one and the same order 1ut it is almost
im!ossi*le for men to a"t in "on"ert under su"h $arying and unsettled "ir"umstan"es They are&
howe$er& when !ro!erly trained and dis"i!lined& of material ser$i"e and are always 2oined as
light troo!s with the legions in the line And though the legions do not !la"e their !rin"i!al
de!enden"e on them& yet they loo+ on them as a $ery "onsidera*le addition to their strength
1ut the "om!lete Roman legion& in its own !e"uliar "ohorts& "ontains within itself the hea$y=
armed foot& that is, the !rin"i!es& hastati& triarii& and antefignani& the lightarmed foot& "onsisting
of the ferentarii& ar"hers& slingers& and *alistarii& together with the legionary "a$alry in"or!orated
with it These *odies& all a"tuated with the same s!irit& are united inse!ara*ly in their $arious
dis!ositions for forming& en"am!ing and fighting Thus the legion is "om!a"t and !erfe"t in all
its !arts and& without any foreign assistan"e& has always *een su!erior to any for"e that "ould *e
*rought against it The Roman greatness is a !roof of the e9"ellen"e of their legions& for with
them they always defeated whate$er num*ers of the enemy they thought fit& or their
"ir"umstan"es ga$e them an o!!ortunIty to engage
-.'E' ,/ DE-4 ,/ T+E LE0I,)
The name of the legion remains indeed to this day in our armies& *ut its strength and su*stan"e
are gone& sin"e *y the negle"t of our !rede"essors& honors and !referments& whi"h were formerly
the re"om!enses of merit and long ser$i"es& were to *e attained only *y interest and fa$or Care
is no longer ta+en to re!la"e the soldiers& who after ser$ing their full time& ha$e re"ei$ed their
dis"harges The $a"an"ies "ontinually ha!!ening *y si"+ness& dis"harges& desertion and $arious
other "asualties& if not su!!lied e$ery year or e$en e$ery month& must in time disa*le the most
numerous army Another "ause of the wea+ness of our legions is that in them the soldiers find the
duty hard& the arms hea$y& the rewards distant and the dis"i!line se$ere To a$oid these
in"on$enien"es& the young men enlist in the au9iliaries& where the ser$i"e is less la*orious and
they ha$e reason to e9!e"t more s!eedy re"om!enses
Cato the Elder& who was often Consul and always $i"torious at the head of the armies& *elie$ed
he should do his "ountry more essential ser$i"e *y writing on military affairs& than *y all his
e9!loits in the field %or the "onse0uen"es of *ra$e a"tions are only tem!orary& while whate$er is
"ommitted to writing for !u*li" good is of lasting *enefit 7e$eral others ha$e followed his
e9am!le& !arti"ularly %rontinus& whose ela*orate wor+s on this su*2e"t were so well re"ei$ed *y
the Em!eror Tra2an These are the authors whose ma9ims and institutions I ha$e underta+en to
a*ridge in the most faithful and "on"lse manner
The e9!ense of +ee!ing u! good or *ad troo!s is the same> *ut it de!ends wholly on Eou& most
August Em!eror& to re"o$er the e9"ellent dis"i!line of the an"ients and to "orre"t the a*uses of
later times This is a reformation the ad$antages of whi"h will *e e0ually felt *y oursel$es and
our !osterity
T+E ,R0)I1TI,) ,/ T+E LE0I,)
All our writers agree that ne$er more than two legions& *esides au9iliaries& were sent under the
"ommand of ea"h "onsul against the most numerous armies of the enemies 7u"h was the
de!enden"e on their dis"i!line and resolution that this num*er was thought suffi"ient for any war
they were engaged in I shall therefore e9!lain the organi#ation of the an"ient legion a""ording to
the military "onstitution 1ut if the des"ri!tion a!!ear o*s"ure or im!erfe"t& it is not to *e
im!uted to me& *ut to the diffi"ulty of the su*2e"t itself& whi"h is therefore to *e e9amined with
the greater attention A !rin"e& s+illed himself in military affairs& has it in his !ower to ma+e
himself in$in"i*le *y +ee!ing u! whate$er num*er of well dis"i!lined for"es he thin+s !ro!er
The re"ruits ha$ing thus *een "arefully "hosen with !ro!er attention to their !ersons and
dis!ositions& and ha$ing *een daily e9er"ised for the s!a"e of four months at least& the legion is
formed *y the "ommand and under the aus!i"es of the Em!eror The military mar+& whi"h is
indeli*le& is first im!rinted on the hands of the new le$ies& and as their names are inserted in the
roll of the legions they ta+e the usual oath& "alled the military oath They swear *y .od& *y
Christ and *y the /oly .host> and *y the Ma2esty of the Em!eror who& after .od& should *e the
"hief o*2e"t of the lo$e and $eneration of man+ind %or when he has on"e re"ei$ed the title of
August& his su*2e"ts are *ound to !ay him the most sin"ere de$otion and homage& as the
re!resentati$e of .od on earth And e$ery man& whether in a !ri$ate or military station& ser$es
.od in ser$ing him faithfully who reigns *y /is authority The soldiers& therefore& swear they
will o*ey the Em!eror willingly and im!li"itly in all his "ommands& that they will ne$er desert
and will always *e ready to sa"rifi"e their li$es for the Roman Em!ire
The legion should "onsist of ten "ohorts& the first of whi"h e9"eeds the others *oth in num*er and
0uality of its soldiers& who are sele"ted to ser$e in it as men of some family and edu"ation This
"ohort has the "are of the eagle& the "hief ensign in the Roman armies and the standard of the
whole legion& as well as of the images of the em!erors whi"h are always "onsidered as sa"red It
"onsists of ele$en hundred and fi$e foot and one hundred and thirty=two horse "uirassiers& and is
distinguished *y the name of the Millarian Cohort It is the head of the legion and is always first
formed on the right of the first line when the legion draws u! in order of *attle
The se"ond "ohort "ontains fi$e hundred and fifty=fi$e foot and si9ty=si9 horse& and is "alled the
Huingentarian Cohort The third is "om!osed of fi$e hundred and fiftyfi$e foot and si9ty=si9
horse& generally "hosen men& on a""ount of its situation in the "enter of the first line The fourth
"onsists of the same num*er of fi$e hundred and fifty=fi$e foot and si9ty=si9 horse The fifth has
li+ewise fi$e hundred and fifty=fi$e foot and si9ty=si9 horse& whi"h should *e some of the *est
men& *eing !osted on the left flan+ as the first "ohort is on the right These fi$e "ohorts "om!ose
the first line
The si9th in"ludes fi$e hundred and fifty=fi$e foot and si9ty=si9 horse& whi"h should *e the
flower of the young soldiers as it draws u! in the rear of the eagle and the images of the
em!erors& and on the right of the se"ond line The se$enth "ontains fi$e hundred and fifty=fi$e
foot and si9ty=si9 horse The eighth is "om!osed of fi$e hundred and fifty=fi$e foot and si9ty=si9
horse& all sele"ted troo!s& as it o""u!ies the "enter of the se"ond line The ninth has fi$e hundred
and fifty=fi$e foot and si9ty=si9 horse The tenth "onsists of the same num*er of fi$e hundred and
fifty=fi$e foot and si9ty=si9 horse and re0uires good men& as it "loses the left flan+ of the se"ond
line These ten "ohorts form the "om!lete legions& "onsisting in the whole of si9 thousand one
hundred foot and se$en hundred and twenty=si9 horses A legion should ne$er *e "om!osed of a
less num*er of men& *ut it is sometimes stronger *y the addition of other Millarian Cohorts
T+E ,//I-ER' ,/ T+E LE0I,)
/a$ing shown the an"ient esta*lishment of the legion& we shall now e9!lain the names of the
!rin"i!al soldiers or& to use the !ro!er term& the offi"ers& and their ran+s a""ording to the !resent
rolls of the legions The first tri*une is a!!ointed *y the e9!ress "ommission and "hoi"e of the
Em!eror The se"ond tri*une rises to that ran+ *y length of ser$i"e The tri*unes are so "alled
from their "ommand o$er the soldiers& who were at first le$ied *y Romulus out of the different
tri*es The offi"ers who in a"tion "ommanded the orders or di$isions are "alled Frdinarii The
Augustales were added *y Augustus to the Frdinarii> and the %la$iales were a!!ointed *y
%la$ius Ves!asian to dou*le the num*er of the Augustales The eagle=*earers and the image=
*earers are those who "arry the eagles and images of the Em!erors The F!tiones are su*altern
offi"ers& so denominated from their *eing sele"ted *y the o!tion of their su!erior offi"ers& to do
their duty as their su*stitutes or lieutenants in "ase of si"+ness or other a""ident The ensign=
*earers "arry the ensigns and are "alled Dra"onarii The Tesserarii deli$er the !arole and the
orders of the general to the different messes of the soldiers The Cam!ignei or Antefignani are
those whose duty it is to +ee! the !ro!er e9er"ises and dis"i!line among the troo!s The
Metatores are ordered *efore the army to fi9 on the ground for its en"am!ments The 1enefi"iarii
are so named from their owing their !romotion to the *enefit or interest of the Tri*unes The
Li*rarii +ee! the legionary a""ounts The Tu*i"ines& Corni"ines& and 1u""inatores deri$e their
a!!ellations from *lowing the trum!et& "ornet& and *u""ina Those who& e9!ert in their e9er"ises&
re"ei$e a dou*le allowan"e of !ro$isions& are "alled Armaturae Du!lares& and those who ha$e *ut
a single !ortion& 7im!lares The Mensores mar+ out the ground *y measure for the tents in an
en"am!ment& and assign the troo!s their res!e"ti$e 0uarters in garrison The Tor0uati& so
denominated from the gold "ollars gi$en them in reward for their *ra$ery& had *esides this honor
different allowan"es Those who re"ei$ed dou*le were "alled Tor0uati Du!lares& and those who
had only single& 7im!lares There were& for the same reason& Candidatii Du!lares& and Candidatii
7im!lares These are the !rin"i!al soldiers or offi"ers distinguished *y their ran+ and !ri$ileges
thereto anne9ed The rest are "alled Munifi"es& or wor+ing soldiers& from their *eing o*liged to
e$ery +ind of military wor+ without e9"e!tion %ormerly it was the rule that the first 'rin"e!s of
the legion should *e !romoted regularly to the ran+ of Centurion of the 'rimi!le /e not only
was entrusted with the eagle *ut "ommanded four "enturies& that is& four hundred men in the first
line As head of the legion he had a!!ointments of great honor and !rofit The first /astatus had
the "ommand of two "enturies or two hundred men in the se"ond line& and is now "alled
Du"enarius The 'rin"e!s of the first "ohort "ommanded a "entury and a half& that is& one
hundred and fifty men& and +e!t in a great measure the general detail of the legion The se"ond
/astatus had li+ewise a "entury and a half& or one hundred and fifty men The first Triarius had
the "ommand of one hundred men Thus the ten "enturies of the first "ohort were "ommanded *y
fi$e Frdinarii& who *y the an"ient esta*lishment en2oyed great honors and emoluments that were
anne9ed to this ran+ in order to ins!ire the soldiers of the legions with emulation to attain su"h
am!le and "onsidera*le rewards They had also Centurions a!!ointed to ea"h "entury& now "alled
Centenarii and De"ani& who "ommanded ten men& now "alled heads of messes The se"ond
"ohort had fi$e Centurions> and all the rest to the tenth in"lusi$ely the same num*er In the whole
legion there were fiftyfi$e
Lieutenants of "onsular dignity were formerly sent to "ommand in the armies under the general&
and their authority e9tended o$er *oth the legions and au9iliaries in !ea"e and war Instead of
these offi"ers& !ersons of high ran+ are now su*stituted with the title of Masters of the %or"es
They are not limited to the "ommand of two legions only& *ut ha$e often a greater num*er 1ut
the !e"uliar offi"er of the legion was the 'raefe"t& who was always a "ount of the first order Fn
him the "hief "ommand de$ol$ed in the a*sen"e of the lieutenant The Tri*unes& Centurions& and
all the soldiers in general were under his orders, /e ga$e out the !arole and order for the mar"h
and for the guards And if a soldier "ommitted a "rime& *y his authority the Tri*une ad2udged
him to !unishment /e had "harge of the arms& horses& "lothing and !ro$isions It was also his
duty to +ee! *oth the legionary horse and foot in daily e9er"ise and to maintain the stri"test
dis"i!line /e ought to *e a "areful and diligent offi"er& as the sole "harge of forming the legion
to regularity and o*edien"e de!ended on him and the e9"ellen"e of the soldiers redounded
entirely to his own honor and "redit
The 'raefe"t of the "am!& though inferior in ran+ to the former& had a !ost of no small
im!ortan"e The !osition of the "am!& the dire"tion of the entren"hments& the ins!e"tion of the
tents or huts of the soldiers and the *aggage were "om!rehended in his !ro$in"e /is authority
e9tended o$er the si"+& and the !hysi"ians who had the "are of them> and he regulated the
e9!enses relati$e thereto /e had the "harge of !ro$iding "arriages& *athorses and the !ro!er
tools for sawing and "utting wood& digging tren"hes& raising !ara!ets& sin+ing wells and *ringing
water into the "am! /e li+ewise had the "are of furnishing the troo!s with wood and straw& as
well as the rams& onagri& *alistae and all the other engines of war under his dire"tion This !ost
was always "onferred on an offi"er of great s+ill& e9!erien"e and long ser$i"e& and who
"onse0uently was "a!a*le of instru"ting others in those *ran"hes of the !rofession in whi"h he
had distinguished himself
T+E $RE/E-T ,/ T+E 3,R5ME)
The legion had a train of 2oiners& masons& "ar!enters& smiths& !ainters& and wor+men of e$ery
+ind for the "onstru"tion of *arra"+s in the winter="am!s and for ma+ing or re!airing the wooden
towers& arms& "arriages and the $arious sorts of ma"hines and engines for the atta"+ or defense of
!la"es They had also tra$eling wor+sho!s in whi"h they made shields& "uirasses& helmets& *ows&
arrows& 2a$elins and offensi$e and defensi$e arms of all +inds The an"ients made it their "hief
"are to ha$e e$ery thing for the ser$i"e of the army within the "am! They e$en had a *ody of
miners who& *y wor+ing under ground and !ier"ing the foundations of walls& a""ording to the
!ra"ti"e of the 1effi& !enetrated into the *ody of a !la"e All these were under the dire"tion of the
offi"er "alled the !raefe"t of the wor+men
T+E TRIB.)E ,/ T+E ',LDIER'
?e ha$e o*ser$ed that the legions had ten "ohorts& the first of whi"h& "alled the Millarian Cohort&
was "om!osed of men sele"ted on a""ount of their "ir"umstan"es& *irth& edu"ation& !erson and
*ra$ery The tri*une who "ommanded them was li+ewise distinguished for his s+ill in his
e9er"ises& for the ad$antages of his !erson and the integrity of his manners The other "ohorts
were "ommanded& a""ording to the Em!eror's !leasure& either *y tri*unes or other offi"ers
"ommissioned for that !ur!ose In former times the dis"i!line was so stri"t that the tri*unes or
offi"ers a*o$ementioned not only "aused the troo!s under their "ommand to *e e9er"ised daily in
their !resen"e& *ut were themsel$es so !erfe"t in their military e9er"ises as to set them the
e9am!le 3othing does so mu"h honor to the a*ilities or a!!li"ation of the tri*une as the
a!!earan"e and dis"i!line of the soldiers& when their a!!arel is neat and "lean& their arms *right
and in good order and when they !erform their e9er"ises and e$olutions with de9terity
-E)T.RIE' )D E)'I0)' ,/ T+E /,,T
The "hief ensign of the whole legion is the eagle and is "arried *y the eagle=*earer Ea"h "ohort
has also its own !e"uliar ensign& the Dragon& "arried *y the Dra"onarius The an"ients& +nowing
the ran+s were easily disordered in the "onfusion of a"tion& di$ided the "ohorts into "enturies and
ga$e ea"h "entury an ensign ins"ri*ed with the num*er *oth of the "ohort and "entury so that the
men +ee!ing it in sight might *e !re$ented from se!arating from their "omrades in the greatest
tumults 1esides the "enturions& now "alled "entenarii& were distinguished *y different "rests on
their helmets& to *e more easily +nown *y the soldiers of their res!e"ti$e "enturies These
!re"autions !re$ented any mista+e& as e$ery "entury was guided not only *y its own ensign *ut
li+ewise *y the !e"uliar form of the helmet of its "ommanding offi"ers The "enturies were also
su*di$ided into messes of ten men ea"h who lay in the same tent and were under orders and
ins!e"tion of a De"anus or head of the mess These messes were also "alled Mani!les from their
"onstant "ustom of fighting together in the same "om!any or di$ision
LE0I,)R4 TR,,$' ,/ +,R'E
As the di$isions of the infantry are "alled "enturies& so those of the "a$alry are "alled troo!s A
troo! "onsists of thirty=two men and is "ommanded *y a De"urion E$ery "entury has its ensign
and e$ery troo! its 7tandard The "enturion in the infantry is "hosen for his si#e& strength and
deJterity in throwing his missile wea!ons and for his s+ill in the use of his sword and shield> in
short for his e9!ertness in all the e9er"ises /e is to *e $igilant& tem!erate& a""i$e and readier to
e9e"ute the orders he re"ei$es than to tal+> 7tri"t in e9er"ising and +ee!ing u! !ro!er dis"i!line
among his soldiers& in o*liging them to a!!ear "lean and well=dressed and to ha$e their arms
"onstantly ru**ed and *right In li+e manner the De"urion is to *e !referred to the "ommand of a
troo! for his a"ti$ity and address in mounting his horse "om!letely armed> for his s+ill in riding
and in the use of the lan"e and *ow> for his atten"ion in forming his men to all the e$olutions of
the "a$aIry> and for his "are in o*liging them to +ee! their "uirasses& lan"es and helmets always
*right and in good order The s!lendor of the arms has no in"onsidera*le effe"t in stri+ing terror
into an enemy Can that man *e re"+oned a good soldier who through negligen"e suffers his arms
to *e s!oiled *y dirt and rustG In short& it is the duty of the De"urion to *e attenti$e to whate$er
"on"erns the health or dis"i!line of the men or horses in his troo!
