Mathematics and Beauty: A Sampling of Spirals and 'Strange' Spirals in Science, Nature and

Art
Author(s): Clifford A. Pickover
Source: Leonardo, Vol. 21, No. 2 (1988), pp. 173-181
Published by: The MIT Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1578555
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Mathematics an d
B eau ty :
A
Samplin g
o f
Spir als
an d
'Str an ge' Spir als
in
Scien ce,
N atu r e an d A r t
Clif f o r d A . Picko ver
A bstr act-Co mpu ter s
with
gr aphics
can be u sed to
pr o d u ce
visu al
r epr esen tatio n s
o f
co mplicated phy sical
an d mathematical str u ctu r es an d
phen o men a.
This
paper pr esen ts
an
o ver view o f
spir al geo metr y
in
mathematics, n atu r e, phy sics,
civilizatio n an d
ar t,
with an
emphasis
o n n o vel
spir al
f o r ms cr eated
by
the au tho r .
'Recipes'
f o r bo th tr ad itio n al an d
n o n tr ad itio n al
spir als
ar e
given .
The
co mpu ter -gen er ated patter n s
ar e o f in ter est
ar tistically
an d
mathematically ,
an d
they
r eveal a
visu ally str ikin g
an d in tr icate class o f
spir als
who se
gen er atin g algo r ithms r an ge
f r o melectr o n ic cir cu it
equ atio n s
to r an d o m
segmen t
metho d s.
Fig.
1.
Examples
o f
spir als
in n atu r e:
(a, lef t)
Sever al shells o f var io u s ammo n ites
(extin ct shell-f ish). (b, to p r ight) Spir al
ho r n s o n a
bigho r n sheep
an d
an A f r ican ku d u
an telo pe. (c,
bo tto m
r ight) Spir al r epr esen tatio n s ('spir o n s')
o f su b-ato mic
par ticles. Extr emely
small
par ticles,
su ch as
electr o n s,
have been
po stu lated
to be
co mpo sed
o f these
spir al
str u ctu r es
[17].
Clif f o r d A . Picko ver
(co mpu ter scien tist),
IB M
Tho mas J. Watso n Resear ch Cen ter , Yo r kto wn
Heights,
N Y 10598, U.S.A .
Received 19
September
1986.
I. IN TRODUCTION
If the co smo s wer e
su d d en ly f r o zen ,
an d all mo vemen t
ceased ,
a
su r vey
o f its
str u ctu r e wo u ld n o t r eveal a r an d o m
d istr ibu tio n o f
par ts. Simple geo -
metr ical
patter n s,
f o r
example,
wo u ld
be f o u n d in
pr o f u sio n -f r o m
the
spir als
o f
galaxies
to the
hexago n al shapes
o f
sn o w
cr y stals.
Set the clo ckwo r k
go in g,
an d its
par ts
mo ve
r hy thmically
to laws
that o f ten can be
expr essed by
equ atio n s
o f
su r pr isin g simplicity .
A n d
ther e is n o
lo gical
o r a
pr io r i
r easo n
why
these
thin gs
sho u ld be so .
-Mar tin
Gar d n er ,
"Or d er an d
Su r pr ise" (1985)
? 1988 ISA ST
Per gamo n
Pr ess plc
Pr in ted in Gr eat B r itain .
0024-094X/87 $3.00+0.00
LEON A RDO,
Vo l.
21,
N o .
2, pp. 173-181,
1988
w
- v
r r
v
I
way s
o f
char acter izin g
the
co mplexity
o f
su ch behavio r .
II. 'TRA DITION A L'
MA THEMA TICA L SPIRA LS
Gen er ally , plan e
cu r ve
spir als
ar e o f
the f o r m
r
=J(O) (1)
in
po lar
co o r d in ates
(wher e f
is
mo n o to n ic),
an d
they po ssess
a
simple
beau ty
which hu man s have
co pied
in
their ar ts an d
to o ls,
an d n atu r e has u sed
in the cr eatio n o f
man y
str u ctu r es o f lif e.
A ll the mathematical f o r ms
pr esen ted
in
this sectio n wer e f ir st d isco ver ed in the
seven teen th an d
eighteen th cen tu r ies,
except
f o r the
simplest f o r m, the
A r chimed es
spir al,
which is a cu r ve
havin g
the
equ atio n
Fig.
2. Or n amen tal
alphabets
o f ten co n tain
spir als,
su ch as seen her e in sever al letter s f r o m
gr aphic d esign er
Car o l Gr af to n
[19].
"Whatever can be d o n e o n ce can
alway s
be
r epeated ", begin s
Lo u ise B .
Yo u n g
in
The
My ster y o f
Matter
[1]
when
d escr ibin g
the
shapes
an d str u ctu r es o f
n atu r e. Fr o m the
tin y
twisted DN A
mo lecu les in all
livin g
cells to the
gar gan tu an cu r lin g
ar ms o f
man y
galaxies,
the
phy sical
wo r ld co n tain s a
star tlin g r epetitio n
o f
spir al patter n s.
The
gr o win g
awar en ess o f f u n d amen tal r u les
u n d er ly in g
the
appar en t gen er al r epeti-
tio n o f n atu r e has led to the sear ch to
id en tif y ,
measu r e an d d ef in e these
patter n s
in
pr ecise
scien tif ic ter ms
[2, 3].
This
paper pr esen ts
an o ver view o f
spir al geo metr y
in mathematics an d
ar t,
with an
emphasis
o n n ew
spir al
f o r ms
GI'EIU. bA R.mn 3aJl.
o ?
Fig.
3. Var io u s
simple spir als.
Wr itten
lan gu ages
o f ten co n tain sever al
spir al
f o r ms.
(a)
Thai
pr in tin g [21]. (b)
This o r n ate
d esign
r epr esen ts
the wo r d f o r
spir al
in Far si
(pr o n o u n ced 'mar -peach',
which
liter ally
mean s
'sn ake
cu r l'). (c) Sample
o f Tamil
scr ipt (f r o m
so u ther n
In d ia),
which is f amo u s f o r
spir al f o r ms.
cr eated
by
the au tho r
[4].
The ter m
'spir al'
is u sed
gen er ically
to d escr ibe
an y
geo metr ic
smo o th cu r ve that win d s abo u t
a cen tr al
po in t
o r axis while also
r eced in g
f r o mit. When
thin kin g
o f
examples
o f
spir als,
bo th the mu n d an e an d exo tic
easily
co me to min d : f o r
example,
the
gen tle
cu r l o f a f er n
ten d r il,
the
shape
o f
an
o cto pu s's
r etr acted
ar m,
the d eath-
f o r massu med
by
a
cen tiped e,
the
spir al
in testin e o f a
gir af f e,
the
shape
o f a
bu tter f ly 's to n gu e,
the
spir al
cr o ss sectio n
o f a
scr o ll,
the
shape
o f the Yello w B r ick
Ro ad in Mu n chkin lan d in the f ilmclassic
The Wizar d
o f
Oz an d even the char acter s
in sever al wr itten
lan gu ages.
This
paper
is d ivid ed in to f o u r
par ts,
which d eal with tr ad itio n al mathematical
spir als, spir als
in
n atu r e, spir als mad e
by
hu man s an d
'str an ge' spir als.
I have
co in ed the ter m
'str an ge' spir al
to d en o te
en tities that have
man y
o f the visu al
pr o per ties
o n e
n o r mally
asso ciates with
spir als
as d ef in ed
abo ve, y et
also have
o ther
in ter estin g
f eatu r es su ch as
bein g
in f in itely co n vo lu ted ,
su ch as tho se
d escr ibed later in the text.
