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1 Logical Form and Logical Equivalence

Set of Numbers Symbol Description Symbol Meaning
Irrational Numbers
Natural Numbers
Whole Numbers
Integers
Rational Numbers
Irrational Numbers Symbol Description
Real Numbers
Complex Numbers
What properties do the real numbers have?
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Denition
A is a set B together with two operations, generally
denoted + and , such that for all a and b in B both a + b and a b are in B and the
following properties hold:
1. Commutative Laws: For all a, b B
(a) a + b = b + a (b) a b = b a
2. Associative Laws:
(a) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (b) (a b) c = a (b c)
3. Distributive Laws:
(a) a + (b c) = (a + b) (a + c) (b) a (b + c) = (a b) + (a c)
4. Identity Laws: there are distinct elements 0 and 1 in B such that for all a in B,
(a) a + 0 = a (b) a 1 = a
5. Complement Laws: For each a in B there exists an element in B, denoted a and
called the complement or negation of a, such that
(a) a + a = 1 (b) a a = 0
Are the real numbers a Boolean algebra? Why or why not?
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In the development of any mathematical theory, assertions are made in the form of
sentences. Such verbal or written assertions are called or
.
Denition
A is a sentence that is true or false but not both.
Example 1
Determine which of the following are statements.
1. Her favorite show is Game of Thrones.
2. For some real number x, x
2
= 5.
3. Kanye West is a real rock star, the biggest one.
4. Argo won the academy award for best picture in 2013.
5. x + y = 13
6. Is tomorrow Tuesday?
Compound Statements
We must now introduce symbols that will allow us to create more complex sentences.
Symbols and Order of Operations
Symbol English Translation Sentence

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Denition
If p and q are statement variables,
the of p is not p, denoted .
the of p and q is p and q, denoted .
the of p and q is p or q, denoted .
What is the dierence between and ?
Example 2
Write each of the following symbolically.
1. Let p = we vacation at Virginia Beach, q = we vacation at Disney World, and r = we
vacation at the Jersey Shore.
(a) We vacation at Virginia Beach and the Jersey Shore, but we do not vacation at
Disney World.
(b) We neither vacation at the Jersey Shore nor at Disney World, but we do vacation
at Virginia Beach.
2. a x b
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Truth Table
Recall that if a sentence is a statement, then it must have well-dened .
The for a given statement form gives the truth values that correspond
for all combinations of truth values for the component statement variables.
p q p p q p q p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
Logical Equivalence
Denition
We say that two statement forms are if, and only if,
they have identical truth values for each possible substitution of statements for their
statement variables.
If statement forms P and Q are logically equivalent then we note that .
Example 3
1. Show that ( p) p.
2. Show that (p q) and p q are not logically equivalent.
What does this tell us?
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In the previous example we showed that (p q) p q. So how do we negate the
disjunction of p and q?
De Morgans Laws
The negation of an statement is logically equivalent to the statement in
which each compound is negated.
(p q)
The negation of an statement is logically equivalent to the statement in
which each compound is negated.
(p q)
Example 4
Write the negations of the following.
1. Miley Cyrus is a timid, respectable performer.
2. It will either rain or it will be sunny tomorrow.
3. x < 2e
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Denition
A is a statement form that is always true regardless of the truth values
of the individual statements substituted for its statement values. It is denoted by .
A is a statement form that is always false regardless of the truth
values of the individual statements substituted for its statement variables. It is denoted
by .
Example 5
1. Show that p p is a tautology and that p p is a contradiction.
p p p p p p
T
F
2. Show that p t p and p c c.
p t c p t p c
T
F
Is propositional calculus (logic) a Boolean algebra?
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Table of Logical Equivalences
Commutative Laws p q q p p q q p
Associative Laws (p q) r p (q r) (p q) r p (q r)
Distributive Laws p (q r) (p q) (p r) p (q r) (p q) (p r)
Identity Laws p t p p c p
Negation Laws p p t p p c
Double Negative Laws ( p) p
Idempotent Laws p p p p p p
Universal Bound Laws p t t p c c
De Morgans Laws (p q) p q (p q) p q
Absorption Laws p (p q) p p (p q) p
Negation of t and c t c c t
Group Work
Complete the following problems in groups of 2 or 3.
1. Determine if (p q) (p r) and (p q) r are logically equivalent.
2. Determine if ( p q) (p q) is a tautology, contradiction, or neither.
3. Write the following statement using symbols. Then use De Morgans laws to negate it.
Virginia Tech is a football school and it is the largest collegiate fundraiser for Relay
for Life.
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