DR3I)0 .$ LE0I,) I) ,RDER ,/ BTTLE
?e shall e9em!lify the manner of drawing u! an army in order of *attle in the instan"e of one
legion& whi"h may ser$e for any num*er The "a$alry are !osted on the wings The infantry *egin
to form on a line with the ,first "ohort on the right The se"ond "ohort draws u! on the left of the
first> the third o""u!ies the "enter> the fourth is !osted ne9t> and the fifth "loses the left flan+
The ordinarii& the other offi"ers and the soldiers of the first line& ranged *efore and round the
ensigns& were "alled the !rin"i!es They were all hea$y armed troo!s and had helmets& "uirasses&
grea$es& and shields Their offensi$e wea!ons were large swords& "alled s!athae& and smaller
ones "alled semis!athae together with fi$e loaded 2a$elins in the "on"a$ity of the shield& whi"h
they threw at the first "harge They had li+ewise two other 2a$elins& the largest of whi"h was
"om!osed of a staff fi$e feet and a half long and a triangular head of iron nine in"hes long This
was formerly "alled the !ilum& *ut now it is +nown *y the name of s!i"ulum The soldiers were
!arti"ularly e9er"ised in the use of this wea!on& *e"ause when thrown with for"e and s+ill it
often !enetrated the shields of the foot and the "uirasses of the horse The other 2a$elin was of
smaller si#e> its triangular !oint was only fi$e in"hes long and the staff three feet and one half It
was an"iently "alled $erri"ulum *ut now $erutum
The first line& as I said *efore& was "om!osed of the !rin"i!es> the hastati formed the se"ond and
were armed in the same manner In the se"ond line the si9th "ohort was !osted on the right flan+&
with the se$enth on its left> the eighth drew u! in the "enter> the ninth was the ne9t> and the tenth
always "losed the left flan+ In the rear of these two lines were the ferentarii& light infantry and
the troo!s armed with shields& loaded 2a$elins& swords and "ommon missile wea!ons& mu"h in
the same manner as our modern soldiers This was also the !ost of the ar"hers who had helmets&
"uirasses& swords& *ows and arrows> of the slingers who threw stones with the "ommon sling or
with the fusti*alus> and of the tragularii who annoyed the enemy with arrows from the
manu*alistae or ar"u*alistae
In the rear of all the lines& the triarii& "om!letely armed& were drawn u! They had shields&
"uirasses& helmets& grea$es& swords& daggers& loaded 2a$elins& and two of the "ommon missile
wea!ons They rested during the a"non on one +nee& so that if the first lines were o*liged to gi$e
way& they might *e fresh when *rought u! to the "harge& and there*y retrie$e what was lost and
re"o$er the $i"tory All the ensigns though& of the infantry& wore "uirasses of a smaller sort and
"o$ered their helmets with the shaggy s+ins of *easts to ma+e themsel$es a!!ear more terri*le to
the enemy 1ut the "enturions had "om!lete "uirasses& shields& and helmets of iron& the "rest of
whi"h& !la"ed trans$ersely thereon& were ornamented with sil$er that they might *e more easily
distinguished *y their res!e"ti$e soldiers
The following dis!osition deser$es the greatest attention In the *eginning of an engagement& the
first and se"ond lines remained immo$a*le on their ground& and the trairii in their usual
!ositions The light=armed
troo!s& "om!osed as a*o$e mentioned& ad$an"ed in the front of the line& and atta"+ed the enemy
If they "ould ma+e them gi$e way& they !ursued them> *ut if they were re!ulsed *y su!erior
*ra$ery or num*ers& they retired *ehind their own hea$y armed infantry& whi"h a!!eared li+e a
wall of iron and renewed the a"tion& at first with their missile wea!ons& then sword in hand If
they *ro+e the enemy they ne$er !ursued them& least they should *rea+ their ran+s or throw the
line into "onfusion& and lest the enemy& ta+ing ad$antage of their disorder& should return to the
atta"+ and destroy them without diffi"ulty The !ursuit therefore was entirely left to the light=
armed troo!s and the "a$alry 1y these !re"autions and dis!ositions the legion was $i"torious
without danger& or if the "ontrary ha!!ened& was !reser$ed without any "onsidera*le loss& for as
it is not "al"ulated for !ursuit& it is li+ewise not easily thrown into disorder
)ME' ,/ ',LDIER' I)'-RIBED ,) T+EIR '+IELD'
Lest the soldiers in the "onfusion of *attle should *e se!arated from their "omrades& e$ery "ohort
had its shields !ainted in a manner !e"uliar to itself The name of ea"h soldier was also written
on his shield& together with the num*er of the "ohort and "entury to whi"h he *elonged %rom
this des"ri!tion we may "om!are the legion& when in !ro!er order& to a well fortified "ity as
"ontaining within itself e$ery thing re0uisite in war& where$er it mo$ed It was se"ure from any
sudden attem!t or sur!rise of an enemy *y its e9!editious method of entren"hing its "am! e$en
in the o!en !lains and it was always !ro$ided with troo!s and arms of e$ery +ind To *e
$i"torious& therefore& o$er our enemies in the field& we must unanimously su!!li"ate hea$en to
dis!ose the Em!eror to reform the a*uses in raising our le$ies and to re"ruit our legions after the
method of the an"ients The same "are in "hoosing and instru"ting our young soldiers in all
military e9er"ises and drills will soon ma+e them e0ual to the old Roman troo!s who su*dued
the whole world 3or let this alteration and loss of an"ient dis"i!line in any way affe"t Eour
Ma2esty& sin"e it is a ha!!iness reser$ed for Eou alone *oth to restore the an"ient ordinan"es and
esta*lish new ones for the !u*li" welfare E$ery wor+ *efore the attem!t "arries in it an
a!!earan"e of diffi"ulty> *ut in this "ase& if the le$ies are made *y "areful and e9!erien"ed
offi"ers& an army may *e raised& dis"i!lined and rendered fit for ser$i"e in a $ery short time> for
the ne"essary e9!enses on"e !ro$ided& diligen"e soon effe"ts whate$er it underta+es
RE-,RD' )D --,.)T'
7e$eral !osts in the legion re0uiring men of some edu"ation& the su!erintendents of the le$ies
should sele"t some re"ruits for their s+ill in writing and a""ounts& *esides the 0ualifi"ation to *e
attended to in general& su"h as si#e& strength and !ro!er dis!osition for the ser$i"e %or the whole
detail of the legion& in"luding the lists of the soldiers e9em!ted from duty on !ri$ate a""ounts&
the rosters for their tour of military duties and their !ay lists& is daily entered in the legionary
*oo+s and +e!t we may almost say& with greater e9a"tness than the regulations of !ro$isions or
other "i$il matters in the registers of the !oli"e The daily guards in time of !ea"e& the ad$an"ed
guards and out!osts in time of war& whi"h are mounted regularly *y the "enturies and messes in
their turns& are li+ewise !un"tually +e!t in rolls for that !ur!ose& with the name of ea"h soldier
whose tour is !ast& that no one may ha$e in2usti"e done him or *e e9"used from his duty *y
fa$or
They are also e9a"t in entering the time and limitation of furloughs& whi"h formerly were ne$er
granted without diffi"ulty and only on real and urgent *usiness They then ne$er suffered the
soldiers to attend on any !ri$ate !erson or to "on"ern themsel$es in !ri$ate o""u!ations& thin+ing
it a*surd and im!ro!er that the Em!eror's soldiers& "lothed and su*sisted at the !u*li" e9!ense&
should follow any other !rofession 7ome soldiers& howe$er& were allowed for the ser$i"e of the
!raefe"ts& tri*unes and e$en of the other offi"ers& our of the num*er of the a""ensi or su"h as
were raised after the legion was "om!lete These latter are now "alled su!ernumeraries The
regular troo!s were o*liged to "arry their wood& hay& water and straw into the "am! themsel$es
%rom su"h +ind of ser$i"es they were "alled munifi"es
',LDIER:' DE$,'IT'
The institution of the an"ients whi"h o*liged the soldiers to de!osit half of e$ery donati$e they
re"ei$ed at the "olors was wise and 2udi"ious> the intent was to !reser$e it for their use so that
they might not s0uander it in e9tra$agan"e or idle e9!ense %or most men& !arti"ularly the !oorer
sort& soon s!end whate$er they "an get A reser$e of this +ind therefore is e$idently of the
greatest ser$i"e to the soldiers themsel$es> sin"e they are maintained at the !u*li" e9!ense& their
military sto"+ *y this method is "ontinually in"reasing The soldier who +nows all his fortune is
de!osited at his "olors& entertains no thoughts of desertion& "on"ei$es a greater affe"tion for them
and fights with greater intre!idity in their defense /e is also !rom!ted thereto *y interest& the
most !re$ailing "onsideration among men This money was "ontained in ten *ags& one for ea"h
"ohort There was an ele$enth *ag also for a small "ontri*ution from the whole legion& as a
"ommon fund to defray the e9!ense of *urial of any of their de"eased "omrades These
"olle"tions were +e!t in *as+ets in the "ustody of the ensigns& "hosen for their integrity and
"a!a"ity& and answera*le for the trust and o*liged to a""ount with e$ery man for his own
!ro!ortion
$R,M,TI,) I) T+E LE0I,)
/ea$en "ertainly ins!ired the Romans with the organi#ation of the legion& so su!erior does it
seem to human in$ention 7u"h is the arrangement and dis!osition of the ten "ohorts that
"om!ose it& as to a!!ear one !erfe"t *ody and form one "om!lete whole A soldier& as he
ad$an"es in ran+& !ro"eeds as it were *y rotation through the different degrees of the se$eral
"ohorts in su"h a manner that one who is !romoted !asses from the first "ohort to the tenth& and
returns again regularly through all the others with a "ontinual in"rease of ran+ and !ay to the
first Thus the "enturion of the !rimi!le& after ha$ing "ommanded in the different ran+s of e$ery
"ohort& attains that great dignity in the first with infinite ad$antages from the whole legion The
"hief !raefe"t of the 'raetorian .uards rises *y the same method of rotation to that lu"rati$e and
honora*le ran+ Thus the legionary horse "ontra"t an affe"tion for the foot of their own "ohorts&
notwithstanding the natural anti!athy e9isting *etween the two "or!s And this "onne"tion
esta*lishes a re"i!ro"al atta"hment and union *etween all the "ohorts and the "a$alry and
infantry of the legion
LE0I,)R4 M.'I-
The musi" of the legion "onsists of trum!ets& "ornets and *u""inae The trum!et sounds the
"harge and the retreat The "ornets are used only to regulate the motions of the "olors> the
trum!ets ser$e when the soldiers are ordered out to any wor+ without the "olors> *ut in time of
a"tion& the trum!ets and "ornets sound together The "lassi"um& whi"h is a !arti"ular sound of the
*u""ina or horn& is a!!ro!riated to the "ommander=in="hief and is used in the !resen"e of the
general& or at the e9e"ution of a soldier& as a mar+ of its *eing done *y his authority The ordinary
guards and out!osts are always mounted and relie$ed *y the sound of trum!et& whi"h also dire"ts
the motions of the soldiers on wor+ing !arties and on field days The "ornets sound whene$er the
"olors are to *e stru"+ or !lanted These rules must *e !un"tually o*ser$ed in all e9er"ises and
re$iews so that the soldiers may *e ready to o*ey them in a"tion without hesitation a""ording to
the general's orders either to "harge or halt& to !ursue the enemy or to retire % or reason will
"on$in"e us that what is ne"essary to *e !erformed in the heat of a"tion should "onstantly *e
!ra"ti"ed in the leisure of !ea"e
T+E DRILLI)0 ,/ T+E TR,,$'
The organi#ation of the legion *eing thus e9!lained& let us return to the drills The younger
soldiers and re"ruits went through their drills of e$ery +ind e$ery morning and afternoon and the
$eterans and most e9!ert regularly on"e a day Length of ser$i"e or age alone will ne$er form a
military man& for after ser$ing many years an undis"i!lined soldier is still a no$i"e in his
!rofession 3ot only those under the masters at arms& *ut all the soldiers in general& were
formerly trained in"essantly in those drills whi"h now are only e9hi*ited as shows in the "ir"us
for !arti"ular solemnities 1y !ra"ti"e only "an *e a"0uired agility of *ody and the s+ill re0uisite
to engage an enemy with ad$antage& es!e"ially in "lose fight 1ut the most essential !oint of all
is to tea"h soldiers to +ee! their ran+s and ne$er a*andon their "olors in the most diffi"ult
e$olutions Men thus trained are ne$er at a loss amidst the greatest "onfusion of num*ers
The re"ruits li+ewise are to *e e9er"ised with wooden swords at the !ost& to *e taught to atta"+
this imaginary antagonist on all sides and to aim at the sides& feet or head& *oth with the !oint
and edge of the sword They must *e instru"ted how to s!ring forward to gi$e the *low& to rise
with a *ound a*o$e the shield and then to sin+ down and shelter themsel$es under "o$er of it&
and how to ad$an"e and retire They must also throw their 2a$elins at the !ost from a
"onsidera*le distan"e in order to a"0uire a good aim and strengthen the arm
The ar"hers and slingers set u! *undles of twigs or straw for mar+s& and generally stri+e them
with arrows and with stones from the fustia*lus at the distan"e of si9 hundred feet They a"0uired
"oolness and e9a"tness in a"non from familiar "ustom and e9er"ise in the field The slingers
should *e taught to whirl the sling *ut on"e a*out the head *efore they "ast the stone
%ormerlyall soldiers were trained to the !ra""i"e of throwing stones of a !ound weight with the
hand& as this was thought a readier method sin"e it did not re0uire a sling The use of the
"ommon missile wea!ons and loaded 2a$elins was another !art of the drill stri"tly attended to
To "ontinue this drill without interru!tion during the winter& they ere"ted for the "a$alry !orti"os
or riding halls "o$ered with tiles or shingles& and if they were not to *e !ro"ured& with reeds&
rushes or that"h Large o!en halls were li+ewise "onstru"ted in the same manner for the use of
the infantry 1y these means the troo!s were !ro$ided with !la"es of drill sheltered from *ad
weather 1ut e$en in winter& if it did not rain or snow& they were o*liged to !erform their drills in
the field& lest an intermission of dis"i!line should affe"t *oth the "ourage and "onstitution of the