I seek in this
paper
to
emphasize
the
impo r tan t
an d
co n spicu o u s
r o le that
spir als play
in n atu r e an d
civilizatio n ,
to
sho w the r ead er ho w to cr eate su ch
spir als
u sin g
a
co mpu ter
an d to d emo n str ate
ho w r esear ch in
simple
mathematical
f o r mu las can r eveal an in exhau stible n ew
r eser vo ir o f
magn if icen t shapes
an d
images. In d eed ,
str u ctu r es
pr o d u ced by
these
equ atio n s
in clu d e
shapes
o f
star tlin g in tr icacy .
The
gr aphics exper i-
men ts
pr esen ted her e,
with the
var iety
o f
acco mpan y in g par ameter s,
ar e
go o d
This was f ir st d iscu ssed
by
A r chimed es
ar o u n d 225 B .c. The mo st co mmo n ly
o bser ved ,spir als
ar e o f the A r chimed ean
ty pe: tightly
wo u n d
spr in gs, ed ges
o f
r o lled -u p r u gs
an d sheets o f
paper ,
an d
d eco r ative
spir als
o n
jewelr y .
Pr actical
u ses o f the A r chimed es
spir al
in clu d e the
tr an sf o r matio n o f
r o tar y
to lin ear mo tio n
in
sewin g
machin es
[5].
The
lo gar ithmic spir al (also
kn o wn as
the
equ ian gu lar spir al
o r B er n o u lli
spir al)
can be
expr essed
as
r = keal
(3)
This
spir al
was f ir st d iscu ssed
by
Descar tes in 1638. The
an gle
between the
str aight lin e,
0
=
co n stan t,
an d the
tan gen t
to the cu r ve is co n stan t.
Examples
o f the
lo gar ithmic spir al
f o u n d
in n atu r e ar e men tio n ed in sectio n III o f
this
paper .
Other mo r e exo tic
spir als
in clu d e the
hy per bo lic spir al (o r r ecipr o cal
spir al),
which is o f the f o r m
A littu s has the f o r m
A littu s has the f o r m
r 20
=
a
(4)
(5)
A Co r n u
spir al (o r
clo tho id o r Eu ler 's
spir al)
has a
par ametr ic r epr esen tatio n :
t
I7r t2
x=aVr f
o
co s
( ) d t
y =
ax/
t
sin
(
t2
)
d t
2
(6)
(7)
Picko ver , Spir als
r =aO
(2)
174
XKXV Tu bo Co chleato
Fig. 4. A r tists' spir als. Spir als o f ten appea. n d r awin gs o f the cr eatu r es o f my tho lo gy , legen d o r r eligio n [31]. Clo ckwise f r o mto p lef t: (a) Mao r i d r awin g
o f spir al f acial tatto o s, N ew Zealan d , 19th c. (b) Gar go y le f r o mthe Milan Cathed r al. (c) Spir al n o se o n a citter n by Gir o lamo d e Vir d is, 1574. (d ) Ger man
helmet with spir al ho r n s, 1511-14. (e) Lio n with spir al d r ago n 's tail an d to n gu e, f r o ma Victo r ian bo r d er d esign . (f ) Water d r ago n , f r o ma pr in t. (g) This
'vo ice amplif ier ' appear s in Gabin etto A r mo n ico , f ir st pr in ted in 1716, by Jesu it Filippo B o n an n i. B o n an n i wr o te o n ar t an d f o lk in str u men ts o f all levels o f
Eu r o pean so ciety , an d her e it is su ggested that a lar ge spir al tu be wo u ld co n sid er ably magn if y the so u n d o f the vo ice.
Picko ver , Spir als
175
This cu r ve was d isco ver ed
by
Eu ler in
1744,
an d M.A . Co r n u later u sed this
cu r ve in the
r epr esen tatio n
o f
o ptical
d if f r actio n .
So me o f these f amilies o f
spir al
cu r ves
can
per haps
be mo r e
simply
d ef in ed
by
r =
amO
(8)
which in clu d es the A r chimed es
spir al (m
=
1),
Fer mat's
spir al (m
=
2) (f ir st
d iscu ssed
by
Fer mat in
1636),
the
hy per bo lic spir al (m
=
-1) (f ir st d iscu ssed
by
Pier r e
Var ign o n
in
1704)
an d the littu s
(m
=
-2) (o r igin ated by
Co tes in
1722).
The in vo lu te
o f
a cir cle with
par ametr ic
equ atio n s
x
=
a(co s
+
4)
sin
k) (9)
y
=
a(sin
k - b co s
>) (10)
was f ir st taken in to acco u n t
by Hu y gen s
when he was
f o r mu latin g
his id eas f o r
clo cks witho u t
pen d u lu ms
which
might
be o f ser vice o n
seago in g
vessels. This is
the cu r ve d escr ibed
by
the
en d po in t
o f a
str in g
as it u n win d s f r o ma cir cle o f r ad iu s
a while held tau t. The cu r ves tr aced
by
all
po in ts alo n g
the
plan k
o f a seesaw o r the
path
o f a
go at
tied to a
cy lin d r ical po st
as
it win d s
tightly
ar o u n d it
[6]
ar e bo th
in vo lu tes o f a cir cle.
Fin ally ,
the co chleo id
(o r sn ailf o r m)
is
given by
sin 0
r =a(
-n
(11)
0
A par t
f r o m their mathematic d if -
f er en ces,
an d also the var ied n atu r al f o r ms
these
spir als help
to
d escr ibe, man y
o f
these
spir als
ar e
qu ite
d if f er en t
visu ally .
Fo r
example, per haps
the mo st exo tic
lo o kin g
o f the
gr o u p
is Eu ler 's
spir al,
which co n sists o f two
spir als
co n n ected
to gether , givin g
it the
appear an ce
o f a
mu stache with two cu r led en d s. The
o n ly
o ther
spir al
o f the
gr o u p
with mo r e than
o n e 'cen ter ' is the
co chleo id ,
which
co n tain s two
d ir ectly ad jacen t spir als.
Fer mat's
spir al
is the
o n ly
member that
co n sists o f two co n cen tr ic
lin es,
an d it
r esembles the
paths
o f two tr acks o f a
ster eo r eco r d
gr o o ve. Fin ally ,
the littu s is
the
o n ly spir al
o f the
gr o u p
with a
lo n g,
almo st lin ear
sectio n ;
it lo o ks like a f er n
ten d r il with a
ver y lo n g
stem.
III. SPIRA LS IN N A TURE
Spir als
in n atu r e ar e
u biqu ito u s
an d
have a
r an ge
o f bo tan ical an d
zo o lo gical
man if estatio n s
[7]. Pr o bably
the mo st
co mmo n
examples
ar e the
lo gar ithmic
spir als
o f n au tilu s shells an d o ther sea
shells an d the ho r n s o f a
var iety
o f
mammals
in clu d in g
the A f r ican ku d u
an telo pe [8] (Fig. la, b),
the
ar r an gemen t
o f seed s o f
man y plan ts (su n f lo wer
an d
d aisy )
an d the scales o f a
pin eco n e.
Other
clear
examples
o f
spir als
in
plan ts (also
kn o wn as
'gr een spir als')
o ccu r in the
pu r ple
co r n f lo wer
[9], pin eapples,
cacti
an d the
ar r an gemen t
o f bu d s in a
pu ssy
willo w stem. It
appear s
that so me
gen er al r egu lato r y agen t
is at wo r k
pr o d u cin g
co mmo n
spir al
f o r ms in
plan ts
as
d ispar ate
as su n f lo wer s an d
pin es,
tho u gh r elatively
little
bio lo gical exper i-
men tatio n has been d o n e in sear ch o f the
so u r ce o f these
patter n s.
