CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR

Contrastive Analysis

The Places of CA
-Part of comparative linguistics
-comparative diachronic (or historical) linguistics - change of one or more related languages
in time, in order to reconstruct a protolanguage
-comparative typological linguistics compares languages as they are used today, in order to
classify them (group them according to certain features)
-comparative analysis systematic study of two or more languages, specifying all the
differences and similarities between those languages in all language components

Theoretical CA
-language independent
-investigate the ways in which a given universal category is realized in two or more languages
-based on theoretical, universal assumptions and is directed with the equal intensity towards
the languages undergoing extermination
-the notion of tertium comparationes i.e the universal category whose reflection in
particular language systems is examined and described

Applied Contrastive Studies
-draw from the theoretical CS in order to compare languages for a given purpose
-the comparison is always directed from language A to language B, L1 to L2, or the source
language to target language
-how a universal category X, realized in language A as y, is rendered in language B and what
may be the possible consequences of this for a given field of application (Fisiak 1978:10)

Error Analysis
-The underlying conviction, anchored in the behavioral approach, was that learners transfer
the habits of L1 to L2 (Johnson and Johnson 1998:10)
-1957 Robert Lado Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) which stated that the
similarities between two systems in question encouraged positive transfer, which yields
correct L2 utterances, while the differences provoked the transfer of inappropriate properties
of the system - negative transfer and thus the learner produced errors

Theoretical background
-whatever is not similar, is by definition different
-elements are similar if they are equivalent, when they are equal in value or meaning
-elements are congruent when they have the same number of equivalent formatives arranged
in the same order (i.e. they are identical).

Equivalent or Congruent (Exercise)
Do you like apples? Czy lubisz jabka? (E)
John kissed Mary. Jan pocaowa Mari. (E, C)
Tom is always late. Tomasz stale si spnia. (E)
I enjoyed the film. Film mi si podoba. (E)
Put your shoes on my shelf. Po swoje buty na mojej pce. (E, C)

(EX 1. HW)

The Simple Sentence
Types of differences
-structural differences (rnice strukturalne)
-categorial differences/contrasts (rnice kategorialne)
-functional differences (rnice funkcyjne)

Structural differences
-S -> NP VP
-English -> Subject is obligatory
-Polish -> Subject may be deleted by the pronominal subject deletion transformation
(pronominal subject = subject in the form of a pronoun)
-ex. On wyjecha z Poznania = Wyjecha z Poznania
-In Polish -> subjectless sentences

Types of subjectless sentences
a) padao wczoraj//byo ciemno//Jest nam zimno.
b) Mwi si o tym niewiele.//Podaje si tu kaw.
c) Zaadowano siano na wz//Pobito Janka (impersonal verb form = forma bezosobowa)
d) W poznaniu otwarli nowe kino
e) (Jest) Wida std miasto//Trzeba nam ucieka.

Additional constructions
-Sentences denoting absence of something or gradual disappearence or increase
-Nie ma skrzydlatych koni//Nie ma ich w domu//Brakowao im poywienia//
-Initial PPs
-Z nim jest coraz gorzej//Z tych studentw bda dobrzy nauczyciele


Structure rules
Polish:
-S -> NP+ VP
-S -> (NP) VP
-S -> VP
English:
-S -> NP VP
Categorial Contrast

Adverb <> Adjective

-(a) verbs of sensory perception (SVC)
feel bad/czuje si le
This fish tastes great//Ta ryba smakuje wspaniale

-(b) sentences with a transitive verb and an adverbial prepositional construction (SVOC)
They painted the wall black//Pomalowali cian na czarno (AdvPP)
He licked the plate clean//Wyliza talerz do czysta (AdvPP)

NP <-> PP

-PPs in English -> genitive NPs in Polish
the top of the mountain//wierzchoek gry
destruction of the city//zniszczenie miasta

-genitive and instrumental objects after reflexive verbs in Polish -> prepositional objects in
English
Chwali si swoj odwag (instrumental case)//he boasted of his courage (PP)
Pozby si swojej marynarki//He disposed of his jacket

-instrumental adverbials in Polish -> PPs in English
Poczstuj go cygarem//treat him to a cigar
Wiosn topniej niegi//Snow melts in spring
Jed do szkoy autobusem//I commute to school by bus

-NP in English -> PP in Polish
Czsto gram na harfie//I often play harp
Odpowiedz na moje pytanie//Answet my question


Functional Contrasts

Attribute = modifier (przydawka)

Polish Subject <-> English Direct Object

Klucze zginy Jankowi//*The Keys lost to John*//Jan Lost the keys
Pomoc jest mi potrzebna//*Help is needed to me*//I need help

Polish Indirect Object <-> English Subject

Brakuje nam pienidzy//We lack money (*My brakujemy pienidzy)
Jest mi wygodnie//I am comfortable (*Jestem wygodny, inne znaczenie)
Jest jej zimno//She feels cold (*Ona czuje zimno inne znaczenie)
Chce im si spa//They are sleepy//Oni s picy (Depends on translation)

Polish Indirect Object <-> English Direct Object

-remember: dative case in Polish means Oi, single object in English means Od

-She congratulated/believes/trusts him// Ona pograutlowaa/wierzy/ufa mu.