soldier In short& *oth legionary and au9iliary troo!s should "ontinually *e drilled in "utting
wood& "arrying *urdens& !assing dit"hes& swimming in the sea or in ri$ers& mar"hing in the full
ste! and e$en running with their arms and *aggage& so that& inured to la*or in !ea"e& they may
find no diffi"ulty in war %or& as the well trained soldier is eager for a"tion& so does the untaught
fear it In war dis"i!line is su!erior to strength> *ut if that dis"i!line is negle"ted& there is no
longer any differen"e *etween the soldier and the !easant The old ma9im is "ertain that the $ery
essen"e of an art "onsists in "onstant !ra"ti"e
M-+I)E' )D T,,L' ,/ T+E LE0I,)
The legion owes its su""ess to its arms and ma"hines& as well as to the num*er and *ra$ery of its
soldiers In the first !la"e e$ery "entury has a *alista mounted on a "arriage drawn *y mules and
ser$ed *y a mess& that is *y ten men from the "entury to whi"h it *elongs The larger these
engines are& the greater distan"e they "arry and with the greater for"e They are used not only to
defend the entren"hments of "am!s& *ut are also !la"ed in the field in the rear of the hea$y armed
infantry And su"h is the $iolen"e with whi"h they throw the darts that neither the "uirasses of the
horse nor shields of the foot "an resist them The num*er of these engines in a legion is fiftyfi$e
1esides these are ten onagri& one for ea"h "ohort> they are drawn ready armed on "arriages *y
o9en> in "ase of an atta"+& they defend the wor+s of the "am! *y throwing stones as the *alistae
do darts
The legion "arries with it a num*er of small *oats& ea"h hollowed out of a single !ie"e of tim*er&
with long "a*les and sometimes iron "hains to fasten them together These *oats& 2oined and
"o$ered with !lan+s& ser$e as *ridges o$er unforda*le ri$ers& on whi"h *oth "a$alry and infantry
!ass without danger The legion is !ro$ided with iron hoo+s& "alled wol$es& and iron s"ythes
fi9ed to the ends of long !oles> and with for+s& s!ades& sho$els& !i"+a9es& wheel*arrows and
*as+ets for digging and trans!orting earth> together with hat"hets& a9es and saws for "utting
wood 1esides whi"h& a train of wor+men attend on it furnished with all instruments ne"essary
for the "onstru"tion of tortoises& mus"uli& rams& $ines& mo$ing towers and other ma"hines for the
atta"+ of !la"es As the enumeration of all the !arti"ulars of this sort would *e too tedious& I shall
only o*ser$e that the legion should "arry with it where$er it mo$es& whate$er is ne"essary for
e$ery +ind of ser$i"e so that the en"am!ments may ha$e all the strength and "on$enien"es of a
fortified "ity
$reface to Boo" III
To the Emperor %alentinian
The Athenians and La"edaemonians were masters of .ree"e *efore the Ma"edonians& as history
informs us The Athenians e9"elled not only in war *ut in other arts and s"ien"es The
La"edaemonians made war their "hief study They are affirmed to *e the first who reasoned on
the e$ents of *attles and "ommitted their o*ser$ations thereon to writing with su"h su""ess as to
redu"e the military art& *efore "onsidered as totally de!endent on "ourage or fortune& to "ertain
rules and fi9ed !rin"i!les As a "onse0uen"e they esta*lished s"hools of ta"ti"s for the instru"tion
of youth in all the maneu$ers of war /ow worthy of admiration are these !eo!le for !arti"ularly
a!!lying themsel$es to the study of an art& without whi"h no other art "an !ossi*ly e9ist The
Romans followed their e9am!le& and *oth !ra"ti"ed their institutions in their armies and
!reser$ed them in their writings These are the ma9ims and instru"tions dis!ersed through the
wor+s of different authors& whi"h Eour Ma2esty has ordered me to a*ridge& sin"e the !erusal of
the whole would *e too tedious& and the authority of only a !art unsatisfa"tory The effe"t of the
La"edaemonian s+ill in dis!ositions for general a"tions a!!ears e$idently in the single instan"e
of Janti!!us& who assisted the Carthaginians after the re!eated ruin of their armies And merely
su!erior s+ill and "ondu"t defeated Attilius Regulus at the head of a Roman army& till that time
always $i"torious Janti!!us too+ him !risoner and thus terminated the war *y a single a"tion
/anni*al& also& *efore he set out on his e9!edition into Italy& "hose a La"edaemonian for his
"ounsellor in military o!erations> and *y his ad$i"e& though inferior to the Romans *oth in
num*er and strength& o$erthrew so many "onsuls and su"h mighty legions /e& therefore& who
desires !ea"e& should !re!are for war /e who as!ires to $i"tory& should s!are no !ains to form
his soldiers And he who ho!es for su""ess& should fight on !rin"i!le& not "han"e 3o one dares
to offend or insult a !ower of +nown su!eriority in a"tion
Boo" III& Dispositions for ction
T+E ).MBER 3+I-+ '+,.LD -,M$,'E ) RM4
The first *oo+ treats of the "hoi"e and e9er"ises of new le$ies> the se"ond e9!lains the
esta*lishment of the legion and the method of dis"i!line> and the third "ontains the dis!ositions
for a"tion 1y this methodi"al !rogression& the following instru"tions on general a"tions and
means of $i"tory will *e *etter understood and of greater use 1y an army is meant a num*er of
troo!s& legions and au9iliaries& "a$alry and infantry& assem*led to ma+e war This num*er is
limited *y 2udges of the !rofession The defeats of Jer9es& Darius& Mithridates and other
monar"hs who *rought innumera*le multitudes into the field& !lainly show that the destru"tion of
su"h !rodigious armies is owing more to their own num*ers than to the *ra$ery of their enemies
An army too numerous is su*2e"t to many dangers and in"on$enien"es Its *ul+ ma+es it slow
and unwieldy in its motions> and as it is o*liged to mar"h in "olumns of great length& it is
e9!osed to the ris+ of *eing "ontinually harassed and insulted *y in"onsidera*le !arties of the
enemy The in"um*ran"e of the *aggage is often an o""asion of its *eing sur!rised in its !assage
through diffi"ult !la"es or o$er ri$ers The diffi"ulty of !ro$iding forage for su"h num*ers of
horses and other *easts of *urden is $ery great 1esides& s"ar"ity of !ro$isions& whi"h is to *e
"arefully guarded against in all e9!editions& soon ruins su"h large armies where the "onsum!tion
is so !rodigious& that notwithstanding the greatest "are in filling the maga#ines they must *egin
to fail in a short time And sometimes they una$oida*ly will *e distressed for want of water 1ut&
if unfortunately this immense army should *e defeated& the num*ers lost must ne"essarily *e
$ery great& and the remainder& who sa$e themsel$es *y flight& too mu"h dis!irited to *e *rought
again to a"tion
The an"ients& taught *y e9!erien"e& !referred dis"i!line to num*ers In wars of lesser im!ortan"e
they thought one legion with au9iliaries& that is& ten thousand foot and two thousand horse&
suffi"ient And they often ga$e the "ommand to a !raeter as to a general of the se"ond ran+
?hen the !re!arations of the enemy were formida*le& they sent a general of "onsular dignity
with twenty thousand foot and four thousand horse In our times this "ommand was gi$en to a
"ount of the first order 1ut when there ha!!ened any dangerous insurre"tion su!!orted *y
infinite multitudes of fier"e and *ar*arous nations& on su"h emergen"ies they too+ the field with
two armies under two "onsuls& who were "harged& *oth singly and 2ointly& to ta+e "are to !reser$e
the Re!u*li" from danger In short& *y this management& the Romans& almost "ontinually
engaged in war with different nations in different !arts of the world& found themsel$es a*le to
o!!ose them in e$ery 0uarter The e9"ellen"e of their dis"i!line made their small armies
suffi"ient to en"ounter all their enemies with su""ess 1ut it was an in$aria*le rule in their armies
that the num*er of allies or au9iliaries should ne$er e9"eed that of the Roman "iti#ens
ME)' ,/ $RE'ER%I)0 IT I) +ELT+
The ne9t arti"le is of the greatest im!ortan"e, the means of !reser$ing the health of the troo!s
This de!ends on the "hoi"e of situation and water& on the season of the year& medi"ine& and
e9er"ise As to the situation& the army should ne$er "ontinue in the neigh*orhood of
unwholesome marshes any length of time& or on dry !lains or eminen"es without some sort of
shade or shelter In the summer& the troo!s should ne$er en"am! without tents And their
mar"hes& in that season of the year when the heat is e9"essi$e& should *egin *y *rea+ of day so
that they may arri$e at the !la"e of destination in good time Ftherwise they will "ontra"t
diseases from the heat of the weather and the fatigue of the mar"h In se$ere winter they should
ne$er mar"h in the night in frost and snow& or *e e9!osed to want of wood or "lothes A soldier&
star$ed with "old& "an neither *e healthy nor fit for ser$i"e The water must *e wholesome and
not marshy 1ad water is a +ind of !oison and the "ause of e!idemi" distem!ers
It is the duty of the offi"ers of the legion& of the tri*unes& and e$en of the "ommander=in="hief
himself& to ta+e "are that the si"+ soldiers are su!!lied with !ro!er diet and diligently attended *y
the !hysi"ians %or little "an *e e9!e"ted from men who ha$e *oth the enemy and diseases to
struggle with /owe$er& the *est 2udges of the ser$i"e ha$e always *een of the o!inion that daily
!ra"ti"e of the military e9er"ises is mu"h more effi"a"ious towards the health of an army than all
the art of medi"ine %or this reason they e9er"ised their infantry without intermission If it rained
or snowed& they !erformed under "o$er> and il1 fine weather& in the field They also were
assiduous in e9er"ising their "a$alry& not only in !lains& *ut also on une$en ground& *ro+en and
"ut with dit"hes The horses as well as the men were thus trained& *oth on the a*o$e mentioned
a""ount and to !re!are them for a"tion /en"e we may !er"ei$e the im!ortan"e and ne"essity of
a stri"t o*ser$an"e of the military e9er"ises in an army& sin"e health in the "am! and $i"tory in
the field de!end on them If a numerous army "ontinues long in one !la"e in the summer or in
the autumn& the waters *e"ome "orru!t and the air infe"ted Malignant and fatal distem!ers
!ro"eed from this and "an *e a$oided only *y fre0uent "hanges of en"am!ments
-RE T, $R,%IDE /,R0E )D $R,%I'I,)'
%amine ma+es greater ha$o" in an army than the enemy& and is more terri*le than the sword
Time and o!!ortunity may hel! to retrie$e other misfortunes& *ut where forage and !ro$isions
ha$e not *een "arefully !ro$ided& the e$il is without remedy The main and !rin"i!al !oint in war
is to se"ure !lenty of !ro$isions and to destroy tIle enemy *y famine An e9a"t "al"ulation must
therefore *e made *efore the "ommen"ement of the war as to the num*er of troo!s and the
e9!enses in"ident thereto& so that the !ro$in"es may in !lenty of time furnish the forage& "orn&
and all other +inds of !ro$isions demanded of them to *e trans!orted They must *e in more than
suffi"ient 0uantity& and gathered into the strongest and most "on$enient "ities *efore the o!ening
of the "am!aign If the !ro$in"es "annot raise their 0uotas in +ind& they must "ommute for them
in money to *e em!loyed in !ro"uring all things re0uisite for the ser$i"e %or the !ossessions of
the su*2e"ts "annot *e +e!t se"ure otherwise than *y the defense of arms
These !re"autions often *e"ome dou*ly ne"essary as a siege is sometimes !rotra"ted *eyond
e9!e"tation& the *esiegers resol$ing to suffer themsel$es all the in"on$enien"es of want sooner
than raise the siege& if they ha$e any ho!es of redu"ing the !la"e *y famine Edi"ts should *e
issued out re0uiring the "ountry !eo!le to "on$ey their "attle& grain& wine and all +inds of
!ro$isions that may *e of ser$i"e to the enemy& into garrisoned fortresses or into the safest "ities
And if they do not "om!ly with the order& !ro!er offi"ers are to a!!ointed to "om!el them to do
it The inha*itants of the !ro$in"e must li+ewise *e o*liged to retire with their effe"ts into some
fortified !la"e *efore the irru!tion of the enemy The fortifi"ations and all the ma"hines of
different +inds must also *e e9amined and re!aired in time %or if you are on"e sur!rised *y the
enemy *efore you are in a !ro!er !osture of defense& you are thrown into irre"o$era*le
"onfusion& and you "an no longer draw any assistan"e from the neigh*oring !la"es& all
"ommuni"ation with them *eing "ut off 1ut a faithful management of the maga#ines and a
frugal distri*ution of the !ro$isions& with !ro!er !re"autions ta+en at first& will insure suffi"ient
!lenty ?hen !ro$isions on"e *egin to fail& !arsimony is ill=timed and "omes too late
Fn diffi"ult e9!editions the an"ients distri*uted the !ro$isions at a fi9ed allowan"e to ea"h man
without distin"tion of ran+> and when the emergen"y was !ast& the go$ernment a""ounted for the
full !ro!ortions The troo!s should ne$er want wood and forage in winter or water in summer
They should ha$e "orn& wine& $inegar& and e$en salt& in !lenty at all times Cities and fortresses
are garrisoned *y su"h m"n as are least fit for th" ser$i"e of the field They ar" !ro$ided with all
sorts of arnms& arrows& fusti*ali& slings& stones& onagri and *alistae for their defense .reat
"aution is re0uisite that the unsus!e"ting sim!li"ity of the inha*itants *e not im!osed on *y the
trea"hery or !er2ury of the enemy& for !retended "onferen"es and de"eitful a!!earan"e of tru"es
ha$e often *een more fatal than for"e 1y o*ser$ing the foregoing !re"autions& the *esieged may
ha$e it in their !ower to ruin the enemy *y famine& if he +ee!s his troo!s together& and if he
di$idesthem& *y fre0uent sallies and sur!rises
MET+,D' T, $RE%E)T M.TI)4 I) ) RM4
An army drawn together from different !arts sometimes is dis!osed to mutiny And the troo!s&
though not in"lined to fight& !retend to *e angry at not *eing led against the enemy 7u"h
seditious dis!ositions !rin"i!ally show themsel$es in those who ha$e li$ed in their 0uarters in
idleness and effemina"y These men& una""ustomed to the ne"essary fatigue of the field& are
disgusted at its se$erity Their ignoran"e of dis"i!line ma+es them afraid of a"tion and ins!ires
them with insolen"e
There are se$eral remedies for this e$il ?hile the troo!s are yet se!arated and ea"h "or!s