Dixo n
[10] gives
sever al
equ atio n s
f o r
co mpu tin g
these
spir als
based o n the
lo gar ithmic
an d
Fibo n acci
spir als.
Other
algo r ithms
f o r
r ecr eatin g shells, ho r n s,
tu sks an d claws
ar e d escr ibed
by Kawagu chi [11]. B o d y
par ts
with
spir al
str u ctu r es in clu d e the
spir allin g
f iber s at the
apex
o f the hear t.
Mar tin Gar d n er has n o ted that
Eper ia,
a co mmo n
var iety
o f
spid er , spin s
a web
in which a str an d co ils ar o u n d the cen ter
in a
lo gar ithmic spir al [12]. A qu atic
lif e
o f ten man if est
spir al
bo d ies o r
appen d -
ages.
The br an chial f ilamen ts o f
spir o -
gr aphics (tu be-wo r ms) play spir ally
in the
water ,
an d when stimu lated
they jer k
spo n tan eo u sly
back in to a tu be
alo n g
a
scr ew-like f o r m. The tu be-wo r ms'
gill
f ilamen ts f o r ma
per f ect spir al [13].
In the
in testin e o f
Pr o to pter u s
an d o ther
lu n gf ishes
ther e exists a
spir al
f o ld . On a
smaller
scale, man y
u n icellu lar an imals
have
in co r po r ated spir al shapes;
f o r
example,
the in f u so r ia ar e cr eatu r es with
spher ical
f o r m an d have scr ew-like
spir allin g
mo tio n s f o r lo co mo tio n
[14].
On even smaller
scales, spir als
also
abo u n d : f o r
example,
the a
helix,
the
su per co iled
a
helix,
the helical
packin g
o f
su bu n its in vir u ses an d in
DN A ,
an d the
co ilin g
o f DN A str an d s in a n u cleo so me
[15, 16].
Still smaller
y et,
su bato mic
par ticles,
su ch as
electr o n s,
have been
po stu lated
to be
co mpo sed
o f
spir al
str u ctu r es called
'spir o n s' [17] (Fig. lc).
Other
examples
in n atu r e in clu d e the
Fig.
5.
Ran d o m-segmen t spir als.
These
'f u zzy ' spir als
wer e cr eated
by
the au tho r
by co n n ectin g pair s
o f
po in ts
with
str aight
lin es. The
ey e per ceives spir al
patter n s by o bser vin g
the co r r elated
pair s.
Picko ver , Spir als
176
%
I
1.1
!i
LT Tc
Fig.
6.
Dy n amical sy stems in vo lvin g
r eal n u mber s. These
pictu r es
wer e cr eated
by
the au tho r
by plo ttin g tr ajecto r ies thr o u gh
time.
(a)
Phase
po r tr ait
o f an RLC cir cu it.
(b)
Phase
po r tr ait
o f an o scillato r .
(c)
Phase
po r tr ait
o f
co u pled
d if f er en tial
equ atio n s.
Fig.
7. Iter atio n o f
co mplex
f u n ctio n s. These
plo ts,
cr eated
by
the
au tho r ,
d escr ibe the behavio r o f
co mplex
f u n ctio n s an d sho w ho w
co mplicated
behavio r can ar ise in
sy stems
f r o m
simple
r u les.
(a)
Co mplex map
o f a
sin gle f u n ctio n ,
z = sin z +
M.(b) Co mplex map
o f a n etwo r k o f
equ atio n s. (c) Co mplex map
o f a
sin gle f u n ctio n ,
z=
z2 + ,U. The d if f er en t shad es o f
gr ay
in d icate d if f er en t r ates at which
the f u n ctio n
explo d es.
Picko ver , Spir als
177
.II
L
patter n s
o n
Spir if er id a (cer tain
f o ssilized
shells), spir al cleavage (a patter n
char -
acter ized
by
f o r matio n o f an
embr y o -
lo gical
cell mass
sho win g spir al sy m-
metr y ),
the
spir al
valve
(a spir al
f o ld o f
mu co u s membr an e in the small in testin e
o f shar ks which in cr eases the ar ea f o r
abso r ptio n ), f in ger pr in t who r ls,
an d the
axo n me
(bu n d le
o f f iber s in a
f lagellu m)
[18].
Examples
o f n atu r al
n o n -livin g spir al
mo tif s ar e the vo r tices o f water waves an d
air -in clu d in g
ver tical
spir allin g
co lu mn s
o f air which
car r y glid in g
bir d s to
gr eater
heights
an d the
whir lin g path
o f air in
o r gan pipes-an d galactic
f o r matio n s
(see belo w).
IV. SPIRA LS MA DE B Y HUMA N S
In mo d er n
techn o lo gical so ciety , spir al
d evices
play
an in valu able r o le.
Examples
in clu d e the
spir al
bevel
gear (a gear
with
o bliqu e teeth), spir al
chu tes f o r
co n vey in g
mater ial,
the
spir al
cu tter head
(a r o tar y
d iggin g d evice), spir al
mo ld
co o lin g (to
co o l an
in jectio n
mo ld
by passin g liqu id
thr o u gh
a
spir al cavity )
an d the
spir al
stair case. Other
spir al
d evices in clu d e a
var iety
o f
gau ges,
heat
exchan ger s,
ther mo meter s, pipes,
d istillatio n
equ ip-
Fig.
8.
Tr igo n o metr ic 'bu shy ' spir als. Her e,
an
in f in ite
var iety
o f
spir al-like patter n s
wer e
cr eated
by
the au tho r
u sin g
a
co mplicated
hier ar chy
o f
tr igo n o metr ic
f u n ctio n s.
men t an d in tr au ter in e d evices f o r bir th
co n tr o l. The
spir al spr in g (an A r chi-
med ean
spir al)
is
par ticu lar ly in ter estin g
in its
u n iqu e ability
to
r espo n d
to bo th
to r sio n al an d tr an slatio n al f o r ce. In
mu sical
in str u men ts, spir als
also abo u n d .
Examples
in clu d e the
po stho r n
an d
man y
mo d er n br ass in str u men ts. Child r en 's
to y s
o f ten
co mpr ise spir als (e.g.
the
Slin ky
an d Chin ese
y o -y o s),
an d
spir al
f o r ms also ar e u sed in
ven d in g
machin e
d ispen ser s,
r eco r d
gr o o ves,
o r n amen tal
alphabets (Fig. 2) [19],
an d
f o r the cu r se-wo r d
sy mbo ls
that car -
to o n ists u se.
Extr emely
in tr icate
spir als
can be mad e
chemically by co atin g
a
glass
sheet with car bo n black an d var io u s
liqu id s [20].
A s men tio n ed in the
In tr o d u ctio n ,
wr itten
lan gu age
so metimes co n tain s
spir als,
an d Thai
pr in tin g (Fig. 3a)
is o n e
example [21].
A n o ther
example
is the
o r n ate
d esign
that
r epr esen ts
the wo r d f o r
spir al
in Far si
(pr o n o u n ced 'mar -peach',
which
liter ally
mean s sn ake
cu r l)
sho wn
in
Fig.
3b.
Fin ally ,
Tamil
scr ipt (f r o m
so u ther n
In d ia)
is f amo u s f o r its
spir al
f o r ms
(Fig. 3c).