-He led the nation (Od) during the war// Przewodzi narodowi (Dative) w czasie wojny

-cases where the VP contains an NP and an embedded clause

Pozwoliem mu (Oi) odej//I allowed him (Od) to go
Kazaem mu (Oi) wyj//I ordered him (Od) to leave
Umoliwiem mu (Oi) odwiedzenie Marii//I enabled him (Od) to visit Mary

Polish Indirect Object <-> English Possessive Attribute

Koledze zmar brat//Woyem ojcu piro do kieszeni

-The nouns in the dative case have a semantic function which can be called possessive and the
english translations are nominal modifiers in the possessive case

-My friends brother died//I put a pen into my fathers pocket

-Naturally there exists congruent Polish counterparts:
Mojego przyjaciela brat zmar//Woyam piro do kieszeni ojca

Polish Direct Object <-> English Indirect Object

-Uczyem dzieci angielskiego//I taught the children English
-Dzieci is in ACC -> so it is a Od
-children ->the typical position of the Oi (I taught English to the children)

Cases:
Nominative Nom Mianownik kto, co
Genitive Gen Dopeniacz kogo czego
Dative Dat Celownik komu, czemu
Accusative Acc Biernik kogo, co
Instrumental Instr Narzdnik z kim, z czym
Locative Loc Miejscownik o kim, o czym
Vocative Voc Woacz o


Synthetic language Function of a word is signalled through its form (Polish)
Analytic language Depends on the position and the use of function words. (auxiliaries etc.)
(English)

Ex. 2 (Describe in detail).

Test: 08.04.2013

The Noun Phrase
The structure:
-N -> Det (Premodifiers) N (Postmodifiers)

-English NP: modifiers appear in a prescribed order, their position is determined in relation to
the head noun and to other modifiers

-Polish NP: modifiers have more freedom of position but there are some rules to be followed!

Determiners:

-Typical determiners: articles (mark the noun as definite or indefinite), demonstratives,
possessives (Genitive NPs), indefinite pronouns, quantifiers

-PL -> no equivalent of the English articles,

-in Polish the occurrence of the articles in English is occasionally signalled by the use of
indefinite or demonstrative pronouns

Buy me a book//Kup mi jak ksik
Buy me the book//Kup mi t ksik

-In Polish the definitness or indefinitness may signalled by the articles may be conveyed by
appropriate word order. Sentence final NPs tend to be indefinite, sentence initial NPs tend to
be definite.

Wczoraj widziaam chopca//Yesterday I saw a boy
Chopiec nis w siatce pomaracze//The boy was carrying oranges in the bag

(the principle of end-focus: new information comes at the end, given information initially)

-English determiners are mutually exclusive
-*the this book/ *this your book/ *a each book

-In Polish demonstratives and possessives (genitives) may co-occur

ten znajomy mojego ojca//*this my fathers friend
ta twoja ciotka//*this yours ant

-In Polish demonstratives may both precede and follow nouns:

ta ksika ksika ta (*book this)
-genitives in Polish typically follow the noun






Premodification:
-the order of premodifiers in English:
Determiner->qualifier//numeral->adjectives->noun
e.g the three new films trzy nowe filmy

-In Polish the genitive normally follows the noun but can precede it as well

tamci koledzy Jaka
tamten Jaka kolega

-the numerals normally precede the noun but not neccessarily

Dwaj koledzy Jaka.
Jaka dwaj koledzy.
Dwaj Jaka koledzy.

Adjective modifiers:
-English -> adjectives typically premodify nouns in a fixed order

opinion size age shape colour participle origin material used for
(OSASCPOMU)

-Polish ->a simple adjective precedes the noun if it is a non inherent (accidental) quality, if it
is an inherent (necessary) quality it follows:

brunatny niedwied//niedwied brunatny

-the N + Adj word order is also characteristic for many of the denominal adjectives in Polish

energia soneczka//solar energy
robotnik przemysowy//industriak worker

-in many cases a denominal adjective in one lg corresponds to a nominal attribute in the other

Adjective Noun
medical student student medycyny
spinal operation operacja krgosupa
przemys lotniczy aviation industry
ogrd kwiatowy a flower garden
godzinny wypoczynek an hours rest

-some English adjectives can be used either in front of the man or after it

avoidable accomodation//accomodation available (no difference in meaning)
a responsible person//the person responsible (a difference in meaning)

-Adjectives in both languages are used attributively and predicatively.
-Some adjectives cannot be used attributively: ill, unwell, alive, afraid.

-in English -> adjective modifiers are not typically complemented

*a proud of himself man

such complex adjective phrases go after the noun:
a man proud of his son

occassionally discontinuous modification is possible:
comparable facilities to ours

-in Polish -> the adjective may be freely complemented or postmodified

dumny z syna mczyzna, przykuty do ka pacjent (or after the noun)

Participal Premodifiers:
-They result from a reduction of a relative clause:

a candle which is burning -> a burning candle

-in English the participle must come last

the man who is working hard the hard-working man
*the working hard man
Pracujcy ciko mczyzna ciko pracujcy mczyzna

-in English the structure is not possible when a PP follows the verb in the relative clause

The woman who was looking at me - *the at-me looking woman
Patrzca na mnie kobieta, na mnie patrzca kobieta

-in English the structure is possible with prepositional passives, in Polish it is not, because
Polish does not form this kind of passive:

The solution was not thought about the unthought about solution
The unheard of problem
*Niepomylane o rozwizanie

Postmodifiers:
-English -> nouns are followed by PPs and clauses
-the PP which is more closely integrated with the lexical meaning of the noun is placed right
after it and the PP whose interpelation is more periphral to the noun, as in the case with
expressions of place, manner or means is placed farther away from the noun

the picture of John in a gold frame//zdjcie Janka w zotej ramce

-Polish genitives are typically postmodifiers, in English this is not possible, sovery often the
genitive is replaced by a PP

produkcja rur ze stali//the production of pipes of steel

-Remember that inherent Adj are postmodifiers in Polish

-If there is a genitive N, it should be the closest to the head, followed by PPs or clauses:

Produkcja betonu na eksport
Postawa premiera wobec wojny w Iraku
Pytanie przewodniczcego czy mona ju wyj
Proba komisji eby nie przeszkadza

Irregularities between languages

HW 77,78,79,80,81

Number and Gender
Number:
-in English s z or iz -> predictable on phonological grounds
-PL less regular
e.g the nominative pl of masculine nouns -> possible endings y i e owie -> the choice is
often on idiosyncratic poperty of a particular lexical item

m mowie
w we
ki kicie
ko koci

-in PL there are no pl which are distinguished from their sg. counterparts by alteration of stem
vowel like foot/feet. But sometimes two differend words are used e.g czowiek/ludzie, rok/lata

-in Eng pl and sg number can be identical e.g sleep, means no such homophony in PL

Variables and Invariables:
-there are three different groups of nouns: variable nouns, singularia tantum and pluralia
tantum
-often the lexical equivalents in the two languages are assigned to different groups

Eng sg Pl sg/pl
furniture mebel/meble
information informacja/informacje
gossip plotka/plotki
monety pienidz/pienidze

Eng pl Pl sg
clothes odzie

Eng sg/pl Pl pl
violin/violins skrzypce
mouth/mouths usta
door/doors drzwi

-in both languages reclassifcation is possible (different ways of usage)
-glass substance, glasses glass cups, glasses pluralia tantum spectacles
-srebro substance; srebra pluralia tantum silver cutlery
-coffee, tea substance, two coffees two cups, different teas different kinds
-kawa zboowa, dwie kawy,
-ash - U, ashes the remains
-colour U, colours kinds of colour or colours barwy klubowe
-completely different meaning
damage szkoda, damages odszkodowanie
znajomo knowledge, znajomoci infidential connections

Subject Verb Concord:
-The number of the subject noun influences the number of the verb
-in PL in some cases the subject noun in the plural occurs with the sg form of the verb. This
happens when the subject noun is in genitive (when this noun is modified by quantifying
expressions like wielu, kilkoro, collective numerals like dwoje, czworo and ordinary numerals
starting with pi)

e.g Wielu chopcw czyta gazety// Many boys read newspapers

-Some collective Eng. nouns may occur as sg. subjects with pl verbs, in PL they cannot
e.g His family are leaving//Rodzina wychodz

Gender:
-PL grammatical gender morphologically signalled
-gender forms are also characteristic of adjectives, verbs, demonstrative pronouns and
numerals which stand in on agreement relation with nouns in a sentence
-Eng. natural gender only present withing nouns and the distinction is only visible in the
variation of forms in the 3
rd
person
-PL natural gender in nouns denothing human beings but there are exceptions

a) wods denoting young human beings and animals which are neutral: dziecko, niemowl,
szczeni, prosi
b)diminutive and augmentative forms are neutral: chopi, babsko, psisko
Marking of Gender:
-in both languages gender is either morphologically marked or morphologically unmarked
-learners of Polish may make mistakes with forms that seem to refer to a feminine but in fact
they do not:
e.g. kawaler/kawalerka, mieciarz/mieciarka
-With dual gender a masculine form is used in Polish e.g. Ucze szkoy redniej powinien
czytac gazety
-In Eng the masculine pronoun refers only to a male
-with animal on nouns the generic use may call for either a feminine or masculine form
e.g male: wilk, kot, lew, go// fem: winia, kaczka, g
Division of masculine nouns:
-PL -> masculine nouns can be divided into 3 groups
humans (virile) (mskoosobowe)
animals
denoting objects
-The virile/non virile distinction is neccessary for the selection of adjectival and verbal forms.
In past tense pl. virile nouns select the li ending, noun virile y.
sg pl
masc virile acc=gen acc=/=gen
masc animal acc=gen acc=/=gen
fem/neutral inanim acc=/=gen acc=/=gen



Case
-PL-> the syntactic function of NP such as subject or object are marked morpholohically by
nouns of inflectional case endings -> because of its widespread inflection Polish is classified
as syntactic language
The role of the cases:
-on immediate consequence of employing morphological devices to signal noun functions in
PL. is the so-called free word order
e.g Jurek kupi ksike//John bought a book
Ksik kupi Janek//A book bought John
-Case endings serve also to distinguish between certain types of adverbs -> they functon in a
way similiar to some eng. prepositions

Noun inflections:
-PL-> 15 different endings -> their distribution is determined not only by the case and number
(only dative pl. has a single ending on) but by a variety of different factors, the most
important of which are the gender and the type of consonant with which the word ends
-ENG ->only one ending s
-Eng pronouns distinguish three cases: nominative, genitive (possessive) and accusative
(objective)

the boy (common case)
the boys (genitive case)

Forms of the English Genitive:
-The inflected genitive in English is performed with animate nouns, personal names, nouns,
animals, collection nouns, countries, temporal nouns
-The periphrastic genitive (-of phrase) is preferred with inanimate nouns, spacial locative
relation (bottom, top, middle etc.), partitive nouns a cup of coffee, a piece of advice

Two Genitives:
-In English it is possible to have two genitives, one inflected and one periphrastic: the
committe acceptance of the plan
-In Polish two genitives are avoided for clarity and avoiding ambiguity:
*Komisji akceptacja planu
??? akceptacja planu komisji
rather akceptacja planu przez komisj
-Polish allows two genitives when one is the possession or the author and the other is not
Kolekcja znaczkw mojego ma, plan przebudowy Kowalika


Special uses of genitive in Eng:
-Elliptical no head noun follows the genitive:
e.g. memory like an elephants, the room is bigger than my brothers
-Local I was married at St Marys, lets go to my aunts, at the bakers
-Phrasal (group) Genitive genitive is added to the last element somebody elses coat
-Obligue (Double) Genitive
a friend of mine, a book of Johns