"ontinues in its res!e"ti$e 0uarters& let the tri*unes& their lieutenants and the offi"ers in genera;
ma+e it their *usiness to +ee! u! so stri"t a dis"i!line as to lea$e them no room to har*or any
thoughts *ut of su*mission and o*edien"e Let them *e "onstantly em!loyed either in field days
or in the ins!e"tion of their arms They should not *e allowed to *e a*sent on furlough They
should *e fre0uently "alled *y roll and trained to *e e9a"t in the o*ser$an"e of e$ery signal Let
them *e e9er"ised in the use of the *ow& in throwing missile wea!ons and stones& *oth with the
hand and sling& and with the wooden sword at the !ost> let all this *e "ontinually re!eated and let
them *e often +e!t under arms till they are tired Let them *e e9er"ised in running and lea!ing to
fa"ilitate the !assing of dit"hes And if their 0uarters are near the sea or a ri$er& let them all&
without e9"e!tion& *e o*liged in the summer to ha$e the fre0uent !ra"ti"e of swimming Let
them *e a""ustomed to mar"h through thi"+ets& in"losures and *ro+en grounds& to fell trees and
"ut out tim*er& to *rea+ ground and to defend a !ost against their "omrades who are to endea$or
to dis!ossess them> and in the en"ounter ea"h !arty should use their shields to dislodge and *ear
down their antagonists All the different +inds of troo!s thus trained and e9er"ised in their
0uarters will find themsel$es ins!ired with emulation for glory and eagerness for a"tion when
they "ome to ta+e the field In short& a soldier who has !ro!er "onfiden"e in his own s+ill and
strength& entertains no thought of mutiny
A general should *e attenti$e to dis"o$er the tur*ulent and seditious soldiers in the army& legions
or au9iliaries& "a$alry or infantry /e should endea$or to !ro"ure his intelligen"e not from
informers& *ut from the tri*unes& their lieutenants and other offi"ers of undou*ted $era"ity It
would then *e !rudent in him to se!arate them from the rest under !reten"e of some ser$i"e
agreea*le to them& or deta"h them to garrison "ities or "astles& *ut with su"h address that though
he wants to get rid of them& they may thin+ themsel$es em!loyed *y !referen"e and fa$or A
multitude ne$er *ro+e out into o!en sedition at on"e and with unanimous "onsent They are
!re!ared and e9"ited *y some few mutineers& who ho!e to se"ure im!unity for their "rimes *y
the num*er of their asso"iates 1ut if the height of the mutiny re0uires $iolent remedies& it will
*e most ad$isa*le& after the manner of the an"ients& to !unish the ring=leaders only in order that&
though few suffer& all may *e terrified *y the e9am!le 1ut it is mu"h more to the "redit of a
general to form his troo!s to su*mission and o*edien"e *y ha*it and dis"i!line than to *e o*liged
to for"e them to their duty *y the terror of !unishment
MR-+E' I) T+E )EI0+B,R+,,D ,/ T+E E)EM4
It is asserted *y those who ha$e made the !rofession their study that an army is e9!osed to more
danger on mar"hes than in *attles In an engagement the men are !ro!erly armed& they see their
enemies *efore them and "ome !re!ared to fight 1ut on a mar"h the soldier is less on his guard&
has not his arms always ready and is thrown into disorder *y a sudden atta"+ or am*us"ade A
general& therefore& "annot *e too "areful and diligent in ta+ing ne"essary !re"autions to !re$ent a
sur!rise on the mar"h and in ma+ing !ro!er dis!ositions to re!ulse the enemy& in "ase of su"h
a""ident& without loss
In the first !la"e& he should ha$e an e9a"t des"ri!tion of the "ountry that is the seat of war& in
whi"h the distan"es of !la"es s!e"ified *y the num*er of miles& the nature of the roads& the
shortest routes& *y=roads& mountains and ri$ers& should *e "orre"tly inserted ?e are told that the
greatest generals ha$e "arried their !re"autions on this head so far that& not satisfied with the
sim!le des"ri!tion of the "ountry wherein they were engaged& they "aused !lans to *e ta+en of it
on the s!ot& that they might regulate their mar"hes *y the eye with greater safety A general
should also inform himself of all these !arti"ulars from !ersons of sense and re!utation well
a"0uainted with the "ountry *y e9amining them se!arately at first& and then "om!aring their
a""ounts in order to "ome at the truth with "ertainty
If any diffi"ulty arises a*out the "hoi"e of roads& he should !ro"ure !ro!er and s+illful guides /e
should !ut them under a guard and s!are neither !romises nor threat to indu"e them to *e
faithful They will a"0uit themsel$es well when they +now it is im!ossi*le to es"a!e and are
"ertain of *eing rewarded for their fidelity or !unished for their !erfidy /e must *e sure of their
"a!a"ity and e9!erien"e& that the whole army *e not *rought into danger *y the errors of two or
three !ersons %or sometimes the "ommon sort of !eo!le imagine they +now what they really do
not& and through ignoran"e !romise more than they "an !erform
1ut of all !re"autions the most im!ortant is to +ee! entirely se"ret whi"h way or *y what route
the army is to mar"h %or the se"urity of an e9!edition de!ends on the "on"ealment of all
motions from the enemy The figure of the Minotaur was an"iently among the legionary ensigns&
signifying that this monster& a""ording to the fa*le& was "on"ealed in the most se"ret re"esses and
windings of the la*yrinth& 2ust as the designs of a general should always *e im!enetra*le ?hen
the enemy has no intimation of a mar"h& it is made with se"urity> *ut as sometimes the s"outs
either sus!e"t or dis"o$er the de"am!ment& or traitors or deserters gi$e intelligen"e thereof& it
will *e !ro!er to mention the method of a"ting in "ase of an atta"+ on the mar"h
The general& *efore he !uts his troo!s in motion& should send out deta"hments of trusty and
e9!erien"ed soldiers well mounted& to re"onnoiter the !la"es through whi"h he is to mar"h& in
front& in rear& and on the right and left& lest he should fall into am*us"ades The night is safer and
more ad$antageous for your s!ies to do their *usiness in than day& for if they are ta+en !risoners&
you ha$e& as it were& *etrayed yourself After this& the "a$alry should mar"h off first& then the
infantry> the *aggage& *at horses& ser$ants and "arriages follow in the "enter> and !art of the *est
"a$alry and infantry "ome in the rear& sin"e it is oftener atta"+ed on a mar"h than the front The
flan+s of the *aggage& e9!osed to fre0uent am*us"ades& must also *e "o$ered with a suffi"ient
guard to se"ure them 1ut a*o$e all& the !art where the enemy is most e9!e"ted must *e
reinfor"ed with some of the *est "a$alry& light infantry and foot ar"hers
If surrounded on all sides *y the enemy& you must ma+e dis!ositions to re"ei$e them where$er
they "ome& and the soldiers should *e "autioned *eforehand to +ee! their arms in their hands& and
to *e ready in order to !re$ent the *ad effe"ts of a sudden atta"+ Men are frightened and thrown
into disorder *y sudden a""idents and sur!rises of no "onse0uen"e when foreseen The an"ients
were $ery "areful that the ser$ants or followers of the army& if wounded or frightened *y the
noise of the a"tion& might not disorder the troo!s while engaged& and also to !re$ent their either
straggling or "rowding one another too mu"h& whi"h might in"ommode their own men and gi$e
ad$antage to the enemy They ranged the *aggage& therefore& in the same manner as the regular
troo!s under !arti"ular ensigns They sele"ted from among the ser$ants the most !ro!er and
e9!erien"ed and ga$e them the "ommand of a num*er of ser$ants and *oys& not e9"eeding two
hundred& and their ensigns dire"ted them where to assem*le the *aggage 'ro!er inter$als should
always *e +e!t *etween the *aggage and the troo!s& that the latter may not *e em*arrassed for
want of room in "ase of an atta"+ during the mar"h The manner and dis!osition of defense must
*e $aried a""ording to the differen"e of ground In an o!en "ountry you are more lia*le to *e
atta"+ed *y horse than foot 1ut in a woody& mountainous or marshy situation& the danger to *e
a!!rehended is from foot 7ome of the di$isions *eing a!t through negligen"e to mo$e too fast&
and others too slow& great "are is to *e ta+en to !re$ent the army from *eing *ro+en or from
running into too great a length& as the enemy would instantly ta+e ad$antage of the negle"t and
!enetrate without diffi"ulty
The tri*unes& their lieutenants or the masters at arms of most e9!erien"e& must therefore *e
!osted at !ro!er distan"es& in order to halt those who ad$an"e too fast and 0ui"+en su"h as mo$e
too slow The men at too great a distan"e in the front& on the a!!earan"e of an enemy& are more
dis!osed to fly than to 2oin their "omrades And those too far *ehind& destitute of assistan"e& fall a
sa"rifi"e to the enemy and their own des!air The enemy& it may *e "on"luded& will either !lant
am*us"ades or ma+e his atta"+ *y o!en for"e& a""ording to the ad$antage of the ground
Cir"ums!e"tion in e9amining e$ery !la"e will *e a se"urity against "on"ealed danger> and an
am*us"ade& if dis"o$ered and !rom!tly surrounded& will return the intended mis"hief with
interest
If the enemy !re!are to fall u!on you *y o!en for"e in a mountainous "ountry& deta"hments must
*e sent forward to o""u!y the highest eminen"es& so that on their arri$al they may not dare to
atta"+ you under su"h a disad$antage of ground& your troo!s *eing !osted so mu"h a*o$e theIr
and !resenting a front ready for their re"e!tion It is *etter to send men forward with hat"hets and
other tools in order to o!en ways that are narrow *ut safe& without regard to the la*or& rather than
to run any ris+ in the finest roads It is ne"essary to *e well a"0uainted whether the enemy
usually ma+e their attem!ts in the night& at *rea+ of day or in the hours of refreshment or rest>
and *y +nowledge of their "ustoms to guard against what we find their general !ra"ti"e ?e must
also inform oursel$es whether they are strongest in infantry or "a$alry> whether their "a$alry is
"hiefly armed with lan"es or with *ows> and whether their !rin"i!al strength "onsists in their
num*ers or the e9"ellen"e of their arms All of this will ena*le us to ta+e the most !ro!er
measures to distress them and for our ad$antage ?hen we ha$e a design in $iew& we must
"onsider whether it will *e most ad$isa*le to *egin the mar"h *y day or *y night> we must
"al"ulate the distan"e of the !la"es we want to rea"h> and ta+e su"h !re"autions that in summer
the troo!s may not suffer for want of water on their mar"h& nor *e o*stru"ted in winter *y
im!assa*le morasses or torrents& as these would e9!ose the army to great danger *efore it "ould
arri$e at the !la"e of its destination As it highly "on"erns us to guard against these
in"on$enien"es with !ruden"e& so it would *e ine9"usi*le not to ta+e ad$antage of an enemy that
fell into them through ignoran"e or negligen"e Fur s!ies should *e "onstantly a*road> we should
s!are no !ains in tam!ering with their men& and gi$e all manner of en"ouragement to deserters
1y these means we may get intelligen"e of their !resent or future designs And we should
"onstantly +ee! in readiness some deta"hments of "a$alry and light infantry& to fall u!on them
when they least e9!e"t it& either on the mar"h& or when foraging or marauding
$''0E' ,/ RI%ER'
The !assages of ri$ers are $ery dangerous without great !re"aution In "rossing *road or ra!id
streams& the *aggage& ser$ants& and sometimes the most indolent soldiers are in danger of *eing
lost /a$ing first sounded the ford& two lines of the *est mounted "a$alry are ranged at a
"on$enient distan"e entirely a"ross the ri$er& so that the infantry and *aggage may !ass *etween
them The line a*o$e the ford *rea+s the $iolen"e of the stream& and the line *elow re"o$ers and
trans!orts the men "arried away *y the "urrent ?hen the ri$er is too dee! to *e forded either *y
the "a$alry or infantry& the water is drawn off& if it runs in a !lain& *y "utting a great num*er of
tren"hes& and thus it is !assed with ease
3a$iga*le ri$ers are !assed *y means of !iles dri$en into the *ottom and floored with !lan+s> or
in a sudden emergen"y *y fastening together a num*er of em!ty "as+s and "o$ering them with
*oards The "a$alry& throwing off their a""outrements& ma+e small floats of dry reeds or rushes
on whi"h they lay their rams and "uirasses to !reser$e them from *eing wet They themsel$es
swim their horses a"ross the ri$er and draw the floats after them *y a leather thong
1ut the most "ommodious in$ention is that of the small *oats hollowed out of one !ie"e of
tim*er and $ery light *oth *y their ma+e and the 0uality of the wood The army always has a
num*er of these *oats u!on "arriages& together with a suffi"ient 0uantity of !lan+s and iron nails
Thus with the hel! of "a*les to lash the *oats together& a *ridge is instantly "onstru"ted& whi"h
for the time has the solidity of a *ridge of stone
As the enemy generally endea$or to fall u!on an army at the !assage of a ri$er either *y sur!rise
or am*us"ade& it is ne"essary to se"ure *oth sides thereof *y strong deta"hments so that the
troo!s may not *e atta"+ed and defeated while se!arated *y the "hannel of the ri$er 1ut it is still
safer to !alisade *oth the !osts& sin"e this will ena*le you to sustain any attem!t without mu"h
loss If the *ridge is wanted& not only for the !resent trans!ortation of the troo!s *ut also for their
return and for "on$oys& it will *e !ro!er to throw u! wor+s with large dit"hes to "o$er ea"h head
of the *ridge& with a suffi"ient num*er of men to defend them as long as the "ir"umstan"es of
affairs re0uire
R.LE' /,R E)-M$I)0 ) RM4
An army on the mar"h "annot e9!e"t always to find walled "ities for 0uarters& and it is $ery
im!rudent and dangerous to en"am! in a straggling manner without some sort of entren"hment
It is an easy matter to sur!rise troo!s while refreshing themsel$es or dis!ersed in the different
o""u!ations of the ser$i"e The dar+ness of night& the ne"essity of slee! and the dis!ersion of the
horses at !asture afford o!!ortunities of sur!rise A good situation for a "am! is not suffi"ient>
we must "hoose the $ery *est that "an *e found lest& ha$ing failed to o""u!y a more