Do o d les-tho se
d esign s
we make
by
id le,
u n co n scio u s
scr ibblin g
when o u r
tho u ghts
ar e
o ccu pied
elsewher e-o f ten
co n tain a r emar kable n u mber o f
spir al
f o r ms. Ju st what this u n co n scio u s
ten d en cy
to d r aw
spir als
tells u s abo u t the
u n co n scio u s hu man min d an d its in n er
images
is n o t
clear ,
bu t f r o man cien t
times the
spir al
has been u sed in ar t an d
d an ce to in d u ce a state o f
ecstasy [22].
The actu al men tal an d
phy sical ability
per mittin g
hu man s to d r aw
spir als
pr o bably begin s
ar o u n d
age
3.
To d ay ,
psy cho lo gists
u se the
spir al
f o r
d eepen in g
r elaxatio n an d
br in gin g
abo u t a
'd eeper
level o f min d '
[23].
A n cien t
examples
o f
spir als
in clu d e
pr ehisto r ic spir al
mazes
[24],
Sto n e
A ge
an imal o r n amen ts
[25],
ter r aco tta
po t
spir al d esign s
f r o m the sixth
cen tu r y
B .C.
[26],
d eco r atio n s f r o man cien t A ltaic
wo r ks
(mid d le
o f the f ir st millen n iu m
B .C.) [27], en gr avin gs
o n thr esho ld sto n es
o f in itiatio n chamber s in the B r o n ze
A ge
in Ir elan d
[28],
Tibetan Tan ka ar two r k
[29]
an d scr o llwo r ks f o r Ir ish
man u scr ipts
[30]. Spir als
also o f ten
appear
in ar tists'
d r awin gs
o f the cr eatu r es o f
my tho lo gy ,
legen d
o r
r eligio n (Fig. 4a-f ) [31].
A
beau tif u l
example
o f an
eighteen th-
cen tu r y en gr avin g d epictin g
a
spir al
mu sical in str u men t is sho wn in
Fig. 4g.
This 'vo ice
amplif ier ' appear ed
in Jesu it
Filippo
B o n an n i's bo o k Gabin etto
A r mo n ico .
Spir als
also ar e f o u n d in
mo d er n su r r ealist ar t
(f o r
f amo u s
examples,
see the wo r ks o f Jo an
Mir 6,
Matta an d A lf r ed
Jar r y [32]).
V. STRA N GE SPIRA LS
A s men tio n ed in the
In tr o d u ctio n ,
'str an ge' spir al
is a ter mco in ed to d en o te
en tities that have
man y
o f the visu al
pr o per ties
o n e
n o r mally
asso ciates with
spir als
as d ef in ed
abo ve, y et
have o ther
n o vel f eatu r es su ch as
bein g in f in itely
co n vo lu ted , bein g in f in itely
d isco n tin u o u s
o r
simply havin g
mo r e
co mplicated
gen er atin g
f o r mu las
(see belo w).
Galaxies
The
lo gar ithmic spir al's
mo st im-
pr essive appear an ce
is in the ar ms o f
man y galaxies. A ltho u gh
it is clear that
the o ver all mass d istr ibu tio n an d mo tio n s
o f the
co mpo n en ts
o f a
galaxy
ar e
d eter min ed
by gr avity ,
it has n o t been
clear what is
r espo n sible
f o r the
str ikin g
spir al mo r pho lo gy
o f
galaxies [33]. Spir al
ar ms exten d o ver
20,000 par secs (1 pc
=
3.26
light y ear s),
an d the
co n tempo r ar y
view is that it is
n ecessar y
to have a
lo n g-
r an ge
in ter actio n like
gr avity
to cr eate
su ch
lo n g-r an ge
o r d er . In
spir al galaxies,
the
spir al
ar ms ar e sites o f active star
f o r matio n .
Spir al galactic shapes
ar e
r elatively
easy
to
pr o gr am
o n the
co mpu ter ,
as
they
co n sist o f d o ts
f o r min g
a d o u ble
lo gar ithmic spir al.
On e ar mis 180? o u t o f
phase
with the o ther . To o btain a
pictu r e
o f a
galactic
d istr ibu tio n o f
d o ts, simply
plo t
d o ts at
(r , 0) acco r d in g
to :
r
=
e[6 tan 0]
(12)
r 2 = e[(7r
+
0) tan 4]
(13)
wher e
r ,
an d r 2
co r r espo n d
to the two
in ter twin ed
spir al
ar ms. The cu r vatu r e o f
the ar ms is co n tr o lled
by 0
which sho u ld
be abo u t 0.2 r ad ian s f o r r ealistic r esu lts.
In
ad d itio n ,
0 < 0 < 1000 r ad ian s. Fo r
extr a
r ealism,
a small amo u n t o f r an d o m
jitter may
be ad d ed to the f in al
po in ts.
Fu zzy Spir als
If a
patter n
o f r an d o m d o ts is
su per impo sed
o n itself an d r o tated
by
a
small
an gle,
co n cen tr ic cir cles ar e
per ceived
abo u t the
po in t
o f r o tatio n
[34].
If the
an gle
o f r o tatio n is
in cr eased ,
the
per ceived
cir cles
gr ad u ally d isappear
u n til an u n str u ctu r ed d o t
d isplay
is seen .
This ef f ect d emo n str ates the
ability
o f the
hu man visu al
sy stem
to d etect lo cal
au to co r r elatio n s an d
may su ggest
a
phy sio lo gical
basis o f f o r m
per ceptio n
in
higher
an imals.
Figu r e
5 sho ws
'f u zzy ' spir als
cr eated
by
a
pr o ced u r e
r elated to the r an d o m-d o t
spir als.
To
r epr o d u ce
these
f igu r es,
f ir st
Picko ver , Spir als
178
plo t
abo u t 5000
r an d o mly po sitio n ed
d o ts. These same 5000 d o ts ar e then
r o tated
by
2? to
30?, expan d ed slightly
an d then co n n ected to their
r espective
o r igin al
d o ts. The
ey e per ceives spir al
patter n s by o bser vin g
the co r r elated
pair s. B y var y in g
the
an gle
an d
specif ic
ty pe
o f r an d o mn u mber s
u sed ,
o n e can
gen er ate
a
var iety
o f
visu ally excitin g
patter n s.
Fo r so me o f the
f igu r es,
Gau ssian white n o ise is u sed . This can be
gen er ated by :
n
N o ise=
(-) ,
6i
(14)
n n
i=
wher e 6 is a r an d o mn u mber an d n is
abo u t 6.
Spir al-Like
Fo r ms f r o mDif f er en tial
Equ atio n s
RLC Cir cu it
The d if f er en tial
equ atio n
Lx+Rx +(
)x=O (15)
C
go ver n s
the behavio r o f a
simple
RLC
electr ic cir cu it wher e x
r epr esen ts
the
char ge
o n the
capacito r
an d x
r epr esen ts
the cu r r en t in the
lo o p [35].
R is the
r esistan ce,
L the in d u ctan ce an d C the
capacitan ce.
The
equ ivalen t
f ir st o r d er
sy stem
is:
i
=y (16)
y
-
(cx-
(L
)
y (17)
This can be
easily implemen ted
o n a
co mpu ter :
XI
=
X,i
+
y ,t- (18)
Yt= Y-+
[( )tLC-
R
\
-
-.j
(19)
wher e X > 0 is a co n stan t kn o wn as the
'step
size' o f the n u mer ical so lu tio n . X is
kept
small
(X
-
0.1). A lso ,
-3 < x <
3,
an d
-3
<y
< 3.