Possessive Genitive:
-The possessive case corresponds to the polish genitive case and it is a marker of nouns
functioning as modifiers of other nouns
-in PL genitive is used in a variety of other situations where in Eng. the non-possessive form
is employed

The meanings of genitive used passively:
-possession/belonging
my sons wife/the engine of my car
-subjective relation (subject)
the boys application for work, the rise of the sun
-objective relation (object)
the criminals arrest, the destruction of the city
-source or origin
the girls story, the wives of France
-physical features
a summers day, a man of many talents
-measurements
a ten days absence, the height of the tower
Other functions of Polish genitive:
-subject nouns who preceded by a numeral or quantifier
Wielu studentw uwierzyo profesorowi
-object nouns when the main verb is negated
Jacek nie ma czasu
-object nouns when the main verb belongs to a class of verbs including among others some
verbs of negative meaning (zabrania, zakazywa, odwoywa) verbs denoting need, desire,
request (potrzebowa, zakazywa, odmawia) verbs denoting emotions (zazdroci,
nienawidzie) some reflexive verbs (ba si, spodziewa si) verbs with prefixes do-, na-
(dotyka nasypa)
-nouns in prepositional phrases preceded by such prepositions
od (from), bez (without), wrd (among), dla (for)


Objective:
-It is a ___ of the function of direct and indirect object and corresponds to Polish accusative
and dative respectively
-exceptions
-in some context the genitive is used to work direct objects in PL
-in constructions of the type it+be+pronoun
Eng the objective form of the pronominal element
It is m who goes to Spain//Who is it? It is not me.
PL predicative nouns are in the instrumental case:
on jest studentem
In to (jest) constructions they take nominative endings
To (jest) on.

PPs:
-Eng -> objective case marks head nouns of PPs
-PL -> all cases except nominative and vocative may occur in this context
-the selection depends on three factors
-(a) the preposition
e.g. Genitive -> wrd, od, dla, do, oprcz, bez
Accusative -> przez
Dative - >ku, wbrew
Instrumental -> z
Locative-> przy
(b) the verb
the same preposition can precede a noun in the ACC when the main verb is oskara and in
locative when it is opowiada
e.g. On oskary was o spisek//On opowiedzia nam o spisku
(c) the semantic function of the PP
->przed, za, nad, pod + instrumental if denoting location
+accusative when denoting direction of movement
e.g. Zeszyt lea pod ksik// Woy zeszyt pod ksik

Verb
Verbal Categories:
-Eng person, number, tense (just two tenses, past and present), aspect (perfect/imperfect;
progressive/non-progressive), mood (indicative, subjunctive, conditional)
-PL person, number, gender, tense (3 tenses also future), aspect (perfective/imperfective),
mood (indicative, conditional)
-Person, number, and in PL gender -> depend on the subject noun (S-V concord)
-Tense the coice of a given tense depends on the temporal relationship between the activity
or state expressed by a given verb and the time of utterance
-Aspect two types in English but only one in Polish, so there is no one-to-one
correspondence
-Mood expresses the speakers attitude towards what he is saying

English Verb Inflection:
-a typical English verb appears in one of the five forms
1.the base form work drive
2.the s form works drivers
3.the past form worked drove
4.the present
participle
working driving
5.the past participle worked driven

1. the base form
-present simple
-bare infinitive
-to infinitive
-imperative sentences
-as present subjunctive
2.the s form
-3
rd
person singular present simple
3. the past form
-past simple
4.the present participle
-continuous
-the participle
-adjective
-noun
5.the past participle
-perfect tenses
-passive voice
-adjective
-participle

Eng VP may be simple (consisting of one word) or complex (consisting of more than one
word) within complex VPs the following rules have to be observed

1.auxiliaries: always precede the main verb
2.modal auxiliaries precede other auxiliaries
3.have precedes be
4.one modal in one VP
5.only the first element of the verbal group is inflected according to person, number or zd??

Polish Verb Inflection:
-each Polish verb has got two bases
-the present tense base ->it appears for example in the present participle ->the part of the word
which is left after the ending cy is cut off
pij(cy) pi pij
-the past tense base -> obtained if the ending of the infinitive is cut off
my myjcy my
sychac sysz(cy)
-PL verbs appear in four different forms in finite constructions

1.the present tense form myj, myjesz
2.the infinitive upiec, czyta
3.the past participle czyta
4.the passive participle myty, czytany

Person, gender and number in English:
-very few inflectional endings ->the only inflectional ending is the suffix s in the 3
rd
person singular
-gender not marked at all
-exception 3
rd
person plural and singular
-the only device for distinguishing between different verb forms are the personal pronouns (however
you is still ambigous)
In Polish:
-PL verbs have a different set of endings for the present tense inflection and of the past tense
inflection
-in the present tense verbs are inflected only for person and number, gender is not marked ->this
makes the presence of personal pronoun redundant
-the choice between suffixes depends on the conjugation type of a given verb =>there are 4
conjugation types in Polish, the characteristic features for each conjugation are the first and the
second person ending in singular

Polish conjugation types
1st 2nd Example
1. - -esz pij/pijesz
2. - -isz/ysz widz/widzisz
3. -am -asz czytam/czytasz
4. -em -esz umiem/umiesz

Tense:
-English
-there is a lot of confusion concerning what should be called a tense in English
-if tense indicates the time relative to the time of utterance
-there should be 3 tenses present/past/future
-there is a problem with the future tense in English, will and shall are not only future but also modal
auxiliaries they do not only signal futurity but also modal meanings such as volition, prediction,
promise

-Polish
-in PL future is also a periphrastic construction consisting of the auxiliary by in the future tense and
the past participle or infinitive but the auxliary(?)