ad$antageous !ost the enemy should get !ossession of it to our great detriment
An army should not en"am! in summer near *ad waters or far from good ones& nor in winter in a
situation without !lenty of forage and wood The "am! should not *e lia*le to sudden
inundations The a$enues should not *e too stee! and narrow lest& if in$ested& the troo!s should
find it diffi"ult to ma+e their retreat> nor should it *e "ommanded *y any eminen"es from whi"h
it may *e annoyed *y the enemy's wea!ons After these !re"autions& the "am! is formed s0uare&
round& triangular or o*long& a""ording to the nature of the ground %or the form of a "am! does
not "onstitute its goodness Those "am!s& howe$er& are thought *est where the length is one third
more than the de!th The dimensions must *e e9a"tly "om!uted *y the engineers& so that the si#e
of the "am! may *e !ro!ortioned to the num*er of troo!s A "am! whi"h is too "onfined will not
!ermit the troo!s to !erform their mo$ements with freedom& and one whi"h is too e9tensi$e
di$ides them too mu"h There are three methods of entren"hing a "am! The first is for the "ase
when the army is on the mar"h and will "ontinue in the "am! for only one night They then throw
u! a slight !ara!et of turf and !lant it with a row of !alisades or "altro!sI of wood The sods are
"ut with iron instruments If the earth is held strongly together *y the roots of the grass& they are
"ut in the form of a *ri"+ a foot and one half high& a foot *road and a foot and one half long If
the earth is so loose that the turf "annot *e "ut in this form& they run a slight tren"h round the
"am!& fi$e feet *road and three feet dee! The earth ta+en from the tren"h forms a !ara!et on the
inside and this se"ures the army from danger This is the se"ond method
1ut !ermanent "am!s& either for summer or winter& in the neigh*orhood of an enemy& are
fortified with greater "are and regularity After the ground is mar+ed out *y the !ro!er offi"ers&
ea"h "entury re"ei$es a "ertain num*er of feet to entren"h They then range their shields and
*aggage in a "ir"le a*out their own "olors and& with out other arms than their swords& o!en a
tren"h nine& ele$en or thirteen feet *road Fr& if they are under great a!!rehensions of the enemy&
they enlarge it to se$enteen feet Ait *eing a general rule to o*ser$e odd num*ersB ?ithin this
they "onstru"t a ram!art with fas"ines or *ran"hes of trees well fastened together with !i"+ets& so
that the earth may *e *etter su!!orted :!on this ram!art they raise a !ara!et with *attlements as
in the fortifi"ations of a "ity The "enturions measure the wor+ with rods ten feet long and
e9amine whether e$ery one has !ro!erly "om!leted the !ro!ortion assigned to him The tri*unes
li+ewise ins!e"t the wor+ and should not lea$e the !la"e till the whole is finished And that the
wor+men may not *e suddenly interru!ted *y the enemy& all the "a$alry and that !art of the
infantry e9em!ted *y the !ri$ilege of their ran+ from wor+ing& remain in order of *attle *efore
the entren"hment to *e ready to re!el any assault
The first thing to *e done after entren"hing the "am!& is to !lant the ensigns& held *y the soldiers
in the highest $eneration and res!e"t& in their !ro!er !la"es After this the !raetorium is !re!ared
for the general and his lieutenants& and the tents !it"hed for the tri*unes& who ha$e soldiers
!arti"ularly a!!ointed for that ser$i"e and to fet"h their water& wood& and forage Then the
legions and au9iliaries& "a$alry and infantry& ha$e the ground distri*uted to them to !it"h their
tents a""ording to the ran+ of the se$eral "or!s %our foot=soldiers of ea"h "entury and four
troo!ers of ea"h troo! are on guard e$ery night As it seemed im!ossi*le for a sentinel to remain
a whole night on his !ost& the wat"hes were di$ided *y the hourglass into four !arts& that ea"h
man might stand only three hours All guards are mounted *y the sound of trum!et and relie$ed
*y the sound of "ornet The tri*unes "hoose !ro!er and trusty men to $isit the different !osts and
re!ort to them whate$er they find amiss This is now a military offi"e and the !ersons a!!ointed
to it are "alled offi"ers of the rounds
The "a$alry furnish the grand guards at night and the out!osts *y day They are relie$ed e$ery
morning and afternoon *e"ause of the fatigue of the men and horses It is !arti"ularly in"um*ent
u!on the general to !ro$ide for the !rote"tion of the !astures andof the "on$oys of grain and
other !ro$isions either in "am! or garrison& and to se"ure wood& water and forage against the
in"ursions of the enemy This "an only *e effe"ted *y !osting deta"hments ad$antageously in the
"ines or walled "astles on the roads along whi"h the "on$oys ad$an"e And if no an"ient
fortifi"ations are to *e met with& small forts must *e *uilt in !ro!er situations& surrounded with
large dit"hes& for the re"e!tion of deta"hments of horse and foot& so that the "on$oys will *e
effe"tually !rote"ted %or an enemy will hardly $enture far into a "ountry where he +nows his
ad$ersary's troo!s are so dis!osed as to *e ready to en"om!ass him on all sides
M,TI%E' /,R T+E $L) ,/ ,$ERTI,)' ,/ -M$I0)
Readers of this military a*ridgement will !erha!s *e im!atient for instru"tions relati$e to general
engagements 1ut they should "onsiderthat a *attle is "ommonly de"ided in two or three hours&
after whi"h no further ho!es are left for the worsted army E$ery !lan& therefore& is to *e
"onsidered& e$ery e9!edient tried and e$ery method ta+en *efore matters are *rought to this last
e9tremity .ood offi"ers de"line general engagements where the danger is "ommon& and !refer
the em!loyment of stratagem and finesse to destroy the enemy as mu"h as !ossi*le in detail and
intimidate them without e9!osing our own for"es
I shall insert some ne"essary instru"tions on this head "olle"ted from the an"ients It is the duty
and interest of the general fre0uently to assem*le the most !rudent and e9!erien"ed offi"ers of
the different "or!s of the army and "onsult with them on the state *oth of his own and the
enemy's for"es All o$er"onfiden"e& as most !erni"ious in its "onse0uen"es& must *e *anished
from the deli*erations /e must e9amine whi"h has the su!eriority in num*ers& whether his or
the ad$ersary's troo!s are *est armed& whi"h are in the *est "ondition& *est dis"i!lined and most
resolute in emergen"ies The state of the "a$alry of *oth armies must *e in0uired into& *ut more
es!e"ially that of the infantry& for the main strength of an army "onsists of the latter ?ith res!e"t
to the "a$alry& he must endea$or to find out in whi"h are the greatest num*ers of ar"hers or of
troo!ers armed with lan"es& whi"h has the most "uirassiers and whi"h the *est horses Lastly he
must "onsider the field of *attle and to 2udge whether the ground is more ad$antageous for him
or his enemy If strongest in "a$alry& we should !refer !lains and o!en ground> if su!erior in
infantry& we should "hoose a situation full of en"losures& dit"hes& morasses and woods& and
sometimes mountainous 'lenty or s"ar"ity in either army are "onsiderations of no small
im!ortan"e& for famine& a""ording to the "ommon !ro$er*& is an internal enemy that ma+es more
ha$o" than the sword 1ut the most material arti"le is to determine whether it is most !ro!er to
tem!ori#e or to *ring the affair to a s!eedy de"ision *y a"tion The enemy sometimes e9!e"t an
e9!edition will soon *e o$er> and if it is !rotra"ted to any length& his troo!s are either "onsumed
*y want& indu"ed to return home *y the desire of seeing their families or& ha$ing done nothing
"onsidera*le in the field& dis!erse themsel$es from des!air of su""ess Thus num*ers& tired out
with fatigue and disgusted with the ser$i"e& desert& others *etray them and many surrender
themsel$es %idelity is seldom found in troo!s disheartened *y misfortunes And in su"h "ase an
army whi"h was numerous on ta+ing the field insensi*ly dwindles away to nothing
It is essential to +now the "hara"ter of the enemy and of their !rin"i!al offi"ers=whether they *e
rash or "autious& enter!rising or timid& whether they fight on !rin"i!le or from "han"e and
whether the nations they ha$e *een engaged with were *ra$e or "owardly
?e must +now how far to de!end u!on the fidelity and strength of au9iliaries& how the enemy's
troo!s and our own are affe"ted and whi"h a!!ear most "onfident of su""ess& a "onsideration of
great effe"t in raising or de!ressing the "ourage of an army A harangue from the general&
es!e"ially if he seems under no a!!rehension himself& may reanimate the soldiers if de2e"ted
Their s!irits re$i$e if any "onsidera*le ad$antage is gained either *y stratagem or otherwise& if
the fortune of the enemy *egins to "hange or if you "an "ontri$e to *eat some of their wea+ or
!oorly=armed deta"hments
1ut you must *y no means $enture to lead an irresolute or diffident army to a general
engagement The differen"e is great whether your troo!s are raw or $eterans& whether inured to
war *y re"ent ser$i"e or for some years unem!loyed %or soldiers unused to fighting for a length
of time must *e "onsidered in the same light as re"ruits As soon as the legions& au9iliaries and
"a$alry are assem*led from their se$eral 0uarters& it is the duty of a good general to ha$e e$ery
"or!s instru"ted se!arately in e$ery !art of the drill *y tri*unes of +nown "a!a"ity "hosen for that
!ur!ose /e should afterwards form them into one *ody and train them in all the maneu$ers of
the line as for a general a"tion /e must fre0uently drill them himself to try their s+ill and
strength& and to see whether they !erform their e$olutions with !ro!er regularity and are
suffi"iently attenti$e to the sound of the trum!ets& the motions of the "olors and to his own orders
and signals If defi"ient in any of these !arti"ulars& they must *e instru"ted and e9er"ised till
!erfe"t
1ut though thoroughly dis"i!lined and "om!lete in their field e9er"ises& in the use of the *ow
and 2a$elin& and in the e$olutions of the line& it is not ad$isa*le to lead them rashly or
immediately to *attle A fa$ora*le o!!ortunity must *e wat"hed for& and they must first *e
!re!ared *y fre0uent s+irmishes and slight en"ounters Thus a $igilant and !rudent general will
"arefully weigh in his "oun"il the state of his own for"es and of those of the enemy& 2ust as a "i$il
magistrate 2udging *etween two "ontending !arties If he finds himself in many res!e"ts su!erior
to his ad$ersary& he must *y no means defer *ringing on an engagement 1ut if he +nows himself
inferior& he must a$oid general a"tions and endea$or to su""eed *y sur!rises& am*us"ades and
stratagems These& when s+illfully managed *y good generals& ha$e often gi$en them the $i"tory
o$er enemies su!erior *oth in num*ers and strength
+,3 T, M)0E R3 )D .)DI'-I$LI)ED TR,,$'
All arts and trades whate$er are *rought to !erfe"tion *y "ontinual !ra"ti"e /ow mu"h more
should this ma9im& true in in"onsidera*le matters& *e o*ser$ed in affairs of im!ortan"eK And how
mu"h su!erior to all others is the art of war& *y whi"h our li*erties are !reser$ed& our dignities
!er!etuated and the !ro$in"es and the whole Em!ire itself e9ist The La"edaemonians& and after
them the Romans& were so aware of this truth that to this s"ien"e they sa"rifi"ed all others And
the *ar*arous nations e$en at this day thin+ only this art worth attention& *elie$ing it in"ludes or
"onfers e$erything else In short& it is indis!ensa*ly ne"essary for those engaged in war not only
to instru"t them in the means of !reser$ing their own li$es& *ut how to gain the $i"tory o$er their
enemies
A "ommander=in="hief therefore& whose !ower and dignity are so great and to whose fidelity and
*ra$ery the fortunes of his "ountrymen& the defense of their "ities& the li$es of the soldiers& and
the glory of the state& are entrusted& should not only "onsult the good of the army in general& *ut
e9tend his "are to e$ery !ri$ate soldier in it %or when any misfortunes ha!!en to those under his
"ommand& they are "onsidered as !u*li" losses and im!uted entirely to his mis"ondu"t If
therefore he finds his army "om!osed of raw troo!s or if they ha$e long *een una""ustomed to
fighting& he must "arefully study the strength& the s!irit& the manners of ea"h !arti"ular legion&
and of ea"h *ody of au9iliaries& "a$alry and infantry /e must +now& if !ossi*le& the name and
"a!a"ity of e$ery "ount& tri*une& su*altern and soldier /e must assume the most res!e"ta*le
authority and maintain it *y se$erity /e must !unish all military "rimes with the greatest rigor of
the laws /e must ha$e the "hara"ter of *eing ine9ora*le towards offenders and endea$or to gi$e
!u*li" e9am!les thereof in different !la"es and on different o""asions
/a$ing on"e firmly esta*lished these regulations& he must wat"h the o!!ortunity when the
enemy& dis!ersed in sear"h of !lunder& thin+ themsel$es in se"urity& and atta"+ them with
deta"hments of tried "a$alry or infantry& intermingled with young soldiers& or su"h as are under
the military age The $eterans will a"0uire fresh e9!erien"e and the others will *e ins!ired with
"ourage *y the ad$antages su"h o!!ortunities will gi$e him /e should form am*us"ades with
the greatest se"re"y to sur!rise the enemy at the !assages of ri$ers& in the rugged !asses of
mountains& in defiles in woods and when em*arrassed *y morasses or diffi"ult roads /e should
regulate his mar"h so as to fall u!on them while ta+ing their refreshments or slee!ing& or at a
time when they sus!e"t no dangers and are dis!ersed& unarmed and their horses unsaddled /e
should "ontinue these +inds of en"ounters till his soldiers ha$e im*i*ed a !ro!er "onfiden"e in
themsel$es %or troo!s that ha$e ne$er *een in a"tion or ha$e not for some time *een used to
su"h s!e"ta"les& are greatly sho"+ed at the sight of the wounded and dying> and the im!ressions
of fear they re"ei$e dis!ose them rather to fly than fight
If the enemy ma+es e9"ursions or e9!editions& the general should atta"+ him after the fatigue of a
long mar"h& fall u!on him une9!e"tedly& or harass his rear /e should deta"h !arties to endea$or