R,
L an d C can be set to 1.0.
Figu r e
6a r eveals that all in itial
po in ts
(x,y )
have
spir al tr ajecto r ies
in to the f ixed
po in t
in the cen ter o f the
f igu r e. Watchin g
this
shape d y n amically
u n f o ld o n the
catho d e
r ay
tu be
(CRT)
is
especially
u sef u l f o r
r evealin g
this
'd amped '
behavio r .
Self -Su stain ed Oscillatio n s
In this class o f
pr o blems,
we have a
n o n lin ear vibr atio n wher e the
d ampin g
is
also n o n lin ear . On e o f the best-kn o wn
cases en co u n ter ed in
pr actice
is that o f the
tr io d e vacu u mtu be. A n electr ical cir cu it
co n tain in g
su ch a tu be
[36]
is sho wn in
Fig.
6b with its
acco mpan y in g 'phase
po r tr ait'. Figu r e
6b was
gen er ated
f r o m
the d if f er en tial
equ atio n go ver n in g
the
cu r r en t in an o scillato r :
CLX +
F(x)
+ x
= 0
(20)
The f u n ctio n
F(x)
is a n o n lin ear f u n ctio n
(cau sed by
the n o n lin ear r elatio n between
cu r r en t an d
vo ltage
in the
tu be).
The
f u n ctio n I have u sed was
su ggested by
Sto ker
[37]:
F(x)=e
[-
x+
(-) ]
(21)
I have
implemen ted
this
sy stem
o n a
co mpu ter by d er ivin g
the
f o llo win g
co u pled
d iscr etizatio n
u sin g
the f o r war d
Eu ler
appr o ximatio n [38]:
Xt
=
x_-i
+
Xy ,_l (22)
y , = y ,t-
+ x,- R (- Yt-
+
)(23)
3
wher e X < 0. X is
kept
small
(X
-
0.05).
A lso : -3 < x <
3,
an d -3 <
y
<
3,
an d
=
1.0.
Fr o ma mathematical
stan d po in t,
the
gr aph
o f
Fig.
6b is
f ascin atin g.
A s it
evo lves o n the
CRT,
o n e can see that all
in itial
po in ts (x,y )
co n tain ed within the
bo u n d in g
o vo id
shape (kn o wn
as an
attr acto r ) spir al
o u twar d to the attr acto r
su r f ace,
while all
po in ts
o u tsid e the
attr acto r
spir al
in war d to war d it. On ce a
po in t
in the
path
meets the
attr acto r ,
it
cir cu lates
alo n g
the attr acto r f o r ever . A s
X is
in cr eased ,
mo r e sto chastic behavio r is
o bser ved . The r ead er is
en co u r aged
to
exper imen t
with this
par ameter
an d to
o bser ve the r esu lts.
Other
Spir al Tr ajecto r ies
A s the r ead er
may imagin e,
an in f in ite
var iety
o f
spir al patter n s
can be
co mpu ted
f r o m d if f er en tial
equ atio n s.
Figu r e
6c is bu t o n e
example
o f an o ther
sy stem[39].
Co mplex
Iter atio n
Spir als
Co mpu ter s
with
gr aphics
have
play ed
a cr itical r o le in the
stu d y
o f
iter atio n an d in
helpin g
mathematician s
f o r mthe in tu itio n s n eed ed to
pr o ve
n ew
theo r ems abo u t
co n ver gen ce
o f
sequ en ces
o f
po in ts
in the
co mplex plan e [40].
To d ay ,
ther e ar e sever al scien tif ic f ield s
d evo ted to
in vestigatin g
ho w
co mplicated
behavio r can ar ise in
sy stems
f r o m
simple
r u les an d ho w min u te
chan ges
in the
in pu t
o f a n o n lin ear
sy stem
can lead to
lar ge
d if f er en ces in the
o u tpu t;
su ch f ield s
in clu d e chao s an d cellu lar au to mata
theo r y [41].
On e
example
o f
co mplex
iter atio n s is
given by
the
simple mappin g
z,
=
sin (z,_ )
+
ti (24)
wher e z is a
co mplex
n u mber an d , is a
co mplex
co n stan t. To u se this
techn iqu e,
an in itial z
po in t
is selected an d the
equ atio n
is iter ated . In o ther
wo r d s,
the
r esu ltin g
valu e is
r ecy cled
in the
equ atio n ,
pr o d u cin g
a mathematical f eed back
lo o p.
Fo r cer tain in itial valu es o f
z,
this
sequ en ce
o f
po in ts explo d es;
these ar e
co lo r ed black in
Fig. 7a,
which
r epr esen ts
a
map
o f the
z-plan e.
Her e ,u
=
(0.1, 0.1)
[42]. Figu r e
7b was
co mpu ted u sin g
a
n etwo r k o f
equ atio n s
d escr ibed elsewher e
[43]. Figu r e
7c was
co mpu ted u sin g
z
=
z2
+
/.
Tr igo n o metr ic
Iter atio n
('B u shy ' Spir als)
A n in f in ite
var iety
o f
spir al-like
patter n s
can be cr eated
u sin g
a co m-
plicated hier ar chy
o f
tr igo n o metr ic
f u n ctio n s. The u ser en ter s a ser ies o f
eight
par ameter s:
1, d , g, k,
u ,, u 2, wI, w2.
In
o r d er to
pr o d u ce Fig. 8,
f ir st
par ameter s
s
an d t ar e
co mpu ted
f o r the
pictu r es:
s=
tan [ wI
]
W2
(25)
t=
360[w, sin (s)+ w2 co s(s)] (26)
Par ameter t co n tr o ls the win d o w o f the
gr aphics
scr een -the lo wer lef t-han d
co r n er is set to
(-t, -t),
an d the
u pper
r ight-han d
co r n er is set to
(t,t).
The
f o llo win g
sets o f
equ atio n s
ar e then
iter ated f o r 0 < bi < 360 an d 0 <
aj
< 360.
The
step
size f o r the i
lo o p
is
d ,
an d the
step
size f o r the
j lo o p
is
g.
N ested in sid e
these two
lo o ps
ar e the
f o llo win g
equ atio n s:
z
= kr
[u l sin (laj)
+ u 2
co s(laj)] (27)
r =
bi [wl sin (z)
+
w2 co s(z)]
x =
r co s(aj)
+ f
(28)
(29)
Picko ver , Spir als
179
y r sin (ai)
+ 3
(30)
wher e
f p=0.1Xr x r , (31)
an d y is a r an d o mn u mber o n the in ter val
(0,1). Figu r e
8 r esu lts f r o m
plo ttin g (x,y )
co o r d in ates. The
eight par ameter
valu es
ar e all set to valu es n ear 3 f o r
Fig.
8. This
sy stem
o f
equ atio n s
f o llo ws that o f
Jaco bso n
[44],
the
sign if ican t
d if f er en ce
bein g
the
/f par ameter ,
which
gives
the
r esu ltin g patter n s
a mu ch mo r e 'n atu r al'
lo o k. The
spir al
n atu r e o f these
patter n s
is
clear er when the viewer watches the
f igu r es plo tted d y n amically
o n the CRT.
VI. CON CLUSION
It is in d eed a
su r pr isin g
an d f o r tu n ate
f act that n atu r e can be
expr essed by
r elatively
lo w-o r d er mathematical
f u n ctio n s.