Aspect:
-Polish -> aspectual distinctions are realised on the lexical level by means (suffixes and prefixes)
robi/zrobi

-English -> aspectual appositions are realized by means of constant grammatical markers for each
type of aspect
I am writing/I have written/ I write

The English Perfect:
-the formal marker is the auxiliary verb have occurring with the past participle form of the verb ->the
auxiliary is marked for tense and it may occur with the future indicator will/shall or with modal
auxiliary
-there are two general meanings of the perfect: resultative and continuative
-resultative it expresses effects or results of the action denoted by the verb
I have read that book (Implies I know the book now)
-continuative if it refers to an action which began before some point of reference and is still going
on at the point of reference
I have lived in London since 1980 (means I still live in London)
-which meaning is expressed by a perfective construction depends on 2 factors
(a) the lexical type of verb
(b) co-occurrence with some adverbials
Polish equivalents of the Present Perfect Tense
(a) a verb in present tense, imperfective aspect
as a counterpart of the English continuative perfect
I have lived here since 1990// Mieszkam tu od 1990

(b) a verb in the past tense imperfective aspect
-if the verb is collocated with adverbials expressing the repetition of a given activity
I have read that book many times // Czytaem t ksik wiele razy
if the verb is not followed by an adverbial and refers to the past experience
I have played many instruments // Graem na wielu instrumentach

(c) a verb in the past tense, perfective aspect to render English resultative meaning
I have read that book//Przeczytaem t ksik

Equivalents of Past Perfect
(a) a verb in the past tense, perfective aspect -> verb implies a goal
It occurred to me that John had hidden that box// Przyszo mi do gowy, e Jan ukry to pudeko

(b) a verb in past tense, imperfective aspect (verb does not imply reaching any goal)
Jane had lived in London before she moved to Paris// Janka mieszkaa w Londynie zanim zamieszkala
w Paryu

when the verb has a durative meaning or is collocated with an adverb of duration

For many years he had seen her every day// Przez wiele lat widywa j kadego dnia

Equivalents of the Future Perfect forms
rendered in PL as a perfective verb in the future tense

John will have forgotten this poem before the end of the term// Janek zapomnia ten wiersz przed
kocem semestru (moliwe e bdny przykad)

The English Progressive
-the formal marker -> be + ing, the auxiliary is marked for tense, may occur iwth the futurity marker
and with modal auxiliary, can co-occur with perfect aspect
-the general meaning - > an activity in progress at some temporal point of reference
-progressive aspect occurs with action verbs
-PL -> no special grammatical means to express

The Equivalents of the Present Progressive
-both Simple and Progressive Present have the same counterparts
-an imperfective verb in the present tense
On pije = He drinks//He is drinking
-It is possible to add lexical item (adverb) to make the meaning clear
On czsto/zawsze/czasem pije // On pije teraz

Czytam ksik (PROGRESSIVE) // Czytam ksiki (SIMPLE)

The Equivalents of the Present Perfect Progressive
-if a Verb in present perfect progressive is not followed by a perfective adverbial it is translated as
imperfective verb in the past tense
I have been writing a letter to you

Other equivalents
-the equivalents of the Past Progressive -> an imperfective verb in the Past Tense
The sun was shining//Soce wiecio
-Future Progressive -> PL Future Imperfective
-Past Perfect Progressive -> past imperfective
I was convinced that he had been drinking // Byem przekonany e on pi

Aspect in Polish
-depending on the verb opposition between imperfective and perfective verbs can refer to the
difference between..?
(a) an action which tends towards some goal and an action which has reached that goal
pisa//napisa
(b) an action which has a durative character occurs more than once and an action which has
momentary character or occurs only once
krzycze/krzykn
-the same imperfective verb can have more than one perfective counterpart depending on the type
of

czyta/przeczyta/odczyta/wyczyta/poczyta
Forms of Aspect in Polish
-some verbs have the same form in both aspects:
mianowa, ofiarowa, aresztowa, proklamowa, inspirowa, kanonizowa, imitowa, rzutowa
-some verbs have only imperfective meaning (imperfectiva tantum)
obowizywa/polega/uczszcza/ssiadowa
-some verbs have only perfective meaning (perfectiva tantum)
osieroci, owdowie, oniemie, osupie

The meaning of the Aspect in Polish
-imperfetive forms carry the meaning of an action in progress
-perfective forms have the meaning of the action whose goal has been achieved
-in many cases additional meanings are expressed
(a) the perfective form denotes the action which has occured once, the imperfective actions which
occur more than once (skaka/skoczy)
(b)the perfective stresses the beginning of action (czai si/zaczai si)
(c)the perfective may stress, the final phase of a given action/pi/dopi

MOOD
-ENGLISH
-two marked moods
subjunctive and conditional both distinguishing past and present tense (present reflecting to (???)
than past)
subjunctive in the present the base form is used in all persons, in the past the past form is used
>suggest that he be informed
conditional the marker is the verb should/would + ing

-POLISH
-conditional meaning suffix by -> this suffix is movable it can be attached to the verb itself, the
auxiliary by or to the subordinator. The personal endings are always attached to the suffix by no
matter where it is. In the main clause by is attached to the verb (or precedes it) and in the
subordinate clause by is attached to the subordinator

zrobia-bym
gdybys-wiedziaa


Modals
-Introductory remarks
-verbs expressing speakers attitude towars his utterance
-neither true nor false
2 main distinctive features of modals
(a) have to be followed by bare infinitive
(b) they do not combine with each other