to "arry off *y sur!rise any 0uarters esta*lished at a distan"e from the hostile army for the
"on$enien"e of forage or !ro$isions % or su"h measures should *e !ursued at first as "an
!rodu"e no $ery *ad effe"ts if they should ha!!en to mis"arry& *ut would *e of great ad$antage if
attended with su""ess A !rudent general will also try to sow dissention among his ad$ersaries&
for no nation& though e$er so wea+ in itself "an *e "om!letely ruined *y its enemies unless its
fall *e fa"ilitated *y its own distra"tion In "i$il dissensions men are so intent on the destru"tion
of their !ri$ate enemies that they are entirely regardless of the !u*li" safety
Fne ma9im must *e remem*ered throughout this wor+, that no one should e$er des!air of
effe"ting what has *een already !erformed It may *e said that our troo!s for many years !ast
ha$e not e$en fortified their !ermanent "am!s with dit"hes& ram!arts or !alisades The answer is
!lain If those !re"autions had *een ta+en& our armies would ne$er ha$e suffered *y sur!rises of
the enemy *oth *y day and night The 'ersians& after the e9am!le of the old Romans& surround
their "am!s with dit"hes and& as the ground in their "ountry is generally sandy& they always "arry
with them em!ty *ags to fill with the sand ta+en out of the tren"hes and raise a !ara!et *y !iling
them one on the other All the *ar*arous nations range their "arriages round them in a "ir"le& a
method whi"h *ears some resem*lan"e to a fortified "am! They thus !ass their nights se"ure
from sur!rise
Are we afraid of not *eing a*le to learn from others what they *efore ha$e learned from usG At
!resent all this is to *e found in *oo+s only& although formerly "onstantly !ra"ti"ed In0uiries are
now no longer made a*out "ustoms that ha$e *een so long negle"ted& *e"ause in the midst of
!ea"e& war is loo+ed u!on as an o*2e"t too distant to merit "onsideration 1ut former instan"es
will "on$in"e us that the reesta*lishment of an"ient dis"i!line is *y no means im!ossi*le&
although now so totally lost
In former ages the art of war& often negle"ted and forgotten& was as often re"o$ered from *oo+s
and reesta*lished *y the authority and attention of our generals Fur armies in 7!ain& when
7"i!io Afri"anus too+ the "ommand& were in *ad order and had often *een *eaten under
!re"eding generals /e soon reformed them *y se$ere dis"i!line and o*liged them to undergo the
greatest fatigue in the different military wor+s& re!roa"hing them that sin"e they would not wet
their hands with the *lood of their enemies& they should soil them with the mud of the tren"hes
In short& with these $ery troo!s he afterwards too+ the "ity of 3umantia and *urned it to the
ground with su"h destru"tion of its inha*itants that not one es"a!ed In Afri"a an army& whi"h
under the "ommand of Al*inus had *een for"ed to !ass under the yo+e& was *y Metellus *rought
into su"h order and dis"i!line& *y forming it on the an"ient model& that they afterwards
$an0uished those $ery enemies who had su*2e"ted them to that ignominious treatment The
Cim*ri defeated the legions of Cae!io& Manilus and 7ilanus in .aul& *ut Marius "olle"ted their
shattered remnants and dis"i!lined them so effe"tually that he destroyed an innumera*le
multitude of the Cim*ri& Teutones and Am*rones in one general engagement 3e$ertheless it is
easier to form young soldiers and ins!ire them with !ro!er notions of honor than to reanimate
troo!s who ha$e *een on"e disheartened
$RE$RTI,)' /,R 0E)ERL E)00EME)T
/a$ing e9!lained the less "onsidera*le *ran"hes of the art of war& the order of military affairs
naturally leads us to the general engagement This is a "on2un"ture full of un"ertainty and fatal to
+ingdoms and nations& for in the de"ision of a !it"hed *attle "onsists the fulness of $i"tory This
e$entuality a*o$e all others re0uires the e9ertion of all the a*ilities of a general& as his good
"ondu"t on su"h an o""asion gains him greater glory& or his dangers e9!ose him to greater danger
and disgra"e This is the moment in whi"h his talents& s+ill and e9!erien"e show themsel$es in
their fullest e9tent
%ormerly to ena*le the soldiers to "harge with greater $igor& it was "ustomary to order them a
moderate refreshment of food *efore an engagement& so that their strength might *e the *etter
su!!orted during a long "onfli"t ?hen the army is to mar"h out of a "am! or "ity in the !resen"e
of their enemies drawn u! and ready for a"tion& great !re"aution must *e o*ser$ed lest they
should *e atta"+ed as they defile from the gates and *e "ut to !ie"es in detail 'ro!er measures
must therefore *e ta+en so that the whole army may *e "lear of the gates and form in order of
*attle *efore the enemy's a!!roa"h If they are ready *efore you "an ha$e 0uitted the !la"e& your
design of mar"hing out must either *e deferred till another o!!ortunity or at least dissem*led& so
that when they *egin to insult you on the su!!osition that you dare not a!!ear& or thin+ of
nothing *ut !lundering or returning and no longer +ee! their ran+s& you may sally out and fall
u!on them while in "onfusion and sur!rise Troo!s must ne$er *e engaged in a general a"tion
immediately after a long mar"h& when the men are fatigued and the horses tired The strength
re0uired for a"tion is s!ent in the toil of the mar"h ?hat "an a soldier do who "harges when out
of *reathG The an"ients "arefully a$oided this in"on$enien"e& *ut in later times some of our
Roman generals& to say nothing more& ha$e lost their armies *y uns+illfully negle"ting this
!re"aution Two armies& one tired and s!ent& the other fresh and in full $igor& are *y no means an
e0ual mat"h
T+E 'E)TIME)T' ,/ T+E TR,,$' '+,.LD BE DETERMI)ED BE/,RE BTTLE
It is ne"essary to +now the sentiments of the soldiers on the day of an engagement Their
"onfiden"e or a!!rehensions are easily dis"o$ered *y their loo+s& their words& their a"tions and
their motions 3o great de!enden"e is to *e !la"ed on the eagerness of young soldiers for a"tion&
for fighting has something agreea*le in the idea to those who are strangers to it Fn the other
hand& it would *e wrong to ha#ard an engagement& if the old e9!erien"ed soldiers testify to a
disin"lination to fight A general& howe$er& may en"ourage and animate his troo!s *y !ro!er
e9hortations and harangues& es!e"ially if *y his a""ount of the a!!roa"hing a"tion he "an
!ersuade them into the *elief of an easy $i"tory ?ith this $iew& he should lay *efore them the
"owardi"e or uns+illfulness of their enemies and remind them of any former ad$antages they
may ha$e gained o$er them /e should em!loy e$ery argument "a!a*le of e9"iting rage& hatred
and indignation against the ad$ersaries in the minds of his soldiers
It is natural for men in general to *e affe"ted with some sensations of fear at the *eginning of an
engagement& *ut there are without dou*t some of a more timorous dis!osition who are disordered
*y the $ery sight of the enemy To diminish these a!!rehensions *efore you $enture on a"tion&
draw u! your army fre0uently in order of *attle in some safe situation& so that your men may *e
a""ustomed to the sight and a!!earan"e of the enemy ?hen o!!ortunity offers& they should *e
sent to fall u!on them and endea$or to !ut them to flight or +ill some of their men Thus they
will *e"ome a"0uainted with their "ustoms& arms and horses And the o*2e"ts with whi"h we are
on"e familiari#ed are no longer "a!a*le of ins!iring us with terror
-+,I-E ,/ T+E /IELD ,/ BTTLE
.ood generals are a"utely aware that $i"tory de!ends mu"h on the nature of the field of *attle
?hen you intend therefore to engage& endea$or to draw the "hief ad$antage from your situation
The highest ground is re"+oned the *est ?ea!ons thrown from a height stri+e with greater for"e>
and the !arty a*o$e their antagonists "an re!ulse and *ear them down with greater im!etuosity&
while they who struggle with the as"ent ha$e *oth the ground and the enemy to "ontend with
There is& howe$er& this differen"e with regard to !la"e, if you de!end on your foot against the
enemy's horse& you must "hoose a rough& une0ual and mountainous situation 1ut if& on the
"ontrary& you e9!e"t your "a$alry to a"t with ad$antage against the enemy's infantry& your ground
must indeed *e higher& *ut !lain and o!en& without any o*stru"tions of woods or morasses
,RDER ,/ BTTLE
In drawing u! an army in order of *attle& three things are to *e "onsidered, the sun& the dust and
the wind The sun in your fa"e da##les the sight, if the wind is against you& it turns aside and
*lunts the for"e of your wea!ons& while it assists those of your ad$ersary> and the dust dri$ing in
your front fills the eyes of your men and *linds them E$en the most uns+illful endea$or to a$oid
these in"on$enien"es in the moment of ma+ing their dis!ositions> *ut a !rudent general should
e9tend his $iews *eyond the !resent> he should tal+e su"h measures as not to *e in"ommoded in
the "ourse of the day *y different as!e"ts of the sun or *y "ontrary winds whi"h often rise at a
"ertain hour and might *e detrimental during a"tion Fur troo!s should *e so dis!osed as to ha$e
these in"on$enien"es *ehind them& while they are dire"tly in the enemy's front
$R,$ER DI'T)-E' )D I)TER%L'
/a$ing e9!lained the general dis!osition of the lines& we now "ome to the distan"es and
dimensions Fne thousand !a"es "ontain a single ran+ of one thousand si9 hundred and fifty=si9
foot soldiers& ea"h man *eing allowed three feet 7i9 ran+s drawn u! on the same e9tent of
ground will re0uire nine thousand nine hundred and ninety=si9 men To form only three ran+s of
the same num*er will ta+e u! two thousand !a"es& *ut it is mu"h *etter to in"rease the num*er of
ran+s than to ma+e your front too e9tensi$e ?e ha$e *efore o*ser$ed the distan"e *etween ea"h
ran+ should *e si9 feet& one foot of whi"h is ta+en u! *y the men Thus if you form a *ody of ten
thousand men into si9 ran+s they will o""u!y thirty=si9 feet in de!th and a thousand !a"es in
front 1y this "al"ulation it is easy to "om!ute the e9tent of ground re0uired for twenty or thirty
thousand men to form u!on 3or "an a general *e mista+en when thus he +nows the !ro!ortion
of ground for any fi9ed num*er of men
1ut if the field of *attle is not s!a"ious enough or your troo!s are $ery numerous& you may form
them into nine ran+s or e$en more& for it is more ad$antageous to engage in "lose order that to
e9tend your line too mu"h An army that ta+es u! too mu"h ground in front and too little in
de!th& is 0ui"+ly !enetrated *y the enemy's first onset After this there is no remedy As to the
!ost of the different "or!s in the right or left wing or in the "enter& it is the general rule to draw
them u! a""ording to their res!e"ti$e ran+s or to distri*ute them as "ir"umstan"es or the
dis!ositions of the enemy may re0uire
DI'$,'ITI,) ,/ T+E -%LR4
The line of infantry *eing formed& the "a$alry are drawn u! in the wings The hea$y horse& that
is& the "uirassiers and troo!ers armed with lan"es& should 2oin the infantry The light "a$alry&
"onsisting of the ar"hers and those who ha$e no "uirasses& should *e !la"ed at a greater distan"e
The *est and hea$iest horse are to "o$er the flan+s of the foot& and the light horse are !osted as
a*o$ementioned to surround and disorder the enemy's wings A general should +now what !art
of his own "a$alry is most !ro!er to o!!ose any !arti"ular s0uadrons or troo!s of the enemy %or
from some "auses not to *e a""ounted for some !arti"ular "or!s fight *etter against others& and
those who ha$e defeated su!erior enemies are often o$er"ome *y an inferior for"e
If your "a$alry is not e0ual to the enemy's it is !ro!er& after the an"ient "ustom& to intermingle it
with light infantry armed with small shields and trained to this +ind of ser$i"e 1y o*ser$ing this
method& e$en though the flower of the enemy's "a$alry should atta"+ you& they will ne$er *e a*le
to "o!e with this mi9ed dis!osition This was the only resour"e of the old generals to su!!ly the
defe"ts of their "a$alry& and they intermingled the men& used to running and armed for this
!ur!ose with light shields& swords and darts& among the horse& !la"ing one of them *etween two
troo!ers
RE'ER%E'
The method of ha$ing *odies of reser$es in rear of the army& "om!osed of "hoi"e infantry and
"a$alry& "ommanded *y the su!ernumerary lieutenant generals& "ounts and tri*unes& is $ery
2udi"ious and of great "onse0uen"e towards the gaining of a *attle 7ome should *e !osted in
rear of the wings and some near the "enter& to *e ready to fly immediately to the assistan"e of any
!art of the line whi"h is hard !ressed& to !re$ent its *eing !ier"ed& to su!!ly the $a"an"ies made
therein during the a"tion and there*y to +ee! u! the "ourage of their fellow soldiers and "he"+
the im!etuosity of the enemy This was an in$ention of the La"edaemonians& in whi"h they were
imitated *y the Carthaginians The Romans ha$e sin"e o*ser$ed it& and indeed no *etter
dis!osition "an *e found
The line is solely designed to re!ulse& or if !ossi*le& *rea+ the enemy If it is ne"essary to form
the wedge or the !in"ers& it must *e done *y the su!ernumerary troo!s stationed in the rear for
that !ur!ose If the saw is to *e formed& it must also *e done from the reser$es& for if on"e you
*egin to draw off men from the line you throw all into "onfusion If any flying !latoon of the
enemy should fall u!on your wing or any other !art of your army& and you ha$e no
su!ernumerary troo!s to o!!ose it or if you !retend to deta"h either horse or foot from your line
for that ser$i"e *y endea$oring to !rote"t one !art& you will e9!ose the other to greater danger In
armies not $ery numerous& it is mu"h *etter to "ontra"t the front& and to ha$e strong reser$es In
short& you must ha$e a reser$e of good and well=armed infantry near the "enter to form the
wedge and there*y !ier"e the enemy's line> and also *odies of "a$alry armed with lan"es and
"uirasses& with light infantry& near the wings& to surround the flan+s of the enemy
T+E $,'T ,/ T+E 0E)ERL )D ,/ T+E 'E-,)D )D T+IRD I) -,MM)D
The !ost of the "ommander=in="hief is generally on the right *etween the "a$alry and infantry