-Ru d o lf
Car n ap (scien ce lectu r er )
A mo n g
the metho d s available f o r the
char acter izatio n o f
co mplicated
mathe-
matical an d
phy sical phen o men a,
co m-
pu ter s
with
gr aphics
ar e
emer gin g
as an
impo r tan t
to o l
[45]. Co mpu ter gr aphics
also
pr o vid es
a
way
to
r epr esen t
bo th
n atu r al an d ar tistic
shapes
which in clu d e
mo u n tain s
[46],
shells
[47],
tr ees
[48],
wo o d
gr ain s [49],
leaves
[50]
an d sto n e
walls
[51]. Recen tly
an
algo r ithm
was
in tr o d u ced that cr eates
ver y co mplicated
f o r ms
r esemblin g
in ver tebr ate
o r gan isms
[52] u sin g simple po ly n o mial equ atio n s.
Fr o m an ar tistic
stan d po in t, spir al
equ atio n s pr o vid e
a vast an d
d eep
r eser vo ir f r o mwhich ar tists can d r aw.
The
co mpu ter
is a machin e
which,
when
gu id ed by
an
ar tist,
can r en d er
images
o f
captivatin g po wer
an d
beau ty .
N ew
'r ecipes',
su ch as tho se o u tlin ed
her e,
can
be u sed with su ch tr ad itio n al elemen ts as
f o r m, shad in g
an d co lo r to
pr o d u ce
f u tu r istic
images
an d ef f ects. The
r ecipes
f u n ctio n as the ar tist's
helper , qu ickly
takin g
car e o f mu ch o f the
r epetitive
an d
so metimes ted io u s d etail.
B y cr eatin g
an
en vir o n men t o f ad van ced
co mpu ter
gr aphics,
ar tists with access to
co mpu ter s
will
gr ad u ally chan ge
o u r
per ceptio n
o f
ar t.
A s f ar as the
phy sical
u n iver se is
co n cer n ed , spir al shapes
ar e o n e o f
n atu r e's mo st f u n d amen tal f o r ms. A s
scien ce wr iter Kathleen Stein o n ce
po in ted o u t, spir als appear ear ly
in the
chain o f an imal evo lu tio n :
cilia,
wo r ms'
gills, f ly
lar vae an d so me
shar k-egg
capsu les
have them. The co chlea in the ear
o f
ever y
mammal is
scr ew-shaped ,
an d so
ar e
man y
co r als.
Man y
o f the mathe-
matical
shapes
in the
pr esen t paper
ar e
magn if icen tly co mplicated
str u ctu r es
which n o o n e co u ld have
appr eciated
f u lly
o r even
su spected
bef o r e the
age
o f
the
co mpu ter .
The r ichn ess o f the r esu ltan t
f o r ms o f ten co n tr asts with the
simplicity
o f the
gen er atin g
f o r mu las.
Pr ecisely why
the
spir al
is
u biqu ito u s
in
n atu r e an d in civilizatio n is a
pr o f o u n d
qu estio n .
Whether o n e is
co n sid er in g
the
mo vemen t o f
star s,
the
d evelo pmen t
o f an
embr y o ,
the mo tio n o f a
pen cil
o n a
page
o r
man y
o f the
phen o men a
that make
u p
the f abr ic o f o u r
u n iver se,
it is clear that
sy mmetr y o per atio n s
ar e o f ten n atu r e's
gu id in g
han d .
Spir al patter n s
o f ten o ccu r
spo n tan eo u sly
in matter that is
o r gan ized
thr o u gh sy mmetr y
tr an sf o r matio n s:
chan ge
o f size
(gr o wth)
an d r o tatio n .
Fo r mf o llo ws
f u n ctio n ,
an d the
spir al
f o r mcan allo w f o r the
co mpactio n
o f a
r elatively lo n g len gth. Lo n g-y et-co mpact
tu bes ar e u sef u l in
spir al mo ld s,
br ass
in str u men ts,
mo llu sks an d co chleas f o r
o bvio u s r easo n s
in clu d in g phy sical
str en gth
an d in cr eased su r f ace ar ea. Fo r
so me
phen o men a-su ch
as in
d o o d les,
wr itten
lan gu ages
an d
spir al galaxies-
the
pr ecise
'r easo n ' f o r
spir al
f o r ms is less
clear .
The mathematical
co n cept
o f
similar ity
ho ld s o n e o f the
key s
to
u n d er stan d in g
the
pr o cesses
o f
gr o wth
in the n atu r al
wo r ld . A s a member o f a
species gr o ws
to
matu r ity ,
it
gen er ally
tr an sf o r ms in su ch a
way
that its
par ts
main tain
appr o xi-
mately
the same
pr o po r tio n
with
r espect
to each o ther
[53],
an d this is
pr o bably
a
r easo n
why
n atu r e is o f ten co n str ain ed to
exhibit self -similar
spir al gr o wth.
Thr o u gh time,
hu man s have imitated the
spir al
mo tif s ar o u n d themin their ar t
f o r ms an d
scien ces,
an d
o ccasio n ally they
in ven t n ew
spir als
n o t kn o wn to have
specif ic co u n ter par ts
in the n atu r al
wo r ld . It is
pr o bable
that this mu ltitu d e
o f 'tr ad itio n al' an d 'n o n tr ad itio n al'
spir al
f o r mu las will
help
scien tists better
u n d er stan d the f u n d amen tal r u les u n d er -
ly in g
the
appar en t spir al r epetitio n
o f
n atu r e,
sin ce
they
can n o w
gen er ate,
d ef in e an d
pr ed ict
these
patter n s
in
pr ecise
scien tif ic ter ms.
A
r epo r t
su ch as this can
o n ly
be
viewed as
in tr o d u cto r y ; ho wever ,
it is
ho ped
that the
techn iqu es, equ atio n s
an d
sy stems
will
pr o vid e
a u sef u l to o l an d
stimu late f u tu r e stu d ies in the
gr aphic
char acter izatio n o f the
mo r pho lo gically
r ich
spir als
o f extr eme
co mplexity
pr o d u ced by r elatively simple gen er atin g
f o r mu las.
A ckn o wled gemen ts-I
wo u ld like to than k
Jacqu es B o ivin ,
au tho r o f The Hear t
Sin gle
Field
Theo r y ,
f o r
per missio n
to
r epr o d u ce
his
hy po thetical 'spir o n ' shapes.
I also than k
Elahe Kho r asan i an d Pad man abhan San -
than am f o r
samples
o f Far si an d Tamil
wr itin g, r espectively . Fin ally ,
I than k A d am
f o r his
r epeated
car ef u l
attempts
to d r aw a
spir al.
REFEREN CES A N D N OTES
1. L.
Yo u n g,
The
My ster y o f
Matter
(N ew
Yo r k: Oxf o r d
Un iver sity Pr ess, 1965).
2. B .
Man d elbr o t,
The Fr actal
Geo metr y o f
N atu r e
(San
Fr an cisco :
Fr eeman , 1982);
H.
Peitgen
an d P.
Richter ,
The
B eau ty o f
Fr actals
(N ew
Yo r k:
Spr in ger -Ver lag,
1986).
3. D.
Po stle,
The Fabr ic
o f
the Un iver se
(N ew
Yo r k: Cr o wn Pu blisher s In c.,
1976).
4. The
pr esen t paper
is the seco n d in the
au tho r 's "Mathematics an d
B eau ty "
ser ies which
pr esen ts aesthetically ap-
pealin g
an d
mathematically in ter estin g
patter n s
d er ived f r o m
simple
f u n ctio n s.