Formal Characteristics fo English Modals
-two groups
-real modals they have no inflection and no non-finite forms
-may, might, can, could, must, will, would, shall, should, need, ought to
-quasi modals (semi) inflected and have some non finite forms
-be able to, have to, am/is/are to
-semantically quasi modals do not differ from real modals, they can express similiar meanings as real
modals and in some cases function as positionalvariants of real words (e.g have to is used instead of
must when the reference is made to the future time)

Features of the English Modals
(1) modals have only finite forms
to write but not to must
writing but not musting
(2)in re... statements directly followed by the negative particle not
(3) in interrogative sentences modals invert with the subject
Does he write books/Can he write books// *Does he can write books (wrong)
(4)no person inflection
He must//*He musts
(5) followed by infinitive without (to) except for ought
(6) no tense inflection
Time is marked on the main verb

Polish Modals
-2 types
-inflected mc, musie, potrzebowa, mie
-defective modals powinien, wolno bdzie
-inflected modals do not differ from other verbs in PL
-defective forms occur only in some verbal categories
Inflectional characteristics
(a) all modals are inflected for person and number except for wolno
(b) they have tense inflection for powinien which does not have the future tense and bdzie which
doesnt have the present or the past tense
(c) no aspectual forms
aspect marked on the main verb
mog pisa//mog napisa
(d) they have some non finite forms except for powinien, wolno, bdzie
participle mogcy, myjcy
inf umie, mc

Epistemic and root modality
Epistemic modality -> connected with degrees of certainty

e.g He must be tired/He might be tired/He cant be tired
It expresses logical necessity, logical possibility and logical impossibility

Root modality -> connected with making requests, asking for and giving permission expressing
obligation and prohibition

e.g You may

Epistemic Modality: Logical Necessity
-English -> must/have to/ ought to/ should/will/would
-Polish -> musie, powinien, future auxiliary by
must->speakers conclusion or deduction
There must be a mistake//Tam musi by bd
should/ought to->similiar to must byt weaker
will/would -> express an assumption or prediction
That will be our train, to bdzie nasz pocig
This would be his mother

Epistemic Modality: Impossibility
-English -> cannot, couldnt
-Polish -> nie moe, the adjective niemoliwe
cant/couldnt are used when the speaker is confident that something is impossible

Epistemic Modality: Factual Possibility
-English -> may, might, could
-Polish -> mc or modal adverb moliwe
The road may/might be blocked/ Droga moe by zablokowana// Moliwe e droga jest zablokowana

Epistemic Modality: Theoretical and habitual possibility
-English -> can
-Polish -> mc or impersonal mona, potrafi
Root Modality: Necessity and Obligation
-English -> must, have to
-Polish -> musie
must - authority of the speaker, public
have to external

weak obligation should, ought to, had better, might
-PL powinien, lepiej, eby, naley, trzeba

Root Modality: Lack of necessity and obligation
-English -> neednt, do not have to
-Polish > nie potrzebowa, nie musie

Root Modality: Prohibition
-English -> may not (weaker) must not (stronger) shouldnt, ought to
-Polish -> nie mona, nie mc (weaker), nie wolno (stronger)

Root Modality: Permission
-English -> can, may, be allowed to
-Polish -> mc, mona wolno

Root Modality: Ability
-English -> can, be able to
-Polish -> mc (physical ability), umie (for permanent accomplishment)

Conditionals
Real Conditionals
-Conditional mood is not used
-the speaker does not know if the situation in the subordinate clause happened is happening or will
happen
Simple Past tense is used if the reference to the past and Simple Present Tense is used when
reference is both to the past and to the future
-in PL the future is used for future reference.... (przewinela slajdy bo to przeciez kurwa takie proste)

-the use of should in English suggests that the condition is judged less probably

If you should see Mary today, tell her to call me// Jeli zobaczysz przypadkiem Marysi

-For emphasis an inverted construction is possible in English.
Should you see Mary today, tell her to call me

-will is only used in polite requests or to emphasize unwillingness to change unacceptable behavior
np.... (brak przykadu bo to takie oczywiste przecie)

Unreal Conditionals
-when the speaker makes a hypothesis, the condition is unreal
-the conditional may refer to the present or to the past
-the event described in the clause is not true
-if the condition has present reference
ENG -> the subjunctive simple past tense is used in the main clause (with were as the form of the
verb be in all persons, the conditional mood is in the main clause)
PL -> conditional mood used in both clauses
If you worked very hard, you would be rich// Gdyby pracowa ciko byby bogaty

-to suggest extreme improbability were to is used in the conditional clause in English.

If I were to catch my daughter lying to me, Id give her a wallop// Jakby mi si zdarzyo...

-if the clause refers to the past

ENG - > conditional clause is in the Past Perfect, the main clause is marked with the conditional mood

would/should + Perfect Infinitive

PL - >there may be no difference between a conditional sentence referring to the present and the
past

-The main clause may refer to the present and the subordinate to the past or the other way around

If I were a man I would have got the job// Gdybym bya mczyzn dostaabym tamt prac

If I had done my homework the teacher wouldnt be angry with me now// Gdybym odrobia...

-Besides if the condition may be introduced by - >providing (pod warunkiem); provided that
(zakadajc e); on condition that (pod warunkiem); unless (chyba e)

PL if = jak/jeli in real conditionals and gdyby in unreal ones

-In English if may be omitted in inverted structures with should/were/had(?)