%or from this !la"e he "an *est dire"t the motions of the whole army and mo$e elements with the
greatest ease where$er he finds it ne"essary It is also the most "on$enient s!ot to gi$e his orders
to *oth horse and foot and to animate them e0ually *y his !resen"e It is his duty to surround the
enemy's left wing o!!osed to him with his reser$e of horse and light infantry& and atta"+ it in the
flan+ and rear The se"ond in "ommand is !osted in the "enter of the infantry to en"ourage and
su!!ort them A reser$e of good and well=armed infantry is near him and under his orders ?ith
this reser$e he either forms the wedge to !ier"e the enemy's line or& if they form the wedge first&
!re!ares the !in"ers for its re"e!tion The !ost of the third in "ommand is on the left /e should
*e a "areful and intre!id offi"er& this !art of the army *eing diffi"ult to manage and defe"ti$e& as
it were& from its situation in the line /e should therefore ha$e a reser$e of good "a$alry and
a"ti$e infantry to ena*le him always to e9tend his left in su"h a manner as to !re$ent its *eing
surrounded
The war shout should not *e *egun till *oth armies ha$e 2oined& for it is a mar+ of ignoran"e or
"owardi"e to gi$e it at a distan"e The effe"t is mu"h greater on the enemy when they find
themsel$es stru"+ at the same instant with the horror of the noise and the !oints of the wea!ons
Eou must always endea$or to get the start of your enemy in drawing u! in order of *attle& as you
will then ha$e it in your !ower to ma+e your !ro!er dis!ositions without o*stru"tion This will
in"rease the "ourage of your own troo!s and intimidate your ad$ersaries %or a su!eriority of
"ourage seems to *e im!lied on the side of an army that offers *attle& whereas troo!s *egin to *e
fearful who see their enemies ready to atta"+ them Eou will also se"ure another great ad$antage&
that of mar"hing u! in order and falling u!on them while forming and still in "onfusion %or !art
of the $i"tory "onsists in throwing the enemy into disorder *efore you engage them
M)E.%ER' I) -TI,)
An a*le general ne$er loses a fa$ora*le o!!ortunity of sur!rising the enemy either when tired on
the mar"h& di$ided in the !assage of a ri$er& em*arrassed in morasses& struggling with the
de"li$ities of mountains& when dis!ersed o$er the "ountry they thin+ themsel$es in se"urity or
are slee!ing in their 0uarters In all these "ases the ad$ersaries are sur!rised and destroyed *efore
they ha$e time to !ut themsel$es on their guard 1ut if they are too "autious to gi$e you an
o!!ortunity of sur!rising or ensnaring them& you are then o*liged to engage o!enly and on e0ual
terms This at !resent is foreign to the su*2e"t /owe$er military s+ill is no less ne"essary in
general a"tions than in "arrying on war *y su*tlety and stratagem
Eour first "are is to se"ure your left wing from *eing surrounded *y the enemy's num*ers or
atta"+ed in flan+ or rear *y flying !latoons& a misfortune that often ha!!ens 3or is your right to
*e negle"ted& though less fre0uently in danger There is only one remedy for this, to wheel *a"+
your wing and throw it into a "ir"ular !osition 1y this e$olution your soldiers meet the enemy
on the 0uarter atta"+ed and defend the rear of their "omrades 1ut your *est men should *e
!osted on the angles of the flan+s& sin"e it is against them the enemy ma+e their !rin"i!al efforts
There is also a method of resisting the wedge when formed *y the enemy The wedge is a
dis!osition of a *ody of infantry widening gradually towards the *ase and terminating in a !oint
towards the front It !ier"es the enemy's line *y a multitude of darts dire"ted to one !arti"ular
!la"e The soldiers "all it the swine's head To o!!ose this dis!osition& they ma+e use af another
"alled the !in"ers& resem*ling the letter V& "om!osed of a *ody of men in "lose order It re"ei$es
the wedge& in"losing it on *oth sides& and there*y !re$ents it from !enetrating the line
The saw is another dis!osition formed of resolute soldiers drawn u! in a straight line ad$an"ed
into the front against the enemy& to re!air any disorder The !latoon is a *ody of men se!arated
from the line& to ho$er on e$ery side and atta"+ the enemy where$er they find o!!ortunity And
against this is to *e deta"hed a stronger and more numerous !latoon
A*o$e all& a general must ne$er attem!t to alter his dis!ositions or *rea+ his order of *attle
during the time of a"tion& for su"h an alteration would immediately F""asion disorder and
"onfusion whi"h the enemy would not fail to im!ro$e to their ad$antage
%RI,.' /,RMTI,)' /,R BTTLE
An army may *e drawn u! for a general engagement in se$en different formations The first
formation is an o*long s0uare of a large front& of "ommon use *oth in an"ient and modern times&
although not thought the *est *y $arious 2udges of the ser$i"e& *e"ause an e$en and le$el !lain of
an e9tent suffi"ient to "ontain its front "annot always *e found& and if there should *e any
irregularity or hollow in the line& it is often !ier"ed in that !art 1esides& an enemy su!erior in
num*er may surround either your right or left wing& the "onse0uen"e of whi"h will *e dangerous&
unless you ha$e a reser$e ready to ad$an"e and sustain his atta"+ A general should ma+e use of
this dis!osition only when his for"es are *etter and more numerous than the enemy's& it *eing
there*y in his !ower to atta"+ *oth the flan+s and surround them on e$ery side
The se"ond and *est dis!osition is the o*li0ue %or although your army "onsists of few troo!s&
yet good and ad$antageously !osted& it will greatly "ontri*ute to your o*taining the $i"tory&
notwithstanding the num*ers and *ra$ery of the enemy It is as follows, as the armies are
mar"hing u! to the atta"+& your left wing must *e +e!t *a"+ at su"h a distan"e from the enemy's
right as to *e out of rea"h of their darts and arrows Eour right wing must ad$an"e o*li0uely
u!on the enemy's left& and *egin the engagement And you must endea$or with your *est "a$alry
and infantry to surround the wing with whi"h you are engaged& ma+e it gi$e way and fall u!on
the enemy in the rear If they on"e gi$e ground and the atta"+ is !ro!erly se"onded& you will
undou*tedly gain the $i"tory& while your left wing& whi"h "ontinued at a distan"e& will remain
untou"hed An army drawn u! in this manner *ears some resem*lan"e to the letter A or a mason's
le$el If the enemy should *e *eforehand with you in this e$olution& re"ourse must *e had to the
su!ernumerary horse and foot !osted as a reser$e in the rear& as I mentioned *efore They must
*e ordered to su!!ort your left wing This will ena*le you to ma+e a $igorous resistan"e against
the artifi"e of the enemy
The third formation is li+e the se"ond& *ut not so good& as it o*liges you to *egin the atta"+ with
your left wing on the enemy's right The efforts of soldiers on the left are wea+ and im!erfe"t
from their e9!osed and defe"ti$e situation in the line I will e9!lain this formation more "learly
Although your left wing should *e mu"h *etter than your right& yet it must *e reinfor"ed with
some of the *est horse and foot and ordered to "ommen"e the a"non with the enemy's right in
order to disorder and surround it as e9!editiously as !ossi*le And the other !art of your army&
"om!osed of the worst troo!s& should remain at su"h a distan"e from the enemy's left as not to *e
annoyed *y their darts or in danger of *eing atta"+ed sword in hand In this o*li0ue formation
"are must *e ta+en to !re$ent the line *eing !enetrated *y the wedges of the enemy& and it is to
*e em!loyed only when the enemy's right wing is wea+ and your greatest strength is on your left
The fourth formation is this, as your army is mar"hing to the atta"+ in order of *attle and you
"ome within four or fi$e hundred !a"es of the enemy& *oth your wings must *e ordered
une9!e"tedly to 0ui"+en their !a"e and ad$an"e with "elerity u!on them ?hen they find
themsel$es atta"+ed on *oth wings at the same time& the sudden sur!rise may so dis"on"ert them
as to gi$e you an easy $i"tory 1ut although this method& if your troo!s are $ery resolute and
e9!ert& may ruin the enemy at on"e& yet it is ha#ardous The general who attem!ts it is o*liged to
a*andon and e9!ose his "enter and to di$ide his army into three !arts If the enemy are not
routed at the first "harge& they ha$e a fair o!!ortunity of atta"+ing the wings whi"h are se!arated
from ea"h other and the "enter whi"h is destitute of assistan"e
The fifth formation resem*les the fourth *ut with this addition, the light infantry and the ar"hers
are formed *efore the "enter to "o$er it from the attem!ts of the enemy ?ith this !re"aution the
general may safely follow the a*o$e mentioned method and atta"+ the enemy's left wing with his
right& and their right with his left If he !uts them to flight& he gains an immediate $i"tory& and if
he fails of su""ess his "enter is in no danger& *eing !rote"ted *y the light infantry and ar"hers
The si9th formation is $ery good and almost li+e the se"ond It is used when the general "annot
de!end either on the num*er or "ourage of his troo!s If made with 2udgment& notwithstanding
his inferiority& he has often a good "han"e for $i"tory As your line a!!roa"hes the enemy&
ad$an"e your right wing against their left and *egin the atta"+ with your *est "a$alry and
infantry At the same time +ee! the rest of the army at a great distan"e from the enemy's right&
e9tended in a dire"t line li+e a 2a$elin Thus if you "an surround their left and atta"+ it in flan+
and rear& you must ine$ita*ly defeat them It is im!ossi*le for the enemy to draw off
reinfor"ements from their right or from their "enter to sustain their left in this emergen"y& sin"e
the remaining !art of your army is e9tended and at a great distan"e from them in the form of the
letter L It is a formation often used in an a"tion on a mar"h
The se$enth formation owes its ad$antages to the nature of the ground and will ena*le you to
o!!ose an enemy with an army inferior *oth in num*ers and goodness& !ro$ided one of your
flan+s "an *e "o$ered either with an eminen"e& the sea& a ri$er& a la+e& a "ity& a morass or *ro+en
ground ina""essi*le to the enemy The rest of the army must *e formed& as usual& in a straight
line and the unse"ured flan+ must *e !rote"ted *y your light troo!s and all your "a$alry
7uffi"iently defended on one side *y the nature of the ground and on the other *y a dou*le
su!!ort of "a$alry& you may then safely $enture on a"tion
Fne e9"ellent and general rule must *e o*ser$ed If you intend to engage with your right wing
only& it must *e "om!osed of your *est troo!s And the same method must *e ta+en with res!e"t
to the left Fr if you intend to !enetrate the enemy's line& the wedges whi"h you form for that
!ur!ose *efore your "enter& must "onsist of the *est dis"i!lined soldiers Vi"tory in general is
gained *y a small num*er of men Therefore the wisdom of a general a!!ears in nothing more
than in su"h "hoi"e of dis!osition of his men as is most "onsonant with reason and ser$i"e
T+E /LI0+T ,/ ) E)EM4 '+,.LD ),T BE $RE%E)TED7 B.T /-ILITTED
.enerals uns+illed in war thin+ a $i"tory in"om!lete unless the enemy are so straightened in
their ground or so entirely surrounded *y num*ers as to ha$e no !ossi*ility of es"a!e 1ut in
su"h situation& where no ho!es remain& fear itself will arm an enemy and des!air ins!ires
"ourage ?hen men find they must ine$ita*ly !erish& they willingly resol$e to die with their
"omrades and with their arms in their hands The ma9im of 7"i!io& that a golden *ridge should
*e made for a flying enemy& has mu"h *een "ommended %or when they ha$e free room to
es"a!e they thin+ of nothing *ut how to sa$e themsel$es *y flight& and the "onfusion *e"oming
general& great num*ers are "ut to !ie"es The !ursuers "an *e in no danger when the $an0uished
ha$e thrown away their arms for greater haste In this "ase the greater the num*er of the flying
army& the greater the slaughter 3um*ers are of no signifi"ation where troo!s on"e thrown into
"onsternation are e0ually terrified at the sight of the enemy as at their wea!ons 1ut on the
"ontrary& men when shut u!& although wea+ and few in num*er& *e"ome a mat"h for the enemy
from this $ery refle"tion& that they ha$e no resour"e *ut in des!air
-The "on0uer'd's safety is& to ho!e for none-
M))ER ,/ -,)D.-TI)0 RETRET
/a$ing gone through the $arious !arti"ulars relati$e to general a"tions& it remains at !resent to
e9!lain the manner of retreating in !resen"e of the enemy This is an o!eration& whi"h& in the
2udgment of men of greatest s+ill and e9!erien"e& is attended with the utmost ha#ard A general
"ertainly dis"ourages his own troo!s and animates his enemies *y retiring out of the field without
fighting Eet as this must sometimes ne"essarily ha!!en& it will *e !ro!er to "onsider how to
!erform it with safety
In the first !la"e your men must not imagine that you retire to de"line an a"tion& *ut *elie$e your
retreat an artifi"e to draw the enemy into an am*us"ade or more ad$antageous !osition where
you may easier defeat them in "ase they follow you %or troo!s who !er"ei$e their general
des!airs of su""ess are !rone to flight Eou must *e "autious lest the enemy should dis"o$er your
retreat and immediately fall u!on you To a$oid this danger the "a$alry are generally !osted in
the front of the infantry to "on"eal their motions and retreat from the enemy The first di$isions
are drawn off first& the others following in their turns The last maintain their ground till the rest
ha$e mar"hed off& and then file off themsel$es and 2oin them in a leisurely and regular
su""ession 7ome generals ha$e 2udged it *est to ma+e their retreat in the night after
re"onnoitering their routes& and thus gain so mu"h ground that the enemy& not dis"o$ering their
de!arture till day*rea+& were not a*le to "ome u! with them The light infantry was also sent
forward to !ossess the eminen"es under whi"h the army might instantly retire with safety> and
the enemy& in "ase they !ursued& *e e9!osed to the light infantry& masters of the heights&
se"onded *y the "a$alry