The
r esu ltin g pictu r es
sho u ld be o f
in ter est to a
r an ge
o f scien tists as well as
to
ho me-co mpu ter
ar tists. A r ticles in the
ser ies in clu d e: C. Picko ver , "Mathematics
an d
B eau ty :
Time-Discr ete Phase Plan es
A sso ciated with the
Cy clic Sy stem, {x(t)
-f ly (t)), (t) =(x(t))}", Co mpu ter s
an d
Gr aphics 11, N o .
2, 217-226
(1987);
"B lo o min g In teger s (Mathematics
an d
B eau ty III)", Co mpu ter Gr aphics
Wo r ld
10,
N o .
3,
54-57
(1987); "Co mpu ter
Gr aphics
an d Wild
Mo n o po d ial
Ten d r il
Plan t Gr o wth
(Mathematics
an d
B eau ty
IV)", Co mpu ter Gr aphics
Wo r ld
10,
N o .
7,
143-145
(1987);
"Mathematics an d
B eau ty
V: Tu r bu len t
Co mplex Cu r ls",
Co mpu ter s
an d
Gr aphics 11,
N o .
4,
499-508;
The
Jo u r n al o f
Chao s an d
Gr aphics,
Vo l.
1,
IB MResear ch
Repo r t
RA 186
(1987); Co mpu ter s, Patter n ,
Chao s, an d B eau ty ,
IB MResear ch
Repo r t
RC 12281
(1986).
Or d er IB Mr esear ch
r epo r ts
f r o m: IB MDistr ibu tio n
Ser vices,
Sto r my to wn ,
IB MWatso n
Lab,
Yo r k-
to wn Hts,
N Y
10598,
U.S.A . Fo r o ther
d escr iptio n s
o n this
ser ies,
see: I.
Peter so n ,
"Pictu r e This" (an d co ver
pictu r e),
Scien ce N ews
131,
N o .
25,
392-
395
(1987);
I.
Peter so n , "Po r tr aits o f
Equ atio n s" (an d co ver
pictu r e),
Scien ce
N ews
132,
N o .
12,
184-186
(1987);
R.
Rivlin , "Co mpu ter Gr aphics:
The
A r ts",
Omn i
Magazin e
8
(1986) p.
30.
5. M.
Gar d n er ,
In the
Un expected Han gin g
(N ew
Yo r k: Simo n an d
Schu ster , 1969).
6. Gar d n er
[5].
7. Y.
Kawagu chi,
"A
Mo r pho lo gical Stu d y
o f the Fo r m o f
N atu r e", Co mpu ter
Gr aphics (A CM-SIGGRA PH) (1982).
8. E.
Haeckel,
A r t Fo r ms in N atu r e
(N ew
Yo r k:
Do ver , 1974);
J.
Har ter , A n imals
(N ew
Yo r k:
Do ver , 1979).
9. S.
B r au n , "B o tan y
with a
Twist",
Scien ce
86 7,
63-64
(1986).
10. R.
Dixo n ,
"The Mathematics an d
Co mpu ter Gr aphics
o f
Spir als
in
Plan ts",
Leo n ar d o
16,
N o .
2,
86-90
(1983).
11.
Kawagu chi [7].
12. Gar d n er
[5].
13. T.
Schwen k,
Sen sitive Chao s
(N ew
Yo r k:
Scho cken
B o o ks, 1976).
14. Schwen k
[13].
15. B .
Vain shtein , "Sy mmetr y
o f
B io lo gical
Macr o mo lecu les an d Their A sso cia-
tio n s", Co mp.
an d Maths. with
A ppls.
12B , 237-269
(1986).
Picko ver , Spir als
180
16. C.
Picko ver ,
"DN A
Vecto r gr ams:
Re-
pr esen tatio n
o f Can cer Gen e
Sequ en ces
as Mo vemen ts
alo n g
a 2-D Cellu lar
Lattice",
IB MJ. Res. Dev.
31,
111-119
(1987).
17. J.
B o ivin ,
The Hear t
Sin gle
Field
Theo r y
(1978) (available
f o r $2.50 f r o m J.
B o ivin ,
4531
B o r d eau x, Mo n tr eal,
Can ad a H2H
1Z9); r epr in ted
in
Specu la-
tio n s in Scien ce an d
Techn o lo gy 3,
185-
204
(1980).
18. Fo r
examples
o f
f in ger pr in t
who r ls an d
axo n eme,
see G.
Do czi,
"Seen an d Un seen
Sy mmetr ies", Co mp.
an d Maths. with
A ppls. 12B ,
39-62
(1986).
19. C.
Gr af to n ,
B izar r e an d Or n amen tal
A lphabets (N ew
Yo r k:
Do ver , 1981).
20. J.
Zviln a,
"Co lo r ed
Sy mmetr ies
in
Space-Time", Co mp.
an d Maths. with
A ppls. 12B ,
895-911
(1986).
21. M.
Haas,
The Thai
Sy stemo f Wr itin g
(N ew
Yo r k:
Gr aphic
A r ts
Pr ess, 1956).
22. M.
Samu els, Seein g
with the Min d 's Ey e:
The
Histo r y , Techn iqu es, an d Uses
o f
Visu alizatio n
(N ew
Yo r k: Ran d o m
Ho u se,
1982).
23. Samu els
[22].
24. Do czi
[18].
25. Schwen k
[13].
26. E.
Ro zsa, "Sy mmetr y
in Mu slim
A r ts",
Co mp.
an d Maths. with
A ppls. 12B ,
725-
750
(1986).
27. K.
Mamed o v, "Cr y stallo gr aphic
Pat-
ter n s", Co mp.
an d Maths. with
A ppls.
12B ,
511-529
(1986).
28. Schwen k [13].
29. Samu els [22].
30. E.
Mako vicky , "Sy mmetr o lo gy
o f A r t:
Co lo r ed an d Gen er alized
Sy mmetr ies",
Co mp.
an d Maths. with
A ppls. 12B ,
949-
980
(1986).
31. R.
Hu ber , Tr easu r y o f
Fan tastic an d
My tho lo gical
Cr eatu r es
(N ew
Yo r k:
Do ver , 1981).
32. W.
Ru bin ,
Dad a an d Su r r ealist A r t
(N ew
Yo r k:
A br ams, 1975).
33. L. Schu lman an d P.
Seid en ,
"Per co latio n
an d Galaxies",
Scien ce
233,
425-431
(1986).
34. C.
Picko ver ,
"The Use o f Ran d o m-Do t
Display s
in the
Stu d y
o f B io mo lecu lar
Co n f o r matio n ",
Jo u r n al
o f
Mo lecu lar
Gr aphics 2,
34
(1984).
35. R.
Fin n ey
an d D.
Ostber g, Elemen tar y
Dif f er en tial Equ atio n s
with Lin ear
A lgebr a
(Read in g,
MA :
A d d iso n -Wesley , 1976).
36. J.
Sto ker ,
"Mathematical Metho d s in
N o n lin ear Vibr atio n
Theo r y ",
in Pr o -
ceed in gs o f
the
Sy mpo siu m
o n N o n lin ear
Cir cu it
A n aly sis (N ew
Yo r k: In ter scien ce
Pu blisher s, 1953) pp.
28-55.
37. Sto ker [36].
38.
Fin n ey
an d
Ostber g [35].
39. Fo r a d etailed
d escr iptio n
o f the
mathematics o f its
cr eatio n ,
see
Picko ver ,
"Mathematics an d
B eau ty :
Time-Discr ete
Phase Plan es"
[4].
