Topics in Dynamic Analyses

1. LOADING and BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

2. DAMPING and MATERIAL RESPONSE
This talk is for current users of FLAC the objective is to address some
common difficulties; thus, some level of experience with dynamic
simulations is assumed.
1 LOADING and BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Seismic input to FLAC
Dynamic input may come from within the grid (e.g., train vibrations in a tunnel)
or from outside of the grid (e.g., earthquake waves coming from a distant source).
To model sources within the grid the dynamic excitation is simply applied
directly to the appropriate gridpoints for example pressure loading from an
explosion or oscillating forces due to a vibrating machine. Quiet boundaries are
normally required to reduce reflections at artificial boundaries, but a free field
boundary is not required.
The rest of this part of the talk is concerned with sources located outside of the
grid, so that dynamic excitation must be applied to part of the model boundary.
In this case, free field boundaries are normally used, so that the simulation
reproduces the effect of a plane wave propagating into the grid -
Free field boundaries are used to ensure that incoming plane waves remain plane
(No spurious absorption of incoming
wave by side quiet boundaries)
The bottom boundary may be either fixed (driven by a velocity or acceleration history)
or free (supported by static forces and driven dynamically by a stress history)
Mejia & Dawson (see proceedings of this Symposium paper 04-10) present a
very clear description of the ways in which seismic input may beapplied to a
model. (The figures in this section are reproduced from their paper, with
permission).
There are two main options -
1. Rigid base (velocity or acceleration history applied directly)
2. Flexible base (velocity history converted to applied stress history)
If the target motion is provided for any location except for thebase of the
model, then deconvolution is necessary, to develop a time history to be
applied at the model base such that the simulationwould reproduce the
target motion at the specified location, under free field conditions (e.g., no
structures).
Normally the program SHAKE is used for deconvolution. SHAKE is an
equivalent-linear program, and is thus unable to follow nonlinearity directly;
it adjusts the secant shear modulus and damping of each layer iteratively to
obtain the approximate effect of nonlinearity, averaged over thewhole time
history.
SHAKE works in the frequency domain,
using the sum of the upward- and
downward-propagating waves. At each
interface between layers, there is an
analytical solution for the reflected &
transmitted portions of each wave. By
solving the resulting system of equations,
transmission between any two locations
(e.g., between base & surface) may be
computed.
(After Mejia & Dawson, 2006)
SHAKE input & output is available either
1. at the boundary between two layers termed within motion, which is a
superposition of upward- and downward-propagating waves; or
2. at a notional free surface of the same depth as the requested layer
boundary the motion that would occur at an outcrop free surface. Thus,
the outcrop motion is simply twice the upward-propagating wave.
For a rigid FLAC model base, the following example illustrates the procedure.
(After Mejia & Dawson, 2006)
Note that the within motion (at -60 m) is the actual motion at that depth the
sum of upward- and downward-propagating waves.
The use of SHAKE to compute the required input motion for the rigid base
of a FLAC model leads to a good match between the target surface motion
and the surface motion computed by FLAC, for a model that exhibits with a
low level of nonlinearity. (The input motion already contains the effect of all
the layers above the base, because it contains the downward-propagating
wave).
A different approach must be taken if FLAC is to model more realistic systems,
such as
1. sites that exhibit strong nonlinearity; or
2. the effect of a surface or embedded structure.
In the first case, the real nonlinear response is not accounted for by SHAKE
in its estimate of the base motion.
In the second case, secondary waves from the structure will be reflected from
the rigid base, causing artificial resonance effects.
For most sites encountered in practice (except those where the existence of a very stiff
bedrock justifies a rigid base) a flexible base to the FLAC model should be used. In this
case, the quiet base condition is selected, and the upward-propagating wave only from
SHAKE used to compute the input stress history. (This is derivedas the outcrop
velocity history, converted to a stress history by using the formula ).
S
C v =
(After Mejia & Dawson, 2006)
By using the upward-propagating wave only at a quiet FLAC base, no assumptions
need to be made about secondary waves generated by internal nonlinearities or
structures within the grid, because the incoming wave is unaffected by these; the
outgoing wave is absorbed by the compliant base.
As an example, consider
the dam shown here. A
rigid base leads to non-
physical oscillations. The
inputs in both cases
(rigid & flexible) were
derived by deconvoluting
the same surface
motion).
(After Mejia & Dawson, 2006)
Anomalies encountered when motion at depth is specified
If a specific ground-motion history is required at a certain depth in a layered
site, then deconvolutionis used (as discussed) to determine what motion
must be applied at the flexible (quiet) base of the model.
Even with this (apparently) simple system, there may be surprising results.
The following example illustrates one effect that is often overlooked.
Required motion at 300m depth
Deconvoluted incoming motion to be applied at base
Why are there extra
oscillations?
acceleration
about 1 Hz
Layered site
Ground surface
Target motion
Motion applied here
(quiet base)
To check, we run FLAC with the specified base input, and obtain the
following acceleration response:
FLAC (Version 5.00)
LEGEND
3-J un-05 12:00
step 114707
Dynamic Time 4.0000E+01