Verb and Adjective Complementation
Reading: Fisiak 89-95
Willim pp 146-152
Exercise Willim ex 108-110, 115-16

What are complements?
-Complements -> elements that complete the meaning of other lexical items in the sentence
(typically verbs and adjectives)
-Types of verb complementation -> intensive, monotransitive, ditransitive, complex transitive

Intensive Complementation
-Eng -> intensive verbs followed by APs, NPs, PPs
-PL -> AdvP are more common than AP
It is cold//Jest zimno
You look wonderful//Wygldasz cudownie
-In Polish verbs followed by APs include: by, wydawa si, czuj si, pozostawa

Monostransitive Complementation
-the verb is followed by a nominal, prepositional or clausal object
The children are reading a book//Dzieci czytaj ksiki
I am counting on you//Licz na ciebie
I decided to leave on Thursday//Zdecydowaam si wyjecha w czwartek
-a monotransitive verb with a nominal complement in Eng may correspond to a verb with a
prepositional complement in PL
(...missing example...)
-a verb with a prepositional complement in English may correspond to an NP
Are you looking for your keys again//Znowu szukasz kluczy?
-a verb followed by an infinitival clause in English may correspond to a verb followed by a
finite clause in Polish, because PL infinitives are always subjectless
I asked him to call me at 5//Poprosiam, eby zadzwoni do mnie o 5
-When the English infinitive clause has a subject it will correspond to a PL finite clause
I want her to love me//Chc eby mnie kocha
I hope for her to love me// Mam nadziej, e ona mnie pokocha
-in PL there is no counterpart of bare infinitive!!!
-with structures containing verbs of perception such as hear, see, watch the PL equivalent is a
finite clause
I saw him enter that building//Widziaem jak wchodzi do tamtego budynku
-with verbs such as help, let, make, have, the PL equivalents are subjectless infinitival
clauses:
He had the students rewrite their homework/// Kaza studentom przepisa zadanie
-find, hear, see, get, leave, wait, watch, take a past participle with a subject in Eng. and there
are no strict equivalents in Polish

I had the car washed//Zawiozem auto do umycia
They heard the window broken//Syszeli jak wybijano okno.
-verbs denoting a symmetrical relation are often used without the reciprocal pronoun in Eng
(kiss, meet, know) in PL they are followed by a reflexive that cannot be dropped
Thats were we kissed for the first time//To tu pocaowalimy si pierwszy raz

-ENG has a numerous groups of phrasal verbs ->the meaning of a phrasal is independent of
the meaning of the verb it contains. The adverbial element of the phrase is stressed and it is
separable from the verbal root if the verb is transitive. When the object is pronominal the
particle must be separated and placed after the object:
They put off the meeting//They put the meeting off
They put it off/ They put off it* (WRONG)
-phrasal verbs difer from prepositional verbs i.e. verbs followed by PP, where the preposition
is unstressed and cannot be moved.

He relies on his assistant// He relies on him

-there are also phrasal prepositional verbs: Put up with, look forward to, get away with
the preposition used in PL and ENG after do not match:
consent to zgodzi si na
live on utrzymywa si z czego

Ditransitive Complementation
-verbs followed by both Od and Oi
-forst most verbs Oi might be a PP in ENg PP is obligatory when it follows Od
-some ditransitive verbs Eng verbs take an obligatory PP indirect object: explain, announce,
communicate, say, translate, suggest, describe, speak. Their PL equivalents take two normal
agents.

Complex Transitive Complementation
-verbs followed by objects and object complement
-many more verbs in Eng that allow this
-often there is categorial contrast
We painted the house white// Pomalowalimy dom na biao

Adjective Complements
-Eng adjectives are followed by a PP or a clause
-in PL adjectives are additionally followed by NPs (peen soca, godny wiedzy)
Passive and related constructions
Passivization:
-passive sentence
-an underlying object NP is moved to the surface subject (Object Preposing)
-The underlying subject is made into an object preceded by the preposition by/przez
-the transitive verbs take the form of a passive participle
-be/by is ??? which agrees gramatically with the new subject NP

The main differences between PL and ENG:
-(a) the ???? of the verbal copula + participle
-PL -:> not only the copula but also the participles agree with the subject
On by widziany/ Ona bya widziana/ Oni byli widziani/ One byy widziane
-Unlike the copula the participle does not have different person forms:
Ja byem widziany przez niego/Ty bye widziany przez niego/ On by widziany przez niego
-(b) the type of NP which may undergo Object Preposing
-PL-> only direct objects can be moved
-ENG->also indirect and prepositional objects
A book was given to John by Tom/ Ksika zostaa dana jarkowi przez Tomka
John was given a book by Tom/ Jarek by dany ksik przez Tomka (WRONG XD)
Jacek was looked at by Mary/Jacek by patrzany na przez Mari (WRONG XD)

Alternative Constructions in PL
-Object NPs which cannot be preposed by a passive rule can be topicalized by moving them
to the vital position
Jankowi da ksik Tomek//Na Janka patrzya Maria.
-Subjectless constructions can serve as equivalents of ENG passive with deleted agentive PPs
W tym zku nie spano od lat// This bed has not been slept in for ages
Patrzono si na niego/He was looked at.

get and zosta
-get is used in ENG in constructions resembling passive voice
John got shot// He gets punished regularly
-get differs from the coupla in that it does not invert with the subject in interrogative
constructions
Get you hit by John? (WRONG)
-get has got a resultative aspect, which is reflected in PL by the use of zosta in passive
sentences
Mary got promoted by the boss// Mary zostaa awansowana przez szefa
She got Loved*/Ona zostaa kochana*


Transitive verbs not used in the passive
-In tboth lgs. Passive formation is blocked with certain [action] verbs like have/mie,
resemble/przypomina
Money is had by him*//Pienidze s miane*

-marry (to take a wife/husband) -> blocks passivization in ENG but not in PL
Mary was maried by John*//Maria zostaa polubiona przez jarka
-ENG prefer, remind, suppose, form passive, their PL counterparts do not