40. C. Picko ver an d E.
Kho r asan i,
"Co m-
pu ter Gr aphics
Gen er ated f r o m the
Iter atio n o f
A lgebr aic
Tr an sf o r matio n s
in the
Co mplex Plan e", Co mpu ter s
an d
Gr aphics 9,
147-151
(1985).
41. C.
Picko ver ,
"Patter n Fo r matio n an d
Chao s in
N etwo r ks",
Co mmu n .
o f
the
A CM
(1988) 31,
N o .
2,
136-151.
42. Fo r mo r e
specif ic
in f o r matio n o n ho w to
cr eate
f igu r es
su ch as
these,
see Picko ver
an d Kho r asan i
[40].
43. Picko ver
[41].
44. J.
Jaco bso n , "A n aly tic Co mpu ter A r t",
Pr o c. 2n d
Sy mp.
o n Small
Co mpu ter s
in
the A r ts
(1982) pp.
47-60.
45. C.
Picko ver ,
"The Use o f
Co mpu ter -
Dr awn Faces as an Ed u catio n al A id in
the Pr esen tatio n o f Statistical
Co n cepts",
Co mpu ter s
an d
Gr aphics 8, 163-166
(1984);
"The Use o f
Sy mmetr ized -Do t
Patter n s
Char acter izin g Speech
Wave-
f o r ms",
J. A co u st. So c. A m.
80,
N o .
3,
955-960
(1986);
"On the Ed u catio n al
Uses o f
Co mpu ter -Gen er ated
Car to o n
Faces",
J. Ed u catio n al Tech.
Sy s. 13,
185-198
(1985); "Fr equ en cy Repr esen tatio n s
o f DN A
Sequ en ces: A pplicatio n
to a
B lad d er Can cer
Gen e",
J. Mo lec.
Gr aphics 2,
50
(1984); "Repr esen tatio n
o f
Melo d y
Patter n s
Usin g To po gr aphic
Spectr al
Distr ibu tio n
Maps", Co mpu ter
Mu sic Jo u r n al
10,
N o .
3,
72-78
(1986);
"Co mpu ter -d r awn
Faces
Char acter izin g
N u cleic A cid
Sequ en ces",
J. Mo lec.
Gr aphics 2,
107-110
(1985);
"A Mo n te
Car lo
A ppr o ach
f o r e Placemen t in
Wavef o r mFr actal-Dimen sio n Calcu la-
tio n ", Co mpu ter Gr aphics
Fo r u m5,
N o .
3,
203-209
(1986); "Gr aphics,
B if u r ca-
tio n ,
Or d er an d
Chao s", Co mpu ter
Gr aphics
Fo r u m
6,
26-33
(1987);
"The
Use o f Ran d o m-Do t
Display s
in the
Stu d y
o f B io mo lecu lar
Co n f o r matio n ",
Jo u r n al
o f
Mo lecu lar
Gr aphics 2,
34
(1984); "Spectr o gr aphic Repr esen tatio n s
o f Glo bu lar Pr o tein
B r eathin g
Mo tio n s",
Scien ce
223,
181
(1984);
an d L. Co hen
an d C.
Picko ver ,
"A
Co mpar iso n
o f
Jo in t Time
Fr equ en cy
Distr ibu tio n f o r
Speech Sign als",
IEEE In ter n atio n al
Co n f er en ce
o n Cir cu its &
Sy stems 1,
42-45
(1986).
46. Man d elbr o t
[2].
47.
Kawagu chi [7].
48. M. A o n o an d L.
Ku n ii,
"B o tan ical Tr ee
Image Gen er atio n ",
IEEE
Co mpu ter
Gr aphics
an d
A pplicatio n s 4, 10-34
(1984).
49. C.
Yessio s, "Co mpu ter Dr af tin g
o f
Sto n es, Wo o d ,
Plan t an d Gr o u n d
Mater ials", Co mpu ter Gr aphics (A CM-
SIGGRA PH) (1979).
50. G. Ko lata "Eso ter ic Math Has Pr actical
Resu lt",
Scien ce
225,
494-495
(1984).
51. Yessio s
[49].
52. C.
Picko ver , "B io mo r phs: Co mpu ter
Display s
o f
B io lo gical
Fo r ms Gen er ated
f r o mMathematical Feed back
Lo o ps",
Co mpu ter Gr aphics
Fo r u m
5,
N o .
4,
313-
316(1987).
53. J.
Kappr af f ,
"A Co u r se in the Math-
ematics o f
Design ", Co mp.
an d Maths.
with
A ppls. 12B ,
913-948
(1986).
GLOSSA RY
A ltaic-belo n gin g
to the A ltai mo u n tain s o f
cen tr al A sia.
attr acto r -the behavio r that a
sy stem
settles
d o wn to .
cellu lar au to mata-a class o f
simple
mathe-
matical
sy stems
that ar e
beco min g impo r tan t
as mo d els f o r a
var iety
o f
phy sical pr o cesses.
Tho u gh
the r u les
go ver n in g
the cr eatio n o f
cellu lar au to mata ar e
simple,
the
patter n s they
pr o d u ce
ar e
co mplicated
an d so metimes seem
almo st
r an d o m,
like a tu r bu len t f lu id f lo w o r
the
o u tpu t
o f a
cr y pto gr aphic sy stem.
chao s-ir r egu lar
behavio r
d isplay in g
sen sitive
d epen d en ce
o n in itial co n d itio n s.
In ter estin gly ,
chao tic behavio r can so metimes be d ef in ed
by
a
simple
f o r mu la.
co mplex
n u mber -a n u mber
co n tain in g
a r eal
an d an
imagin ar y par t,
an d o f the f o r ma + bi
wher e i
=
-1.
d amp-to
cau se a d ecr ease in
amplitu d e
o f
su ccessive o scillatio n s.
d y n amical sy stems-mo d els co n tain in g
the
r u les
d escr ibin g
the
way
a
given qu an tity
u n d er go es
a
chan ge
o ver time. Fo r
example,
the mo tio n o f
plan ets
abo u t the su n can be
mo d elled as a
d y n amical sy stem
in which the
plan ets
mo ve
acco r d in g
to N ewto n 's laws.
Fibo n acci
sequ en ce-the sequ en ce 1,1,2,3,5,
8,13
... (Un
=
Un -2 +
Un -_),
which
go ver n s man y
patter n s
in the
plan t
wo r ld .
f r actals-in tr icate cu r ves that exhibit in -
cr easin g
d etail
('bu mpin ess')
with
in cr easin g
magn if icatio n .
Gau ssian white n o ise-a r an d o m n u mber
sequ en ce shaped
so that the d istr ibu tio n o f
valu es f o llo ws a
bell-shaped
cu r ve.
helix-a
space
cu r ve
ly in g
o n a
cy lin d er (o r
spher e,
o r
co n e)
which main tain s a co n stan t
d istan ce f r o m a cen tr al lin e
(i.e.
a
'spir al
exten d ed in
space').
iter atio n -r epetitio n
o f an
o per atio n
o r set o f
o per atio n s.
In
mathematics, co mpo sin g
a
f u n ctio n with
itself ,
su ch as in
f lf x)),
can
r epr esen t
an iter atio n .
lin ear tr an sf o r matio n -a f u n ctio n
satisf y in g
these two co n d itio n s:
1) F(p+ ~)
=
F(p)
+ F()
an d
2) F(r p)
=
r F(p),
r e R.
tr an sf o r matio n -the
o per atio n
o f
chan gin g (as
by
r o tatio n o r
mappin g)
o n e
co n f igu r atio n
o r
expr essio n
in to an o ther in acco r d an ce with a
mathematical r u le.
Picko ver , Spir als
181