HISTORY PLOT
Y-axis :
2 X acceleration( 1, 91)
X-axis :
101 Dynamic time
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
-4.000
-2.000
0.000
2.000
4.000
J OB TITLE : Observed Acceleration at B in FLAC Model
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota USA
This history is very similar to the required response at 300 m depth
the oscillations in the input wave have disappeared.
Why are there spurious oscillations in the input wave?
If we propagate a single cycle of a sinusoidal wave into a layer, it is reflected
without change of sign from the free surface, as illustrated by the following
simulations:
RunFLAC3D (file qb1c.dat)
Now, we propagate a continuous wave
RunFLAC3D (file qb.dat)
The velocity component in an upward-traveling wave is reflected at the free
surface, and the resulting downward-traveling wave is superimposed on it,
causing reinforcement at some points and cancellation at others.
For the original site model, we send in single-frequency waves, and plot maximum
velocity observed at each depth -

0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200

0.000
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
1.04 Hz
300 m
depth
5 Hz
These are standing waves
Thus, if we insist that the history at 300 m contains all frequencies (including 1.04
Hz), then the base incoming wave must be given a boost at 1.04 Hz to overcome
the apparent attenuation at this frequency hence the extra oscillations.
To illustrate the effect in another way, we perform many tests at different
frequencies, and plot the maximum steady-state velocity at 300 m depth
versus frequency
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0.200
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
1.400
1.600
N
o
r
m
a
l
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e
d

m
a
x
i
m
u
m

v
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Frequency - Hz
There is an infinite series of
specific frequencies at
which the transfer function
between the base and the
given depth is zero.
2 DAMPING and MATERIAL RESPONSE
The new Hysteretic Damping (HD) option of FLAC and FLAC3D allows
users to represent energy loss more realistically than with Rayleighdamping,
and avoid the latters small-timesteppenalty. HD is described and illustrated
in two papers in the Proceedings: 04-02 and 07-04.
In summary, HD adjusts the tangent shear modulus as a continuous function of
shear strain. is derived from the secant modulus . For example -
T
M
T
M
S
M
{ }
1 exp ( )/
S
o
a
M
L x b
=
+
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
strain-%
M
o
d
u
l
u
s