She was preferred to all the others by the boss//Ona bya wolana*

-PL reflexive verbs cant be made passive
Spodziewam si awansu//I expect a promotion
*Awans jest spodziewany przeze mnie//A promotion is expected by me
-potrzebowa unlike ENG need does not allow regular passivization:
Help is needed by me//Pomoc jest potrzebowana przeze mnie*/Pomoc jest mi potrzebna

Dative Passive
-dative passive may be said to lead to the derivation of the following:
Ta ksika podoba mi si/ Ta ksika jest mi znana
-Only one of such constructions have structural counterparts

This book is known to me/ * This book is likeable to me

-There are cases where the process is productive in ENG but not in PL
My request was agreeable to the...// *Moje danie byo...[no corresponding adjectives]

Questions and Negation
The interrogative transformation
-it inverts the subject and the auxiliary constituent: He has done it-> Has he done it?
-if there is no auxiliary in the surfacae structure
a)one approach postulates the aux done in the underlying...

Question form in PL
-if the 2nd approach is chosen-> in PL there is no counterpart of Do support rule
-in PL subject-aux inersion is optional
-When czy is ommited in questions the inversion seems obligatory, or else the sentence
conveys an idea of surprise
Janek bdzie pisa list? Nie wierz.

-the interrogative trans in PL may prepose not only an aux but also a main verb
-in ENG yes/no question the question morpheme is deleted, in PL it may be realized as czy
But in both lgs the question morpheme is lexically realized in embedded questions
Tell me if/whether she has already... Powiedz czy ona

Alternative questions
Did you find the pen or not /Znalaze piro czy nie? (disjunctive or in eng, in Pol czy the
2
nd
occurrance of czy)

Did you go to the cinema or did you stay at home/ Czy... czy

Specific questions
3 rules involved in the derivation of specific questions in Eng
1) the interrogative transformation
2) Do support
3) Wh-questions transformation
the first 2 rules do not apply in embedded questions
3) moves an NP, with a noun marked by [+wh] feature to the front of the sentence where it
replaces the question marker
John ate [what]
-In PL there is no equivalent of Do support and s-v inversion is optional
PL-> then the questioned element is NP with a preposition, the whole PP must be fronted
ENG-> the preposition can be left behind (preposition stranding)
Od kogo dosta ten krawat?
From who did you...?
ENG-> wh- elements cannot be extracted from the pronominal modifier position in the NP
PL-> no such constraint
Whose did John see car*<- John saw [whose car]
Czyje auto widzia Janek
Janek widzia [czyj] samochd
ENG-> only one wh- element can be moved to the front of the sentence
PL-> no such constraint
Who gave a gift to whom?
Who whom did give a gift?*
Kto komu da prezent?

-English lacks single word counterparts of many Polish interrogative pronouns
skd from where
odkd since when
ktrdy which way

-In most other cases there are one-to-one correspondence
Echo questions
-Syntactically identical to declarative sentences, differ only in intonation.
-They may be treated as a subgroup of general questions -> they ask for a denial

Tag questions
constructions in which a statement is followed by an incomplete question
the interrogative part consists of an aux identical to that in the preceding statement and a
pronominal counterpart of the statements subject.

the interrogative part is either positive or negative depending on the form of the statement
-in PL no structural counterpart

Sentence negation
-Differences between PL and ENG negative sentences:
1) PL->negative particle precedes the aux of the main verb
ENG-> negative particle follows the aux
2)PL-> lack of do support
3)PL->double negation is frequently used
Nigdy tam nie pjd/ I dont never go there*

Assertive and non assertive forms
-ENG-> some-any, any + not -> no
I have some money -> I dont have any money -> I have no money
-In Eng any/no alteration is optional, in PL it is obligatory
Nie widziaem nigdy Jacka// Nie widziaem kiedykolwiek Jacka*
->note that the negative particle is retained

Quantifying expressions:
-some any no
something anything nothing
someone anyone no one
sometime anytime ?
somewhere anywhere nowhere

Negative->positive alteration
-there are cases where a positive ENg sentence has a neg. PL translation
a) polite requests
Could you hand me that book?
Czy nie mgby poda...?
b)until clauses dopki
The child cried until his mother came/ Dziecko pakao, dopki jego matka nie przysza.

Absolute Negation
it is a negative reaction to a yes;no question or statement
ENG-> it may be a single negative word no or a construction consisting of pronominal subject
and a negated aux
PL-> if there is no aux then the verb is used
czy on wyjecha?
Nie, nie wyjecha.
So the verb is ofted(???) added
Saying tak/nie is also impolite.

Other types
phrasal negation-> when the negative marker is not dominated by the sentence nod(?) but
originates within one of the constituents

Not far away, I bought a few books
Niedaleko std, kupiem kilka ksiek

lexical negation-> a negative affix is added to the stem of the word

lexical neg:
ENG PL
un/ uncertain nie niepewny
-in, -il, -ir, -im nie nie...
-non, non-existent nie nieistniejcy
-a, apolitical a apolityczny
-less, shameless bez - bezwstydny

-neg adverbs such as hardly, and scarcely function similarly to negative particles -> they
replace the negative marker and co-occur with any
I can hardly see anything
ledwie widz
ledwo is more restricted than hardly -> it cannot precede subject complement

He is hardly a hero//On jest ledwo bohaterem*

The movie is hardly amusing// Film jest ledwo zabawny*

-nearly and almost -> cannot be used with a negative marker, their PL equivalents mao and
prawie can:
He was nearly run over by a car/ On mao co nie...

-implied negation word
Some of the implied negation in ENG words have counterparts in Polish with clearly
distinguishable negative affixes
hate->nienawidzi
danger
upset