A rash and in"onsiderate !ursuit e9!oses an army to the greatest danger !ossi*le& that of falling
into am*us"ades and the hands of troo!s ready for their re"e!tion %or as the temerity of an army
is in"reased and their "aution lessened *y the !ursuit of a flying enemy& this is the most fa$ora*le
o!!ortunity for su"h snares The greater the se"urity& the greater the danger Troo!s& when
un!re!ared& at their meals& fatigued after a mar"h& when their horses are feeding& and in short&
when they *elie$e themsel$es most se"ure& are generally most lia*le to a sur!rise All ris+s of
this sort are to *e "arefully a$oided and all o!!ortunities ta+en of distressing the enemy *y su"h
methods 3either num*ers nor "ourage a$ail in misfortunes of this nature
A general who has *een defeated in a !it"hed *attle& although s+ill and "ondu"t ha$e the greatest
share in the de"ision& may in his defense throw the *lame on fortune 1ut if he has suffered
himself to *e sur!rised or drawn into the snares of his enemy& he has no e9"use for his fault&
*e"ause he might ha$e a$oided su"h a misfortune *y ta+ing !ro!er !re"autions and em!loying
s!ies on whose intelligen"e he "ould de!end
?hen the enemy !ursue a retreating foe& the following snare is usually laid A small *ody of
"a$alry is ordered to !ursue them on the dire"t road At the same time a strong deta"hment is
se"retly sent another way to "on"eal itself on their route ?hen the "a$alry ha$e o$erta+en the
enemy& they ma+e some feint atta"+s and retire The enemy& imagining the danger !ast& and that
they ha$e es"a!ed the snare& negle"t their order and mar"h without regularity Then the
deta"hment sent to inter"e!t them& sei#ing the o!!ortunity& falls u!on them une9!e"tedly and
destroys them with ease
Many generals when o*liged to retreat through woods send forward !arties to sei#e the defiles
and diffi"ult !asses& to a$oid am*us"ades and *lo"+ the roads with *arri"ades of felled trees to
se"ure themsel$es from *eing !ursued and atta"+ed in the rear In short *oth sides ha$e e0ual
o!!ortunities of sur!rising or laying am*us"ades on th1e mar"h The army whi"h retreats lea$es
troo!s *ehind for that !ur!ose !osted in "on$enient $alleys or mountains "o$ered with woods&
and if the enemy falls into the snare& it returns immediately to their assistan"e The army that
!ursues deta"hes different !arties of light troo!s to mar"h ahead through *y=roads and inter"e!ts
the enemy& who are thus surrounded and atta"+ed at on"e in front and rear The flying army may
return and fall on the enemy while aslee! in the night And the !ursuing army may& e$en though
the distan"e is great& sur!rise the ad$ersary *y for"ed mar"hes The former endea$or may *e at
the "rossing of a ri$er in order to destroy su"h !art of the enemy's army as has already "rossed
The !ursuers hasten their mar"h to fall u!on those *odies of the enemy that ha$e not yet "rossed
RMED -+RI,T' )D ELE$+)T'
The armed "hariots used in war *y Antio"hus and Mithridates at first terrified the Romans& *ut
they afterwards made a 2est of them As a "hariot of this sort does not always meet with !lain and
le$el ground& the least o*stru"tion sto!s it And if one of the horses *e either +illed or wounded&
it falls into the enemy's hands The Roman soldiers rendered them useless "hiefly *y the
following "ontri$an"e, at the instant the engagement *egan& they strewed the field of *attle with
"altro!s& and the horses that drew the "hariots& running full s!eed on them& were infalli*ly
destroyed A "altro! is a ma"hine "om!osed of four s!i+es or !oints arranged so that in whate$er
manner it is thrown on the ground& it rests on three and !resents the fourth u!right
Ele!hants *y their $ast si#e& horri*le noise and the no$elty of their form are at first $ery terri*le
*oth to men and horses 'yrrhus first used them against the Romans in Lu"ania And afterwards
/anni*al *rought them into the field in Afri"a Antio"hus in the east and 6ugurtha in 3umidia
had great num*ers Many e9!edients ha$e *een used against them In Lu"ania a "enturion "ut off
the trun+ of one with his sword Two soldiers armed from head to foot in a "hariot drawn *y two
horses& also "o$ered with armor& atta"+ed these *easts with lan"es of great length They were
se"ured *y their armor from the ar"hers on the ele!hants and a$oided the fury of the animals *y
the swiftness of their horses % oot soldiers "om!letely armored& with the addition of long iron
s!i+es fi9ed on their arms& shoulders and helmets& to !re$ent the ele!hant from sei#ing them with
his trun+& were also em!loyed against them
1ut among the an"ients& the $elites usually engaged them They were young soldiers& lightly
armed& a"ti$e and $ery e9!ert in throwing their missile wea!ons on horse*a"+ These troo!s +e!t
ho$ering round the ele!hants "ontinually and +illed them with large lan"es and 2a$elins
Afterwards& the soldiers& as their a!!rehensions de"reased& atta"+ed them in a *ody and&
throwing their 2a$elins together& destroyed them *y the multitude of wounds 7lingers with round
stones from the fusti*alus and sling +illed *oth the men who guided the ele!hants and the
soldiers who fought in the towers on their *a"+s This was found *y e9!erien"e to *e the *est and
safest e9!edient At other times on the a!!roa"h of these *easts& the soldiers o!ened their ran+s
and let them !ass through ?hen they got into the midst of the troo!s& who surrounded them on
all sides& they were "a!tured with their guards unhurt
Large *alistae& drawn on "arriages *y two horses or mules& should *e !la"ed in the rear of the
line& so that when the ele!hants "ome within rea"h they may *e transfi9ed with the darts The
*alistae should *e larger and the heads of the darts stronger and *roader than usual& so that the
darts may *e thrown farther& with greater for"e and the wounds *e !ro!ortioned to the *odies of
the *easts It was !ro!er to des"ri*e these se$eral methods and "ontri$an"es em!loyed against
ele!hants& so that it may *e +nown on o""asion in what manner to o!!ose those !rodigious
animals
RE',.R-E' I) -'E ,/ DE/ET
If while one !art of your army is $i"torious the other should *e defeated& you are *y no means to
des!air& sin"e e$en in this e9tremity the "onstan"y and resolution of a general may re"o$er a
"om!lete $i"tory There are innumera*le instan"es where the !arty that ga$e least way to des!air
was esteemed the "on0ueror %or where losses and ad$antages seem nearly e0ual& he is re!uted to
ha$e the su!eriority who *ears u! against his misfortunes with greatest resolution /e is
therefore to *e first& if !ossi*le& to sei#e the s!oils of the slain and to ma+e re2oi"ings for the
$i"tory 7u"h mar+s of "onfiden"e dis!irit the enemy and redou*le your own "ourage
Eet notwithstanding an entire defeat& all !ossi*le remedies must *e attem!ted& sin"e many
generals ha$e *een fortunate enough to re!air su"h a loss A !rudent offi"er will ne$er ris+ a
general a"tion without ta+ing su"h !re"autions as will se"ure him from any "onsidera*le loss in
"ase of a defeat& for the un"ertainty of war and the nature of things may render su"h a misfortune
una$oida*le The neigh*orhood of a mountain& a fortified !ost in the rear or a resolute stand
made *y a good *ody of troo!s to "o$er the retreat& may *e the means of sa$ing the army
An army after a defeat has sometimes rallied& returned on the enemy& dis!ersed him *y !ursuing
in order and destroyed him without diffi"ulty 3or "an men *e in a more dangerous situation
than& when in the midst of 2oy after $i"tory& their e9ultation is suddenly "on$erted into terror
?hate$er *e the e$ent& the remains of the army must *e immediately assem*led& reanimated *y
suita*le e9hortations and furnished with fresh su!!lies of arms 3ew le$ies should immediately
*e made and new reinfor"ements !ro$ided And it is of mu"h the greatest "onse0uen"e that
!ro!er o!!ortunities should *e ta+en to sur!rise the $i"torious enemies& to draw them into snares
and am*us"ades and *y this means to re"o$er the droo!ing s!irits of your men 3or will it *e
diffi"ult to meet with su"h o!!ortunities& as the nature of the human mind is a!t to *e too mu"h
elated and to a"t with too little "aution in !ros!erity If anyone should imagine no resour"e is left
after the loss of a *attle& let him refle"t on what has ha!!ened in similar "ases and he will find
that they who were $i"torious in the end were often unsu""essful in the *eginning
0E)ERL M6IM'
It is the nature of war that what is *enefi"ial to you is detrimental to the enemy and what is of
ser$i"e to him always hurts you It is therefore a ma9im ne$er to do& or to omit doing& anything
as a "onse0uen"e of his a"tions& *ut to "onsult in$aria*ly your own interest only And you de!art
from this interest whene$er you imitate su"h measures as he !ursues for his *enefit %or the same
reason it would *e wrong for him to follow su"h ste!s as you ta+e for your ad$antage
The more your troo!s ha$e *een a""ustomed to "am! duties on frontier stations and the more
"arefully they ha$e *een dis"i!lined& the less danger they will *e e9!osed to in the field
Men must *e suffi"iently tried *efore they are led against the enemy
It is mu"h *etter to o$er"ome the enemy *y famine& sur!rise or terror than *y general a"tions& for
in the latter instan"e fortune has often a greater share than $alor Those designs are *est whi"h
the enemy are entirely ignorant of till the moment of e9e"ution F!!ortunity in war is often more
to *e de!ended on than "ourage
To de*au"h the enemy's soldiers and en"ourage them when sin"ere in surrendering themsel$es& is
of es!e"ial ser$i"e& for an ad$ersary is more hurt *y desertion than *y slaughter
It is *etter to ha$e se$eral *odies of reser$es than to e9tend your front too mu"h
A general is not easily o$er"ome who "an form a true 2udgment of his own and the enemy's
for"es
Valor is su!erior to num*ers
The nature of the ground is often of nmore "onse0uen"e than "ourage
%ew men are *orn *ra$e> many *e"ome so through "are and for"e of dis"i!line
An army is strengthened *y la*or and ener$ated *y idleness
Troo!s are not to *e led to *attle unless "onfident of su""ess
3o$elty and sur!rise throw an enemy into "onsternation> *ut "ommon in"idents ha$e no effe"t
/e who rashly !ursues a flying enemy with troo!s in disorder& seems in"lined to resign that
$i"tory whi"h he had *efore o*tained
An army unsu!!lied with grain and other ne"essary !ro$isions will *e $an0uished without
stri+ing a *low
A general whose troo!s are su!erior *oth in num*er and *ra$ery should engage in the o*long
s0uare& whi"h is the first formation
/e who 2udges himself inferior should ad$an"e his right wing o*li0uely against the enemy's left
This is the se"ond formation
If your left wing is strongest& you must atta"+ the enemy's right a""ording to the third formation
The general who "an de!end on the dis"i!line of his men should *egin the engagement *y
atta"+ing *oth the enemy's wings at on"e& the fourth formation
/e whose light infantry is good should "o$er his "enter *y forming them in its front and "harge
*oth the enemy's wings at on"e This is the fifth formation
/e who "annot de!end either on the num*er or "ourage of his troo!s& if o*liged to engage&
should *egin the a"tion with his right and endea$or to *rea+ the enemy's left& the rest of his army
remaining formed in a line !er!endi"ular to the front and e9tended to the rear li+e a 2a$elin This
is the si9th formation
If your for"es are few and wea+ in "om!arison to the enemy& you must ma+e use of the se$enth
formation and "o$er one of your flan+s either with an eminen"e& a "ity& the sea& a ri$er or some
!rote"tion of that +ind
A general who trusts to his "a$alry should "hoose the !ro!er ground for them and em!loy them
!rin"i!ally in the a"tion
/e who de!ends on his infantry should "hoose a situation most !ro!er for them and ma+e most
use of their ser$i"e
?hen an enemy's s!y lur+s in the "am!& order all your soldiers in the day time to their tents& and
he will instantly *e a!!rehended
Fn finding the enemy has noti"e of your designs& you must immediately alter your !lan of
o!erations
Consult with many on !ro!er measures to *e ta+en& *ut "ommuni"ate the !lans you intend to !ut
in e9e"ution to few& and those only of the most assured fidelity> or rather trust no one *ut
yourself
'unishment& and fear thereof& are ne"essary to +ee! soldiers in order in 0uarters> *ut in the field
they are more influen"ed *y ho!e and rewards
.ood offi"ers ne$er engage in general a"tions unless indu"ed *y o!!ortunity or o*liged *y
ne"essity
To distress the enemy more *y famine than the sword is a mar+ of "onsummate s+ill
Many instru"tions might *e gi$en with regard to the "a$alry 1ut as this *ran"h of the ser$i"e has
*een *rought to !erfe"tion sin"e the an"ient writers and "onsidera*le im!ro$ements ha$e *een
made in their drills and maneu$ers& their arms& and the 0uality and management of their horses&
nothing "an *e "olle"ted from their wor+s Fur !resent mode of dis"i!line is suffi"ient
Dis!ositions for a"tion must *e "arefully "on"ealed from the enemy& lest they should "ountera"t
them and defeat your !lans *y !ro!er e9!edients
This a*ridgment of the most eminent military writers& in$in"i*le Em!eror& "ontains the ma9ims
and instru"tions they ha$e left us& a!!ro$ed *y different ages and "onfirmed *y re!eated
e9!erien"e The 'ersians admire your s+ill in ar"hery> the /uns and Alans endea$or in $ain to
imitate your de9terity in horsemanshi!> the 7ara"ens and Indians "annot e0ual your a"ti$ity in
the hunt> and e$en the masters at arms !i0ue themsel$es on only !art of that +nowledge and
e9!ertness of whi"h you gi$e so many instan"es in their own !rofession /ow glorious it is
therefore for Eour Ma2esty with all these 0ualifi"ations to unite the s"ien"e of war and the art of
"on0uest& and to "on$in"e the world that *y Eour "ondu"t and "ourage Eou are e0ually "a!a*le
of !erforming the duties of the soldier and the generalK
I An instrument with four !oints so designed that when any three of them are on the ground the
fourth !ro2e"ts u!ward These are e9tensi$ely used today for antitan+ *arriers