r
e
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
SHAKE91 FLAC-sig3
where
10
log L =
This is the sigmoidal curve sig3
with 3 fitting parameters
The provided functions allow a
good fit to cyclic laboratory tests
In addition, the following rules are used (& illustrated on the figure):
1. Upon reversal, the complete
state (stress, strain,
modulus, etc) is pushed onto
a (Last In, First Out) stack.
When the strain again
passes through the same
point, the previously-saved
state is restored.
2. A new & identical (but
inverted) curve is started
upon reversal;
3. The first quarter-cycle of
loading is scaled by one-half
relative to all other cycles;
-3.0E+05
-2.0E+05
-1.0E+05
0.0E+00
1.0E+05
2.0E+05
3.0E+05
4.0E+05
-0.1% 0.0% 0.1% 0.2%
Shear strain %
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
Note: items 2 and 3 are Masings rules
Hysteretic Damping (HD) not only adds energy loss to dynamic straining, it
also causes the mean shear modulus to decrease, for large cyclic strains.
This may lead to unexpected results e.g., an increased response amplitude,
due to a shift in resonant frequency closer to the predominant frequency of
input waves.
Before running a dynamic model with HD, an elastic simulation should be
made without damping, to observe the maximum levels of cyclic strain that
occur. If the cyclic strains are large enough to cause excessivereductions in
shear modulus, then the use of HD is questionable it will be performing
outside of its intended range of application. The model properties and input
amplitude should be checked. If properties and input are reasonable, and the
large cyclic strains are limited to a small regions, then consider the
possibility of excluding HD from these regions and using a yieldmodel in
the regions (since the large strains imply that yielding should occur).
Even if cyclic strains under elastic conditions are small, the use of a yield
model may increase the strains
The Hysteretic Damping formulation is not intended to be a substitute for a
yielding constitutive model. It may be used in conjunction with a yield model
(e.g., Mohr Coulomb) but conflicts in the domain of application should be
avoided, for meaningful results. In particular, large plastic strains may cause
HD to take over, and dominate the behavior.
As an illustration, consider the following slope model, subject to rigid-base
excitation (an actual user example):
Cohesion = Pa, friction angle =
(close to failure)
4
10 30
o
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1.500
-1.000
-0.500
0.000
0.500
1.000
1.500
(10 )
-01
Time
Horizontal velocity history applied to base:
20 m high slope of angle
O
30
Max. shear strain increment
0.00E+00
2.00E-02
4.00E-02
6.00E-02
8.00E-02
1.00E-01
Contour interval= 2.00E-02
shear_mod
Contour interval= 1.00E+08
Minimum: 1.00E+08
Maximum: 3.00E+08
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
-0.800
-0.600
-0.400
-0.200
0.000
0.200
(10 )
05
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-3.000
-2.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
(10 )
-01
Shear strain
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
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s
s
H
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t
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v
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y
Time - seconds
With NO damping,
but with plasticity:
10%
-10%
When Hysteretic Damping is added, the 10% strains in the slope region lead to
(essentially) zero shear modulus there. Without any constraint, a block of
material becomes detached, and moves as a free body, after input ceases.
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-1.600
-1.400
-1.200
-1.000
-0.800
-0.600
-0.400
-0.200
0.000
0.200
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-1.600
-1.400
-1.200
-1.000
-0.800
-0.600
-0.400
-0.200
0.000
Max velocity = 3.5 m/s
Shear strain max = 160% Velocity
Time Time
1.6 m/s
c
o
n
t
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n
u
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n
g

m
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t
i
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n
If Hysteretic Damping is excluded from the yielding region, the response stabilizes.
Regular HD
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-3.000
-2.000
-1.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
(10 )
-01
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-2.000
-1.600
-1.200
-0.800
-0.400
0.000
(10 )
-02
Velocity
Time
Shear strain max = 2%
Time
0.2 m/s
Thus, if there is extensive yielding, it should be represented by a yielding model
(which performs its own energy dissipation) , and not by hysteretic damping.
We plan to make this action automatic in future code releases i.e., during
yielding, hysteretic damping will be switched off (as well as the associated
strain accumulation for the HD calculation). Note that Rayleigh damping is
already switched of during plastic flow.
Finally, with an initial shear stress present in a model, care must be taken when using
HD. In this example, a column is loading with the Loma Prietahorizontal record
With no initial shear stress With initial stress, simply set with INI command
-3.0E+05
-2.0E+05
-1.0E+05
0.0E+00
1.0E+05
2.0E+05
3.0E+05
4.0E+05
-0.2% -0.1% 0.0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3%
Shear str ain %
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
-3.0E+05
-2.0E+05
-1.0E+05
0.0E+00
1.0E+05
2.0E+05
3.0E+05
4.0E+05
-0.2% -0.1% 0.0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3%
Shear str ain %
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
-3.0E+05
-2.0E+05
-1.0E+05
0.0E+00
1.0E+05
2.0E+05
3.0E+05
4.0E+05
-0.1% 0.0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.4%
Shear str ain %
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
With shear stress installed
by simulating static loading
with HD active
By using HD to obtain the static state,
stresses and strains in the HD logic
are compatible. (See paper 07-04 for
more details)
CONCLUSIONS
There are many potential pitfalls when setting up and performingdynamic
simulations. If the results look strange, it is worthwhile spending time to
understand exactly what is going on. If necessary, perform some simplified runs
to reveal the effects of boundaries, loading method, damping, nonlinear
materials, zone size and embedded structures.